Globalisation and modes of development in the "third world"

Based on a lecture by Michel Oris

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Economic and social history of globalisation, 16th-21st centuries

Agrarian Structures and Rural Society: Analysis of the Preindustrial European Peasantry ● The demographic regime of the Ancien Régime: homeostasis ● Evolution of Socioeconomic Structures in the Eighteenth Century: From the Ancien Régime to Modernity ● Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution ● Structural mechanisms of the industrial revolution ● The spread of the Industrial Revolution in continental Europe ● The Industrial Revolution beyond Europe: the United States and Japan ● The social costs of the Industrial Revolution ● Historical Analysis of the Cyclical Phases of the First Globalisation ● Dynamics of National Markets and the Globalisation of Product Trade ● The Formation of Global Migration Systems ● Dynamics and Impacts of the Globalisation of Money Markets : The Central Role of Great Britain and France ● The Transformation of Social Structures and Relations during the Industrial Revolution ● The Origins of the Third World and the Impact of Colonisation ● Failures and Obstacles in the Third World ● Changing Methods of Work: Evolving Production Relationships from the End of the Nineteenth to the Middle of the Twentieth Century ● The Golden Age of the Western Economy: The Thirty Glorious Years (1945-1973) ● The Changing World Economy: 1973-2007 ● The Challenges of the Welfare State ● Around colonisation: fears and hopes for development ● Time of Ruptures: Challenges and Opportunities in the International Economy ● Globalisation and modes of development in the "third world"

From 1945 to the present day, the world has witnessed a remarkable acceleration of globalisation, a phenomenon that has reshaped economic, political and cultural dynamics on a planetary scale. Marked by key milestones such as decolonisation after the Second World War, the formation of economic and political blocs during the Cold War, and the emergence of information and communication technology, this process has had a profound impact on Third World economies. With the creation of international organisations such as the United Nations and the World Bank, and the adoption of liberal economic policies, developing countries were integrated into a globalised economic system. This integration has been accompanied by a significant increase in trade, rising from 8% of world GDP in 1950 to around 30% in 2020, and by a growing flow of foreign direct investment, which reached almost 1,500 billion dollars in 2019. We will explore the various modes of development adopted by these countries since 1945, analysing the key factors of economic growth and decline. Focusing on the role of international organisations, the impact of Western hegemony, and contemporary challenges such as environmental sustainability, we will examine how globalisation has shaped and continues to shape development trajectories in the Third World.

Dynamics and Challenges of Emerging Countries

Defining and understanding emerging countries

An emerging country, also known as an emerging market, is a nation in the midst of an economic transition. Historically, these countries have moved from dependence on agriculture or the export of raw materials to a more industrialised and diversified economy. For example, since the reforms of 1978, China has undergone a rapid transformation from an agrarian economy to a global industrial power, with a GDP growth rate averaging around 10% per year for almost three decades.

These countries are also undergoing significant social transformations, marked by rapid urbanisation, improved access to education and healthcare, and the emergence of a sizeable middle class. India, for example, has seen its middle class grow considerably, from 25 million people in 1996 to around 350 million in 2016, reflecting a major change in the country's socio-economic structure. However, emerging countries often face economic and political instability. Phenomena such as high inflation, budget deficits and foreign debt can have a negative impact on their development. Brazil, for example, has experienced several boom-and-bust cycles in recent decades, illustrating the economic volatility of such markets.

The increasing integration of these countries into the world economy, often facilitated by globalisation and international trade agreements, offers them opportunities but also exposes them to global competition and external economic shocks. For example, the Asian financial crisis of 1997 demonstrated the vulnerability of emerging economies to external influences, triggering massive currency devaluations and recessions in several Asian countries. Environmental challenges are also prevalent in emerging countries. Rapid growth can lead to increased pressure on the environment, requiring sustainable management of natural resources. Pollution in China, exacerbated by rapid industrialisation, is an example of the environmental impact of economic development. Finally, the development of financial markets is a crucial aspect for these countries. They are striving to set up stock exchanges, banks and financial regulatory systems to attract foreign investment and stimulate growth. This was evident in India, where economic reforms in 1991 opened the market to foreign investors, leading to a significant expansion of its economy.

