« La Revolución Mexicana: 1910 - 1940 » : différence entre les versions
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* 1934-1940: El gobierno de Lázaro Cárdenas. Esta fase se caracteriza por el ascenso de Lázaro Cárdenas a la presidencia de México, quien llevó a cabo una serie de reformas importantes, como la nacionalización de industrias clave como el petróleo y la electricidad, la reforma agraria y la promoción de los ideales nacionalistas. Este periodo se considera una continuación de la revolución, ya que supuso cambios significativos en las estructuras sociales, económicas y políticas del país. | * 1934-1940: El gobierno de Lázaro Cárdenas. Esta fase se caracteriza por el ascenso de Lázaro Cárdenas a la presidencia de México, quien llevó a cabo una serie de reformas importantes, como la nacionalización de industrias clave como el petróleo y la electricidad, la reforma agraria y la promoción de los ideales nacionalistas. Este periodo se considera una continuación de la revolución, ya que supuso cambios significativos en las estructuras sociales, económicas y políticas del país. | ||
= 1910 - 1920: Una década de lucha. | = 1910 - 1920: Una década de lucha = | ||
=1910 - 1920: A decade of struggles= | |||
== The main protagonists == | |||
The first phase of the Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to 1920, was a very violent and chaotic period marked by struggles and civil war. Many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated, including Francisco Madero, the leader who initially sparked the revolution, and Emiliano Zapata, the leader of the Zapatista movement who advocated for land reform. | |||
During this phase, various revolutionary factions fought for control of the government, and there was a high level of instability and violence. The country was in a state of constant civil war, which resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of property. The main leaders were Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Alvaro Obregon. | |||
Despite the violence and instability, this phase also saw the adoption of the 1917 Constitution, which was a significant achievement of the revolution. This constitution included important reforms such as land redistribution, labour rights, and education, which aimed to address some of the social and economic issues that had led to the revolution in the first place. | |||
Victoriano Huerta was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz and he came to power after the murder of Francisco Madero. Huerta was not able to control the revolution and he was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes in Texas. | |||
This phase was marked by a high level of violence and political instability, and many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated. | |||
* Francisco Madero, who came from Coahuila and was a great landowner from the North, was assassinated in 1913. He was the leader who initially sparked the revolution and advocated for political and social reforms. | |||
* Pancho Villa, a half-breed bandit from Chihuahua, was assassinated in 1923. He was one of the leaders of the revolution and led a powerful revolutionary army, Villa's Division of the North. | |||
* Pascual Orozco, a transport entrepreneur from Chihuahua, was first allied with Villa and then with Huerta, but he ended up being murdered by the police in Texas in 1916. | |||
* Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the Zapatista movement which advocated for land reform, was murdered in 1919. | |||
* Alvaro Obregón, a farmer, landowner, and important politician of Sonora, was murdered in 1928. | |||
* Venustiano Carranza, one of the revolution's main leaders and president of Mexico, was murdered in 1920. | |||
These leaders were key figures of the Mexican Revolution, and their deaths significantly impacted the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government. | |||
<gallery mode="packed"> | <gallery mode="packed"> | ||
Fichier:V Huerta.jpg|Victoriano Huerta | |||
Fichier:Francisco I Madero.jpg|Francisco Madero | |||
Fichier:Pancho villa horseback.jpg|Pancho Villa | |||
Fichier:Pascual Orozco3.png|Pascual Orozco | |||
Fichier:Euphemio y Emiliano Zapata.jpg|Eufemio et Emiliano Zapata | |||
Fichier:Obregón Salido, Álvaro.jpg|Obregón Salido, Álvaro | |||
Fichier:Venustiano Carranza en La Cañada, Queretaro.JPG|Venustiano Carranza à La Cañada | Fichier:Venustiano Carranza en La Cañada, Queretaro.JPG|Venustiano Carranza à La Cañada | ||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
The Mexican Revolution was a period marked by a real war for power and the struggle for control of the government. Out of the seven main leaders of the revolution that you have mentioned, Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, only Victoriano Huerta, who was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz, did not die from violence. He was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes from cancer in Texas. | |||
These leaders' deaths significantly impacted the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government, as new leaders and factions emerged to take their place and continue the struggle for power. The high level of violence and political instability during this period was a characteristic of the Mexican revolution and it is also one of the reasons for the difficulty to establish a stable government and a new social, economic and political order. | |||
== Plan of San Luis Potosí == | |||
The Mexican Revolution began in the North of the country in 1910, with the opposition to the re-election of Porfirio Díaz, who was then 80 years old. The North of Mexico was a more industralised and mining region, and it was here that the initial revolt broke out, following the launch of the Plan of San Luis Potosí by the liberal leader Francisco Madero. The Plan called for free elections and had the support of the large peasantry of the North, as well as industrialists. | |||
Madero formed an army of 25,000 men under the leadership of Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa, which managed to defeat the forces of Díaz and negotiate his departure from power. Díaz went into exile and died in France of old age in 1915. | |||
This revolution phase was characterised by the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions, each with their own agendas and ideologies, which led to a period of political instability and civil war in the country. The adoption of the 1917 Constitution was a significant achievement of this phase and it represented an effort to establish a new social, economic and political order. | |||
In 1911, Francisco Madero was elected president of Mexico in free and fair elections, following the departure of Porfirio Díaz. However, Madero's presidency was marked by challenges and difficulties. Many of the revolutionary leaders and factions who had fought to overthrow Díaz were not satisfied with Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place. | |||
In particular, the northern revolutionary leaders, such as Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata, were dissatisfied with Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. They had expected Madero to bring about more radical change, but they were disappointed by his more moderate approach. | |||
This dissatisfaction led to a split within the revolutionary movement and to a new round of civil war and political instability. Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and other leaders formed a coalition against Madero, contributing to his downfall and assassination in 1913. | |||
In the centre of Mexico, particularly in the state of Morelos, the peasants under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place and to not attack the large sugar plantations in the region was particularly disappointing to the Zapatistas. | |||
In response, Zapata and the Zapatistas took up arms again and declared the Plan of Ayala, also known as the Second Plan of the Mexican Revolution. This plan denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals. It announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century. | |||
The Zapatistas and their demands for land reform became one of the most important parts of the Mexican revolution. Zapata became a powerful leader and symbol of the revolution, especially in the centre and south of the country. | |||
The Zapatistas, under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata, also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes, and declared the Plan of Ayala which denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century. | |||
Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913 and established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, with the support of the big landowners, the church, and foreign investors. Huerta's regime was characterised by a return to authoritarian rule, repression of political opposition, and a focus on maintaining the status quo rather than implementing significant social and economic reforms. | |||
However, Huerta's days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza. In contrast, in the centre, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilised. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionised and calling for reforms. | |||
A new intelligentsia emerged, linked to socialist nationalist, indigenous, and somewhat romantic ideas, which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change. Huerta's regime was widely unpopular and faced multiple factions fighting for power, eventually leading to his downfall. | |||
Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913, established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz. Still, his days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza. In the centre, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilised. There were also protests and uprisings in the cities, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionised, and calling for reforms. A new intelligentsia emerged which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change. | |||
== Guadalupe Plan == | |||
The Guadalupe Plan, also known as the Third Plan of the Mexican Revolution, was a political program launched in 1914. It was led by Venustiano Carranza, a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North, who had previously served as governor of Coahuila and as a member of Madero's cabinet. | |||
The Guadalupe Plan called for establishing a constitutional government and restoring order in the country. It did not mention any specific social or agrarian reforms, unlike the previous plans of the revolution. Instead, it emphasised the need to restore the rule of law and establish a stable government. | |||
The Guadalupe Plan was supported by many of the revolutionary leaders in the North, including Alvaro Obregon, and it helped to unite the various factions fighting for control of the government. Carranza and his followers emerged as the dominant force in the revolution. In 1915, Carranza declared himself First Chief of the Constitutional Army and began to assume control of the government.. | |||
among the supporters of Venustiano Carranza were Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón. In 1914, they launched an assault on Mexico City with the goal of ousting Victoriano Huerta's government. At the same time, the Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, mobilised and advanced on Mexico City from the south. | |||
Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement as it faced pressure from both the northern and southern revolutionary forces. In 1914, Obregón entered Mexico City, forced Huerta to flee, and installed Carranza in power. Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan. | |||
This marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution, which was characterised by a decade of civil war, political instability, and the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions. Carranza's government, which Villa and Obregón supported, was able to establish a measure of stability and begin the process of rebuilding the country. | |||
Carranza's supporters, Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón, launched an assault on Mexico City in 1914, while in the south the Zapatistas mobilised and advanced on Mexico City, Victoriano Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement and was forced to flee. Obregón entered Mexico City and installed Carranza in power; Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan. This marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution. | |||
Between 1914 and 1915, Venustiano Carranza's government, also known as the "interregnum" was established in power, but the differences between the different revolutionary groups came to light once he was in power. Carranza's government failed to achieve many of the social and economic reforms that had been promised during the revolution. | |||
Carranza's government was marked by political infighting and a lack of clear direction. Carranza was more interested in consolidating his own power than in implementing meaningful reforms, which led to a growing sense of disillusionment among many revolutionary leaders and factions. | |||
Carranza's government also faced challenges from the Zapatistas in the south, who were dissatisfied with the lack of progress on land reform and other issues, and from Pancho Villa and other leaders in the north, who felt that Carranza was not fulfilling the promises of the revolution. | |||
The Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, were one of the most important factions of the Mexican Revolution, and they mobilised behind the slogan "tierra y libertad" (land and freedom). Their movement focused on the issue of land reform and the redistribution of land to the indigenous peasant communities. They advocated for the expropriation of large landholdings, particularly those owned by wealthy landowners, and the land redistribution to small farmers and indigenous communities. | |||
The Zapatistas were democratic and communitarian in their approach, and they sought to empower local communities and give them control over their own land and resources. However, they were not against the Catholic Church and had a complex relationship with the Church, which was sometimes supportive of their cause and sometimes opposed it. | |||
Pancho Villa, also known as Francisco Villa, was a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North and his movement had a different approach compared to Zapatistas. He was often referred to as a caudillo, which is a term used to describe a strongman or leader who governs through personal charisma and force of will, rather than through democratic means. | |||
Pancho Villa's movement was focused on the expropriation of haciendas, which were large landholdings owned by wealthy landowners. He did not follow the Zapatistas' approach of giving the land back to the peasants, but instead, he confiscated the haciendas and gave them to his lieutenants to administer them for the benefit of the revolution. | |||
This approach was controversial and it drew criticism from other revolutionary leaders who saw it as a betrayal of the principles of the revolution. Villa's movement was also marked by violence and repression, and his followers were known for their brutality and disregard for human rights. | |||
Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregón were leaders from the state of Sonora and they had a different approach from Zapatistas and Villa's movement. They were less focused on agrarian issues and more interested in urban and democratic reforms. They were driven by the support of urban and middle-class elements of society, who were dissatisfied with the lack of political and economic progress under the Porfiriato. | |||
Carranza and Obregón's approach was also characterised by a strong anti-clerical sentiment directed against the Catholic Church. They saw the Church as a powerful and conservative institution opposed to the revolution's goals. Carranza's government passed a number of laws that restricted the Church's power and influence, including the 1917 Constitution, which contained articles that limited the Church's role in public life. | |||
Carranza's army, known as the Constitutionalists, was relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 20,000 to 40,000 soldiers. Pancho Villa's forces, known as the Division of the North, were much larger, with estimates ranging from around 100,000 to 200,000 soldiers. Zapata's forces, known as the Zapatistas, were also relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers. | |||
[[Fichier:El cadáver de Emiliano Zapata, exhibido en Cuautla, Morelos.jpg|thumb|150px|Zapata's body was exhibited in Cuautla (Morelos) on April 10, 1919.]] | |||
After 1914, the struggles between these different forces were very intense, with an alliance between Villa and Zapata to take control of Mexico City. They were eventually driven out by Carranza's forces, known as the Constitutionalists, allowing Carranza to regain power shortly after. This alliance was known as the Ejército Libertador del Sur (Liberation Army of the South), which was created to fight against Carranza's government. | |||
This alliance between Villa and Zapata was not very stable and it was based on a common enemy rather than a shared ideology. Villa and Zapata had different goals and visions for the revolution, and their alliance was more of a tactical move than a true partnership. | |||
In 1915, the Zapatistas retreated to Morelos, and Carranza's army defeated Villa's forces in 1916, which enabled Carranza to take control of Mexico City, and be recognized as the President of Mexico by the United States and other countries. | |||
In 1919, Carranza orchestrated an ambush that led to the murder of Emiliano Zapata. He then focused on suppressing the remaining resistance from Villa's forces. In 1923, Carranza himself was murdered by political rivals, which marked the end of his presidency. | |||
Carranza's assassination in 1923 was a turning point in the revolution, as it marked the end of the struggle for power between the different factions. Carranza's death created a power vacuum, which his former general filled, Alvaro Obregon, who would become Mexico's next president. | |||
It is important to note that Carranza's murder was not only a political assassination but also an act of revenge by his former general, Obregon and his followers, who were tired of Carranza's authoritarianism and refusal to carry out land and labour reforms. | |||
== Adoption of the 1917 Constitution == | |||
the adoption of the Constitution of 1917 was one of the main accomplishments of the first phase of the Mexican revolution. A constituent assembly wrote the constitution that the people elected, and it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857. | |||
The 1917 Constitution introduced several major reforms to address the social and economic grievances that led to the revolution. These included: | |||
* Agrarian reform: which aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities and ejidos (communal landholding) | |||
* Labor reform: which aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers | |||
* Educational reform: which aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens | |||
* Religious reform aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. | |||
The 1917 Constitution was also a very progressive document for its time. It included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions. It was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples. | |||
The Constitution of 1917 was the main result of the first phase of the Mexican revolution. It was adopted by an elected constituent assembly, it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857. It included several major reforms that aimed to address the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution, such as Agrarian reform, Labor reform, Educational reform, and Religious reform. It was also a very progressive document for its time, it included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions, it was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples. | |||
[[file:Lázaro.Cárdenas.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|General Lázaro Cárdenas.]] | [[file:Lázaro.Cárdenas.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|General Lázaro Cárdenas.]] | ||
The Constitution of 1917 was largely written by Francisco Mujica, a socialist who was close to Lazaro Cardenas. He was a nationalist and progressive man who was committed to addressing the social and economic grievances of the population that had led to the revolution. | |||
The 1917 Constitution is considered a liberal constitution as it established a presidential system of government, while at the same time being one of the most socially progressive constitutions of its time. It introduced several major reforms that addressed the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution, such as agrarian reform, labour reform, educational reform, and religious reform. | |||
Agrarian reform was a key component of the constitution. It aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities, and ejidos (communal landholding) to address the issue of landlessness. The labour reform aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers. The educational reform aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens. The religious reform aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. The constitution also provided for social protection for its citizens. | |||
The Constitution of 1917 was also a nationalist constitution. It defined that the subsoil resources, including the oil that was being exploited at the time by the British and Americans, belonged to the nation, and it placed limits on foreign property ownership. This was an important aspect of the constitution as it aimed to protect Mexico's natural resources and sovereignty from foreign exploitation. | |||
The constitution also included a provision allowing the government to expropriate foreign-owned property in cases deemed to be in the national interest. This was seen as a way of protecting Mexico's resources and economy from foreign control. The constitution also restricted foreign ownership of land near the border and coast.. | |||
Another important dimension of the 1917 Constitution is that it was secular and even anticlerical. It suppressed the privileges of the Catholic Church by separating Church and State. It also limited the power of the Church by taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. This was a significant change from the previous constitution of 1857, which had granted the Catholic Church a special status and significant political and economic power. The anticlerical stance of the 1917 Constitution was in line with the progressive and secular ideals of many of the revolution's leaders, who saw the Church as a hindrance to the modernisation and democratization of Mexico. | |||
== An unenforced constitution == | |||
During his time in office, Carranza came to power in 1914 and did very little to enforce the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. He was more focused on consolidating his own power and maintaining control over the country rather than implementing the social and economic reforms outlined in the constitution. | |||
In addition, Carranza's government was plagued by corruption and political infighting, and he faced several challenges to his rule from other revolutionary leaders such as Villa and Obregon. He also faced opposition from Zapatistas pushing for agrarian reform and land redistribution in the country's south. | |||
Carranza also attempted to maintain himself in power illegally by seeking to change the constitution to allow him to run for re-election. This move was widely opposed and led to his government split. He was eventually overthrown in 1920, and as he tried to flee the country with a significant amount of the national treasure, he was assassinated. | |||
After Carranza's assassination in 1920, Obregón emerged as the revolution's most powerful and influential leader. He quickly took control of the government and was elected president in 1920. | |||
During this time, the country was indeed ravaged by civil war, with estimates of the death toll ranging from 1 to 1.5 million people, or 10-15% of the total population. The war affected all sectors of society, with many people being displaced and suffering from the violence and destruction. The war also had a significant economic impact, with many businesses and farms being destroyed, and the country's infrastructure being severely damaged. | |||
Obregón's presidency was marked by a period of relative stability and economic recovery. However, the country was still recovering from the devastation of the civil war, and the social and economic reforms outlined in the 1917 Constitution were yet to be fully implemented. Obregón's government did make some progress in agrarian reform, but the implementation of these reforms was not completed. | |||
The railways played a significant role in the Mexican Revolution, allowing for the rapid transport of troops and supplies across the country. This mobility was a key factor in the success of the various revolutionary factions, as they quickly moved troops and resources to where they were needed. | |||
Women also played an important role in the revolution, many of them actively participating in the fighting. In contrast, others supported the troops by working as nurses, cooks, and in other support roles. They also played a key role in organizing the resistance and supporting the war effort, especially in rural areas, where they were often left alone to manage farms and households while the men were away fighting. | |||
It is important to note that this revolution was a significant human cost. A large number of people lost their lives, and many more were displaced and suffered from the violence and destruction caused by the war. The country was also left with significant economic and social challenges that would take many years to overcome. | |||
= 1920 - 1934: Los Años de los Sonorianos = | = 1920 - 1934: Los Años de los Sonorianos = | ||
Version du 25 janvier 2023 à 22:43
| Faculté | Lettres |
|---|---|
| Département | Département d’histoire générale |
| Professeur(s) | Aline Helg[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] |
| Cours | Los Estados Unidos y América Latina: los siglos XVIII y XX |
Lectures
- Las Américas en vísperas de la independencia
- La independencia de los Estados Unidos
- La Constitución de los Estados Unidos y la Sociedad de principios del siglo XIX
- La revolución haitiana y su impacto en las Américas
- Las independencias de las naciones de América Latina
- América Latina hacia 1850: sociedades, economías, política
- Los Estados Unidos de América, Norte y Sur, hacia 1850: inmigración y esclavitud
- La Guerra Civil y la Reconstrucción en los Estados Unidos: 1861 - 1877
- Los Estados (re)Unidos: 1877 - 1900
- Regímenes de Orden y Progreso en América Latina: 1875 - 1910
- La Revolución Mexicana: 1910 - 1940
- La sociedad americana en la década de 1920
- La Gran Depresión y el New Deal: 1929 - 1940
- De la política del Big Stick a la política del Good Neighbor
- Golpes de Estado y populismos latinoamericanos
- Los Estados Unidos ante la Segunda Guerra Mundial
- América Latina durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial
- Sociedad Americana de Posguerra en los Estados Unidos: Guerra Fría y Sociedad de Abundancia
- La Guerra Fría en América Latina y la Revolución Cubana
- El Movimiento de Derechos Civiles en los Estados Unidos
La Revolución Mexicana fue una gran lucha armada que tuvo lugar entre 1910 y 1940, caracterizada por la agitación social, económica y política. Comenzó con una rebelión liderada por Francisco Madero contra la dictadura de Porfirio Díaz. La revolución condujo finalmente a la formación de una república constitucional en México y provocó cambios significativos en la estructura social y la economía del país. Durante la revolución, varias facciones y líderes, entre ellos Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa y Venustiano Carranza, lucharon por el control del gobierno. La revolución causó la muerte de aproximadamente 1,5 millones de personas y provocó cambios significativos en la sociedad y la política mexicanas.
La Revolución Mexicana supuso un importante punto de inflexión en la historia de México y de América. La larga dictadura de Porfirio Díaz, conocida como el Porfiriato, trajo consigo el desarrollo económico, pero también la pobreza y la desigualdad generalizadas. El énfasis del régimen en la modernización y el crecimiento económico dejó marginados y desfavorecidos a muchos segmentos de la población, como las comunidades indígenas y los campesinos.
La revolución fue una respuesta a estos fracasos y pretendía conseguir una sociedad más inclusiva y equitativa. Muchos de los líderes revolucionarios, como Emiliano Zapata y Pancho Villa, representaban los intereses de las comunidades rurales e indígenas y pretendían redistribuir la tierra y el poder. La revolución provocó cambios significativos en la estructura social y económica del país, como la nacionalización de los recursos naturales y la puesta en marcha de la reforma agraria.
La lucha por la identidad nacional y la integración de diversos grupos en la nación también caracterizaron la revolución. Esto incluyó los derechos de los pueblos indígenas, los afromexicanos y los descendientes de esclavos, así como los derechos de las mujeres y los trabajadores.
La dictadura de Porfirio Díaz: 1876 - 1910
La dictadura de Porfirio Díaz fue uno de los principales factores que condujeron a la Revolución Mexicana. Díaz llegó al poder en 1876 y gobernó México durante más de 30 años mediante una serie de elecciones fraudulentas. Aplicó políticas de modernización y crecimiento económico, que propiciaron un importante desarrollo económico pero también provocaron una pobreza y desigualdad generalizadas.
La dictadura de Porfirio Díaz se caracterizó por la represión de la oposición política, la censura de prensa y la persecución de los movimientos obreros e indígenas. Díaz también utilizó la represión para mantener su poder. Tenía una fuerza policial de mano dura, los rurales, que imponían su voluntad y eliminaban cualquier oposición.
La reelección fraudulenta de Díaz en 1910 fue el catalizador de la revolución. Francisco Madero, un rico terrateniente y reformador político, se presentó a las elecciones contra Díaz y fue arrestado tras denunciar fraude. La detención de Madero desencadenó protestas y rebeliones generalizadas contra la dictadura. Esto marcó el inicio de la Revolución Mexicana, que finalmente condujo a la formación de una república constitucional en México y provocó cambios significativos en la estructura social y la economía del país.
Durante el Porfiriato, hubo una serie de factores que contribuyeron al derrocamiento final de Porfirio Díaz y al estallido de la Revolución Mexicana. Algunos de los factores clave son
- Aumento de la pobreza de la gran mayoría: Como se ha comentado anteriormente, las políticas de modernización y crecimiento económico aplicadas durante el Porfiriato condujeron a un importante desarrollo económico, pero también dieron lugar a una pobreza y desigualdad generalizadas. La concentración de la tierra en manos de unos pocos terratenientes ricos provocó un aumento del número de pequeños agricultores sin tierra y el empeoramiento de las condiciones de vida de muchas comunidades rurales
- Producción insuficiente de alimentos para una población en crecimiento: La orientación de la agricultura hacia la exportación durante el Porfiriato hizo que la producción de alimentos se destinara principalmente al mercado de exportación, en lugar de satisfacer las necesidades de la población nacional. Esto provocó escasez de alimentos y falta de acceso a alimentos suficientes para la creciente población.
- Aumento asombroso del número de pequeños agricultores sin tierra: La concentración de la tierra en manos de unos pocos terratenientes ricos provocó un aumento del número de pequeños agricultores sin tierra. Estos agricultores se vieron a menudo desplazados de sus tierras y sin medios para ganarse la vida, lo que provocó el empeoramiento de las condiciones de vida y la pobreza.
- Empeoramiento de las condiciones de trabajo: La represión de los sindicatos y las huelgas por parte de la dictadura empeoró las condiciones laborales de muchos trabajadores urbanos. Esto incluía salarios bajos, largas jornadas laborales y malas condiciones de trabajo.
- Inicio del sindicalismo a pesar de la represión: A pesar de la represión de los sindicatos por parte de la dictadura, el sindicalismo comenzó a ganar impulso, especialmente entre los trabajadores urbanos. Era un signo del creciente descontento y frustración de la clase obrera.
- Control de las industrias por monopolios extranjeros: Los monopolios extranjeros controlaban industrias clave en México, como el petróleo y la minería, lo que exacerbó aún más la desigualdad económica y aumentó la frustración entre las clases medias emergentes.
- Inflación generada por todo el ciclo: Las políticas de modernización y crecimiento económico provocaron un aumento de la inflación, lo que repercutió aún más en el nivel de vida de la mayoría de la población.
- Auge del nacionalismo: El auge del sentimiento nacionalista, especialmente entre las clases medias emergentes, fue un factor clave de la revolución, ya que la población se sentía cada vez más frustrada por el control extranjero sobre el país. Esta frustración se vio alimentada por el control de los monopolios extranjeros sobre industrias clave, que se consideraban una amenaza para la soberanía nacional.
Causas de la revolución
Diferentes autores e historiadores han caracterizado la Revolución Mexicana de diversas maneras. Algunos autores marxistas sostienen que la revolución no fue una revolución "real" porque no estableció un sistema socialista en México. Argumentan que la revolución fue principalmente una lucha por el poder político y no cambió fundamentalmente la estructura económica y social del país.
En cambio, argumentan que la revolución dio lugar a la formación de una república constitucional, que no cambió fundamentalmente el sistema económico capitalista del país ni la concentración de la tierra y la riqueza en manos de unos pocos. También sostienen que la revolución fue dirigida por una coalición de líderes de la clase media y la élite que no representaban los intereses de la clase obrera y los campesinos, que fueron la principal fuerza impulsora de la revolución.
Por otro lado, algunos historiadores y autores sostienen que la Revolución Mexicana fue una revolución social. Señalan los cambios significativos en la estructura social y económica del país que resultaron de la revolución, como la nacionalización de los recursos naturales y la aplicación de la reforma agraria. La revolución también condujo a la redistribución de la tierra y el poder, que benefició a las comunidades rurales y a los pueblos indígenas. Además, la revolución también produjo cambios significativos en la estructura política del país, como la formación de una república constitucional y el establecimiento de una mayor libertad política y democracia.
La Revolución Mexicana es considerada una revolución por muchos historiadores y autores porque cumple con la definición de revolución como una lucha popular masiva por el cambio político y social que altera significativamente la estructura de poder existente.
- Participación masiva de la población: La revolución se caracterizó por la participación de un amplio sector de la población mexicana, particularmente en el norte y centro del país, donde la mayoría de la población era campesina.
- Diferentes visiones sobre el futuro: La población tenía diferentes puntos de vista sobre su futuro: los del norte buscaban el fin de las trabas políticas y económicas, y los del centro, la devolución de las tierras arrebatadas durante el régimen de Díaz.
- Lucha por el poder: La revolución representó una verdadera lucha por el poder que desembocó en una guerra civil y en la destrucción de los pilares del régimen existente.
- Sustitución del sistema de control: Los líderes revolucionarios sustituyeron el sistema de control de Porfirio Díaz por otro sistema de control que también puso en su lugar nuevas élites, así como una nueva ideología dominante que es nacionalista. Al mismo tiempo, la revolución también trajo consigo la construcción del Estado, la integración nacional y la formación de un capitalismo nacional.
La revolución mexicana se considera una revolución por la participación masiva de la población, las diferentes visiones sobre su futuro, la lucha por el poder, la sustitución del sistema de control y la aparición de una nueva ideología dominante y una nueva élite.
La Revolución Mexicana se considera una revolución pionera para su época, ya que fue uno de los primeros grandes movimientos revolucionarios de principios del siglo XX. Ocurrió antes que la Revolución Bolchevique en Rusia, la Revolución China y la Revolución Cubana, que también provocaron cambios significativos en las estructuras sociales, económicas y culturales de sus respectivos países.
La Revolución Mexicana también fue única en el sentido de que fue una de las primeras grandes revoluciones de América y sentó un precedente para otros movimientos revolucionarios de la región. Fue un movimiento que pretendía lograr cambios políticos, sociales y económicos. Se caracterizó por la participación de un amplio sector de la población, especialmente de las comunidades rurales e indígenas.
La Revolución Mexicana también tuvo un impacto significativo en el resto de América Latina. Sirvió de inspiración para otros movimientos revolucionarios de la región y ayudó a promover la idea del cambio social y político en todo el continente. Su impacto puede apreciarse en los diversos movimientos sociales y políticos que surgieron en los años siguientes en otros países latinoamericanos, especialmente en la región andina.
La Revolución Mexicana
La Revolución Mexicana suele dividirse en tres fases:
- 1910-1920: Esta fase se caracteriza por una década de lucha y guerra civil, que vio el derrocamiento de la dictadura de Porfirio Díaz y el ascenso de varios líderes revolucionarios y facciones que luchaban por el control del gobierno. Durante esta fase, se adoptó una nueva constitución en 1917, que incluía importantes reformas como la redistribución de la tierra, los derechos laborales y la educación.
- 1920-1934: Los años de Sonora. Esta fase se caracteriza por el ascenso de Álvaro Obregón y Plutarco Elías Calles, líderes del gobierno revolucionario en el estado de Sonora. Este periodo se caracterizó por la estabilidad política y la apuesta por el desarrollo económico, pero también por el aumento del control estatal y la represión de la oposición política.
- 1934-1940: El gobierno de Lázaro Cárdenas. Esta fase se caracteriza por el ascenso de Lázaro Cárdenas a la presidencia de México, quien llevó a cabo una serie de reformas importantes, como la nacionalización de industrias clave como el petróleo y la electricidad, la reforma agraria y la promoción de los ideales nacionalistas. Este periodo se considera una continuación de la revolución, ya que supuso cambios significativos en las estructuras sociales, económicas y políticas del país.
1910 - 1920: Una década de lucha
1910 - 1920: A decade of struggles
The main protagonists
The first phase of the Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to 1920, was a very violent and chaotic period marked by struggles and civil war. Many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated, including Francisco Madero, the leader who initially sparked the revolution, and Emiliano Zapata, the leader of the Zapatista movement who advocated for land reform.
During this phase, various revolutionary factions fought for control of the government, and there was a high level of instability and violence. The country was in a state of constant civil war, which resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of property. The main leaders were Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Alvaro Obregon.
Despite the violence and instability, this phase also saw the adoption of the 1917 Constitution, which was a significant achievement of the revolution. This constitution included important reforms such as land redistribution, labour rights, and education, which aimed to address some of the social and economic issues that had led to the revolution in the first place.
Victoriano Huerta was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz and he came to power after the murder of Francisco Madero. Huerta was not able to control the revolution and he was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes in Texas.
This phase was marked by a high level of violence and political instability, and many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated.
- Francisco Madero, who came from Coahuila and was a great landowner from the North, was assassinated in 1913. He was the leader who initially sparked the revolution and advocated for political and social reforms.
- Pancho Villa, a half-breed bandit from Chihuahua, was assassinated in 1923. He was one of the leaders of the revolution and led a powerful revolutionary army, Villa's Division of the North.
- Pascual Orozco, a transport entrepreneur from Chihuahua, was first allied with Villa and then with Huerta, but he ended up being murdered by the police in Texas in 1916.
- Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the Zapatista movement which advocated for land reform, was murdered in 1919.
- Alvaro Obregón, a farmer, landowner, and important politician of Sonora, was murdered in 1928.
- Venustiano Carranza, one of the revolution's main leaders and president of Mexico, was murdered in 1920.
These leaders were key figures of the Mexican Revolution, and their deaths significantly impacted the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government.
Victoriano Huerta
Francisco Madero
Pancho Villa
Pascual Orozco
Eufemio et Emiliano Zapata
Obregón Salido, Álvaro
Venustiano Carranza à La Cañada
The Mexican Revolution was a period marked by a real war for power and the struggle for control of the government. Out of the seven main leaders of the revolution that you have mentioned, Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, only Victoriano Huerta, who was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz, did not die from violence. He was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes from cancer in Texas.
These leaders' deaths significantly impacted the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government, as new leaders and factions emerged to take their place and continue the struggle for power. The high level of violence and political instability during this period was a characteristic of the Mexican revolution and it is also one of the reasons for the difficulty to establish a stable government and a new social, economic and political order.
Plan of San Luis Potosí
The Mexican Revolution began in the North of the country in 1910, with the opposition to the re-election of Porfirio Díaz, who was then 80 years old. The North of Mexico was a more industralised and mining region, and it was here that the initial revolt broke out, following the launch of the Plan of San Luis Potosí by the liberal leader Francisco Madero. The Plan called for free elections and had the support of the large peasantry of the North, as well as industrialists.
Madero formed an army of 25,000 men under the leadership of Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa, which managed to defeat the forces of Díaz and negotiate his departure from power. Díaz went into exile and died in France of old age in 1915.
This revolution phase was characterised by the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions, each with their own agendas and ideologies, which led to a period of political instability and civil war in the country. The adoption of the 1917 Constitution was a significant achievement of this phase and it represented an effort to establish a new social, economic and political order.
In 1911, Francisco Madero was elected president of Mexico in free and fair elections, following the departure of Porfirio Díaz. However, Madero's presidency was marked by challenges and difficulties. Many of the revolutionary leaders and factions who had fought to overthrow Díaz were not satisfied with Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place.
In particular, the northern revolutionary leaders, such as Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata, were dissatisfied with Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. They had expected Madero to bring about more radical change, but they were disappointed by his more moderate approach.
This dissatisfaction led to a split within the revolutionary movement and to a new round of civil war and political instability. Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and other leaders formed a coalition against Madero, contributing to his downfall and assassination in 1913.
In the centre of Mexico, particularly in the state of Morelos, the peasants under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place and to not attack the large sugar plantations in the region was particularly disappointing to the Zapatistas.
In response, Zapata and the Zapatistas took up arms again and declared the Plan of Ayala, also known as the Second Plan of the Mexican Revolution. This plan denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals. It announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.
The Zapatistas and their demands for land reform became one of the most important parts of the Mexican revolution. Zapata became a powerful leader and symbol of the revolution, especially in the centre and south of the country.
The Zapatistas, under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata, also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes, and declared the Plan of Ayala which denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.
Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913 and established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, with the support of the big landowners, the church, and foreign investors. Huerta's regime was characterised by a return to authoritarian rule, repression of political opposition, and a focus on maintaining the status quo rather than implementing significant social and economic reforms.
However, Huerta's days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza. In contrast, in the centre, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilised. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionised and calling for reforms.
A new intelligentsia emerged, linked to socialist nationalist, indigenous, and somewhat romantic ideas, which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change. Huerta's regime was widely unpopular and faced multiple factions fighting for power, eventually leading to his downfall.
Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913, established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz. Still, his days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza. In the centre, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilised. There were also protests and uprisings in the cities, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionised, and calling for reforms. A new intelligentsia emerged which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change.
Guadalupe Plan
The Guadalupe Plan, also known as the Third Plan of the Mexican Revolution, was a political program launched in 1914. It was led by Venustiano Carranza, a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North, who had previously served as governor of Coahuila and as a member of Madero's cabinet.
The Guadalupe Plan called for establishing a constitutional government and restoring order in the country. It did not mention any specific social or agrarian reforms, unlike the previous plans of the revolution. Instead, it emphasised the need to restore the rule of law and establish a stable government.
The Guadalupe Plan was supported by many of the revolutionary leaders in the North, including Alvaro Obregon, and it helped to unite the various factions fighting for control of the government. Carranza and his followers emerged as the dominant force in the revolution. In 1915, Carranza declared himself First Chief of the Constitutional Army and began to assume control of the government..
among the supporters of Venustiano Carranza were Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón. In 1914, they launched an assault on Mexico City with the goal of ousting Victoriano Huerta's government. At the same time, the Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, mobilised and advanced on Mexico City from the south.
Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement as it faced pressure from both the northern and southern revolutionary forces. In 1914, Obregón entered Mexico City, forced Huerta to flee, and installed Carranza in power. Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan.
This marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution, which was characterised by a decade of civil war, political instability, and the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions. Carranza's government, which Villa and Obregón supported, was able to establish a measure of stability and begin the process of rebuilding the country.
Carranza's supporters, Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón, launched an assault on Mexico City in 1914, while in the south the Zapatistas mobilised and advanced on Mexico City, Victoriano Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement and was forced to flee. Obregón entered Mexico City and installed Carranza in power; Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan. This marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution.
Between 1914 and 1915, Venustiano Carranza's government, also known as the "interregnum" was established in power, but the differences between the different revolutionary groups came to light once he was in power. Carranza's government failed to achieve many of the social and economic reforms that had been promised during the revolution.
Carranza's government was marked by political infighting and a lack of clear direction. Carranza was more interested in consolidating his own power than in implementing meaningful reforms, which led to a growing sense of disillusionment among many revolutionary leaders and factions.
Carranza's government also faced challenges from the Zapatistas in the south, who were dissatisfied with the lack of progress on land reform and other issues, and from Pancho Villa and other leaders in the north, who felt that Carranza was not fulfilling the promises of the revolution.
The Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, were one of the most important factions of the Mexican Revolution, and they mobilised behind the slogan "tierra y libertad" (land and freedom). Their movement focused on the issue of land reform and the redistribution of land to the indigenous peasant communities. They advocated for the expropriation of large landholdings, particularly those owned by wealthy landowners, and the land redistribution to small farmers and indigenous communities.
The Zapatistas were democratic and communitarian in their approach, and they sought to empower local communities and give them control over their own land and resources. However, they were not against the Catholic Church and had a complex relationship with the Church, which was sometimes supportive of their cause and sometimes opposed it.
Pancho Villa, also known as Francisco Villa, was a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North and his movement had a different approach compared to Zapatistas. He was often referred to as a caudillo, which is a term used to describe a strongman or leader who governs through personal charisma and force of will, rather than through democratic means.
Pancho Villa's movement was focused on the expropriation of haciendas, which were large landholdings owned by wealthy landowners. He did not follow the Zapatistas' approach of giving the land back to the peasants, but instead, he confiscated the haciendas and gave them to his lieutenants to administer them for the benefit of the revolution.
This approach was controversial and it drew criticism from other revolutionary leaders who saw it as a betrayal of the principles of the revolution. Villa's movement was also marked by violence and repression, and his followers were known for their brutality and disregard for human rights.
Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregón were leaders from the state of Sonora and they had a different approach from Zapatistas and Villa's movement. They were less focused on agrarian issues and more interested in urban and democratic reforms. They were driven by the support of urban and middle-class elements of society, who were dissatisfied with the lack of political and economic progress under the Porfiriato.
Carranza and Obregón's approach was also characterised by a strong anti-clerical sentiment directed against the Catholic Church. They saw the Church as a powerful and conservative institution opposed to the revolution's goals. Carranza's government passed a number of laws that restricted the Church's power and influence, including the 1917 Constitution, which contained articles that limited the Church's role in public life.
Carranza's army, known as the Constitutionalists, was relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 20,000 to 40,000 soldiers. Pancho Villa's forces, known as the Division of the North, were much larger, with estimates ranging from around 100,000 to 200,000 soldiers. Zapata's forces, known as the Zapatistas, were also relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers.
After 1914, the struggles between these different forces were very intense, with an alliance between Villa and Zapata to take control of Mexico City. They were eventually driven out by Carranza's forces, known as the Constitutionalists, allowing Carranza to regain power shortly after. This alliance was known as the Ejército Libertador del Sur (Liberation Army of the South), which was created to fight against Carranza's government.
This alliance between Villa and Zapata was not very stable and it was based on a common enemy rather than a shared ideology. Villa and Zapata had different goals and visions for the revolution, and their alliance was more of a tactical move than a true partnership.
In 1915, the Zapatistas retreated to Morelos, and Carranza's army defeated Villa's forces in 1916, which enabled Carranza to take control of Mexico City, and be recognized as the President of Mexico by the United States and other countries.
In 1919, Carranza orchestrated an ambush that led to the murder of Emiliano Zapata. He then focused on suppressing the remaining resistance from Villa's forces. In 1923, Carranza himself was murdered by political rivals, which marked the end of his presidency.
Carranza's assassination in 1923 was a turning point in the revolution, as it marked the end of the struggle for power between the different factions. Carranza's death created a power vacuum, which his former general filled, Alvaro Obregon, who would become Mexico's next president.
It is important to note that Carranza's murder was not only a political assassination but also an act of revenge by his former general, Obregon and his followers, who were tired of Carranza's authoritarianism and refusal to carry out land and labour reforms.
Adoption of the 1917 Constitution
the adoption of the Constitution of 1917 was one of the main accomplishments of the first phase of the Mexican revolution. A constituent assembly wrote the constitution that the people elected, and it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857.
The 1917 Constitution introduced several major reforms to address the social and economic grievances that led to the revolution. These included:
- Agrarian reform: which aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities and ejidos (communal landholding)
- Labor reform: which aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers
- Educational reform: which aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens
- Religious reform aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church.
The 1917 Constitution was also a very progressive document for its time. It included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions. It was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples.
The Constitution of 1917 was the main result of the first phase of the Mexican revolution. It was adopted by an elected constituent assembly, it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857. It included several major reforms that aimed to address the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution, such as Agrarian reform, Labor reform, Educational reform, and Religious reform. It was also a very progressive document for its time, it included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions, it was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples.
The Constitution of 1917 was largely written by Francisco Mujica, a socialist who was close to Lazaro Cardenas. He was a nationalist and progressive man who was committed to addressing the social and economic grievances of the population that had led to the revolution.
The 1917 Constitution is considered a liberal constitution as it established a presidential system of government, while at the same time being one of the most socially progressive constitutions of its time. It introduced several major reforms that addressed the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution, such as agrarian reform, labour reform, educational reform, and religious reform.
Agrarian reform was a key component of the constitution. It aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities, and ejidos (communal landholding) to address the issue of landlessness. The labour reform aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers. The educational reform aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens. The religious reform aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. The constitution also provided for social protection for its citizens.
The Constitution of 1917 was also a nationalist constitution. It defined that the subsoil resources, including the oil that was being exploited at the time by the British and Americans, belonged to the nation, and it placed limits on foreign property ownership. This was an important aspect of the constitution as it aimed to protect Mexico's natural resources and sovereignty from foreign exploitation.
The constitution also included a provision allowing the government to expropriate foreign-owned property in cases deemed to be in the national interest. This was seen as a way of protecting Mexico's resources and economy from foreign control. The constitution also restricted foreign ownership of land near the border and coast..
Another important dimension of the 1917 Constitution is that it was secular and even anticlerical. It suppressed the privileges of the Catholic Church by separating Church and State. It also limited the power of the Church by taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. This was a significant change from the previous constitution of 1857, which had granted the Catholic Church a special status and significant political and economic power. The anticlerical stance of the 1917 Constitution was in line with the progressive and secular ideals of many of the revolution's leaders, who saw the Church as a hindrance to the modernisation and democratization of Mexico.
An unenforced constitution
During his time in office, Carranza came to power in 1914 and did very little to enforce the provisions of the 1917 Constitution. He was more focused on consolidating his own power and maintaining control over the country rather than implementing the social and economic reforms outlined in the constitution.
In addition, Carranza's government was plagued by corruption and political infighting, and he faced several challenges to his rule from other revolutionary leaders such as Villa and Obregon. He also faced opposition from Zapatistas pushing for agrarian reform and land redistribution in the country's south.
Carranza also attempted to maintain himself in power illegally by seeking to change the constitution to allow him to run for re-election. This move was widely opposed and led to his government split. He was eventually overthrown in 1920, and as he tried to flee the country with a significant amount of the national treasure, he was assassinated.
After Carranza's assassination in 1920, Obregón emerged as the revolution's most powerful and influential leader. He quickly took control of the government and was elected president in 1920.
During this time, the country was indeed ravaged by civil war, with estimates of the death toll ranging from 1 to 1.5 million people, or 10-15% of the total population. The war affected all sectors of society, with many people being displaced and suffering from the violence and destruction. The war also had a significant economic impact, with many businesses and farms being destroyed, and the country's infrastructure being severely damaged.
Obregón's presidency was marked by a period of relative stability and economic recovery. However, the country was still recovering from the devastation of the civil war, and the social and economic reforms outlined in the 1917 Constitution were yet to be fully implemented. Obregón's government did make some progress in agrarian reform, but the implementation of these reforms was not completed.
The railways played a significant role in the Mexican Revolution, allowing for the rapid transport of troops and supplies across the country. This mobility was a key factor in the success of the various revolutionary factions, as they quickly moved troops and resources to where they were needed.
Women also played an important role in the revolution, many of them actively participating in the fighting. In contrast, others supported the troops by working as nurses, cooks, and in other support roles. They also played a key role in organizing the resistance and supporting the war effort, especially in rural areas, where they were often left alone to manage farms and households while the men were away fighting.
It is important to note that this revolution was a significant human cost. A large number of people lost their lives, and many more were displaced and suffered from the violence and destruction caused by the war. The country was also left with significant economic and social challenges that would take many years to overcome.
1920 - 1934: Los Años de los Sonorianos
Proyecto
Fue una revolución sangrienta que fue seguida entre 1920 y 1934 por los años de los sonorianos. Es una región en proceso de modernización y quieren transformar a México en otra California.
Para ellos la modernización es un México con una agricultura próspera, pero también irrigación, caminos, tecnología y créditos bancarios. Los sonorianos no prevén la industrialización de México excepto por unos pocos productos agrícolas, su programa no es muy diferente al del porfiriato, pero es un programa nacional confiado a mexicanos y no a inversionistas extranjeros.
Después de las crisis de 1921 y 1929, se producirá el retorno forzado de los trabajadores mexicanos de Estados Unidos; son más o menos capaces de llevar a cabo algunas de sus reformas, la producción per cápita se multiplica por 5 años en el norte, en el centro esto es más problemático, porque de hecho hay una disminución en la producción de alimentos y todo esto durante años o la población mexicana se duplica de 20 millones en 1920 a 40 millones en 1940.
Socialmente, los sonorianos buscan controlar a las clases trabajadoras a través de la integración en lugar de la represión como en el caso de Porifirio Díaz. El número de agricultores afectados por la reforma es significativo, al igual que el área relativamente poco poblada de tierra; sin embargo, el 10% del campesinado y el 40% de la comunidad del pueblo se benefician de la reforma agraria, particularmente en la parte central del país donde los zapatistas han sido fuertes.
Hacia los trabajadores, el gobierno utiliza una mezcla de control, cooptación y represión, el sindicato principal pasa gradualmente al control del Ministro de Industria, mientras que los sindicatos socialistas, anarquistas y comunistas están severamente reprimidos y el derecho a la huelga está restringido.
Los partidos políticos independientes son neutralizados por la formación del Partido Revolucionario Nacional, que es el antepasado del Partido Institucional Revolucionario Nacional que dominó hasta la década de 2000.
En el lado del ejército, la guardia rural de Díaz fue reemplazada por un nuevo ejército nacional.
Construcción del nacionalismo mexicano
Fue durante estos años que el México revolucionario construyó un nacionalismo basado en la mezcla de razas y raíces indias. Es algo muy original que está sucediendo en las Américas, estamos en una época en la que cada país, cada grupo étnico está tratando de mostrar que es una nación con su raza, su cultura, su idioma, su arte y su territorio.
Es también la misma época en que Estados Unidos se encuentra en la agonía de un renacimiento del racismo y del Ku Klux Klan, cuando México glorifica la mezcla y revalorización, entre otros, de los mayas y aztecas y sus grandes civilizaciones urbanas como los cimientos de la historia del país.
Lo interesante es que en 1917, cuando se formó la constitución, el gobierno abrió una oficina de antropología que también se ocupa de la arqueología y estudia las diversas comunidades indígenas que enriquecen la cultura mexicana.
Esta celebración del mestizaje se realiza bajo la égida de Vasconcelos, que fue ministro de Educación entre 1921 y 1924. Es más conocido por su libro Raza Comisca[8] que publicó en 1925 imaginando la raza cósmica formada por la mezcla de europeos, indios y africanos.
Es el momento en que los intelectuales de Europa y Estados Unidos declaran que los blancos deben dominar el mundo; es algo atrevido por el momento, pero no significa que Vasconcelos no sea racista, porque piensa que a largo plazo los indios y los africanos desaparecerán porque serán absorbidos por la raza mestiza y los blancos para reintegrar a los mexicanos a una raza cósmica.
Al mismo tiempo, todavía estamos en la ideología donde pensamos que la educación puede mejorar la raza y especialmente los indios, fue en ese momento que Vasconcelos entre otros había empujado mucho la educación del país.
Todo este programa se hace primero en la escuela, al igual que después de la Revolución Francesa, la revolución mexicana está convencida de que el maestro de escuela reemplazará al sacerdote, convirtiéndose en el vínculo entre los ciudadanos y el Estado.
Bajo Vasconcelos, la educación representaba hasta el 14% del presupuesto nacional, se abrían escuelas en las aldeas, se disponía de maestros itinerantes para llegar a zonas remotas, también se abrían escuelas nocturnas para enseñar a leer y escribir a adultos, y se abrían bibliotecas con libros de autores mexicanos. Entre 1921 y 1934, la tasa de analfabetismo se redujo del 72% al 62% y casi la mitad de los niños fueron a la escuela.
El otro gran eje para desarrollar la cultura nacional son las artes, el gobierno moviliza a artistas, músicos, cantantes, escultores para promover la conciencia nacional pagándoles materiales y proveyéndoles de edificios en los que los artistas ilustrarán la epopeya del pueblo mexicano, es una epopeya revisada en la que glorificaremos el pasado maya y azteca condenando el pasado colonial; algunos artistas se convertirán en artistas de audiencia internacional como Diego Rivera, Orozco o Frida Kahlho.
Todo este movimiento artístico nacional, único en América Latina, es fundamental en la formación de la "mexicanidad", orgullo e independencia nacional del país y en el inicio de una aceptación de las élites en la cultura popular; es un movimiento que continúa hasta 1940 con repercusiones en toda América Latina con populismos.
El gobierno de Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934 - 1940
Es un gobierno de un hombre de Michoacán, que llegó al poder después de la crisis de 1929, militar durante la revolución, pero que conoce bien las necesidades de los pequeños campesinos del Sur, es un hombre que sigue siendo modesto al menos en apariencia y que no busca hacerse rico.
A diferencia de los sonorianos, Cárdenas cree en el diálogo y en el poder de la convicción viajando por todo el país. Bajo Cárdenas se produjo el gran auge de la revolución agraria, con la redistribución de 18 millones de hectáreas en seis años, casi el doble de lo que se distribuyó entre 1915 y 1934; en 1940, el 47% de las tierras cultivadas del país pertenecían a pueblos y comunidades indígenas.
Esta política permitió que el régimen se aliara con el pequeño campesinado; Cárdenas también unificó los sindicatos e integró a socialistas y comunistas en un centro obrero progubernamental.
En el campo de la educación, continúa las políticas iniciadas bajo el ministerio de Vasconcelos; en comparación con la Iglesia Católica, es mucho más conciliadora que los sonorianos anticlericales, dejando que las iglesias operen de manera casi autónoma.
Es en relación a Estados Unidos donde Cárdenas innova más, porque tras una serie de huelgas en las que las principales empresas estadounidenses e inglesas rechazan el arbitraje gubernamental, en 1938 Cárdenas nacionalizó la industria petrolera.
En respuesta, Estados Unidos y Francia boicotearon el petróleo mexicano mientras Inglaterra rompía relaciones diplomáticas. Sentimos que la guerra está a punto de estallar, pero las grandes potencias irán más allá, no queriendo alienar a México en este momento clave de la historia; la nacionalización del petróleo produce una unidad nacional que une a todos detrás de Cárdenas, desde obispos hasta estudiantes universitarios socialistas.
Cárdenas también reformó el partido de gobierno, convirtiendo a este partido revolucionario en el precursor del Institutional Revolutionary Party al que vinculó a campesinos y sindicatos de trabajadores.
En 1938, se llevó a cabo gran parte del proyecto revolucionario de México de construcción del Estado, integración nacional y capitalismo nacional. La revolución ha cambiado profundamente al país, y la revolución mexicana muestra la importancia de México para todas las Américas, y muchos países latinoamericanos están tratando de emular algunas de estas políticas.
El año 1938 fue el apogeo de la revolución mexicana, pero los gobiernos que siguieron al gobierno de Cárdenas destruyeron rápidamente los logros de la revolución, en particular su revolución agraria.
Anexos
- Posada, et al. “La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso El Ascenso De Francisco Madero.” El Ascenso De Francisco Madero - La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso | Exposiciones - La Biblioteca Del Congreso, www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/rise-madero-sp.html.
Referencias
- ↑ Aline Helg - UNIGE
- ↑ Aline Helg - Academia.edu
- ↑ Aline Helg - Wikipedia
- ↑ Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com
- ↑ Aline Helg - Researchgate.net
- ↑ Aline Helg - Cairn.info
- ↑ Aline Helg - Google Scholar
- ↑ La Raza Cósmica Misión de la raza iberoamericana Notas de viajes a la América del SurAgencia Mundial de Librería, Madrid 1925 (Spanish)