Brazil, India and China are often cited as emblematic examples of emerging countries, each illustrating a unique trajectory of economic development in the context of globalisation. Brazil, with its immense natural resources and diverse population, has long been seen as a potential economic giant. Its economic path has oscillated between phases of rapid growth, driven mainly by commodity exports, and periods of economic turbulence, often exacerbated by political instability and high inflation. Despite these challenges, Brazil has maintained an important position on the world economic stage. India, on the other hand, began a significant transformation with the economic reforms of 1991. Moving from a predominantly agrarian economy to one focused on services and technology, India has seen its IT sector flourish and its middle class grow rapidly. These changes have been supported by the opening up of the economy to foreign investment, which has stimulated growth and positioned India as a key player in the global digital economy. China, for its part, offers an example of rapid and profound economic transformation. Since the reforms initiated by Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s, China has moved from a planned economy to a market economy. This shift has led to massive industrialisation, increased exports and considerable investment in infrastructure. Today, China is the world's second largest economy, playing a central role in global supply chains and international investment. Each of these countries, while sharing some of the common characteristics of emerging markets, such as rapid economic growth and gradual integration into the global economy, has followed a distinct path, influenced by its own history, culture, politics and economic conditions. Their growing role in the global economy underlines the importance and diversity of development trajectories in today's globalised world.

Influence and Consequences of the Colonial Pact

The notion of emerging countries transcends the simple framework of colonial heritage, although some of these countries have a colonial past. These nations are primarily characterised by rapid economic and social development, without being considered fully developed or industrialised. Their path to emergence is often marked by a unique combination of historical, economic and political factors.

Take China and India, which, despite periods of foreign domination, have long histories as distinct civilisations. Their rise as emerging economic powers has been largely independent of their colonial pasts. China, for example, since the economic reforms of 1978, has undergone a radical transformation from a planned to a market economy, resulting in spectacular economic growth and a significant increase in its GDP. On the other hand, there are countries such as Brazil and African nations whose development trajectories have been influenced by their colonial history. However, their classification as emerging markets has more to do with their current economic performance and growth potential. For example, Brazil, despite the legacy of its colonial past, has made significant progress in developing its industry and agricultural sector, positioning itself as a major emerging economy on the world stage.

It is also crucial to recognise that many emerging countries have experienced distinct developments, influenced by a variety of factors such as government policies, natural resources, technological innovation and fluctuations in the global economy. The term "colonial pact", which historically refers to the restrictive economic policies imposed by colonial powers on their colonies, is not particularly relevant to understanding the modern dynamics of emerging countries. These countries, in all their diversity, demonstrate a capacity to develop and adapt beyond the historical framework of colonialism, forging their own paths to economic growth and social progress.

Analysis of the economies of emerging countries reveals echoes of the legacy of colonialism, particularly in the extractive sector. Historically, during the colonial era, colonies were used primarily as sources of raw materials for the colonial powers. This dynamic seems to persist in some emerging countries, where natural resources continue to be extracted without significant local processing, thereby limiting local added value. Take the example of African countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, which is rich in precious minerals but where most of the resources extracted are exported in raw form. This prevents the development of local processing industries and keeps the country in the role of a supplier of raw materials.

However, the global economic landscape has changed considerably since colonial times. With the emergence of new economic powers such as China and India, competition for raw materials has intensified. These countries, needing resources to fuel their own industrial growth, have become major players, competing with the traditionally dominant Western countries. This change in dynamic offers commodity-producing countries new negotiating opportunities. For example, China, in its quest to secure supplies of resources, has invested massively in Africa, creating a competitive environment that can potentially benefit producing countries. This new situation allows these countries to play on competition to obtain better commercial conditions and encourage investment. Nevertheless, the challenge for these emerging countries remains to transform this advantage into more sustainable and balanced economic development. The aim is not just to exploit natural resources, but to extend development to other economic sectors. So, although emerging countries are gradually moving away from colonial economic dynamics, parallels in the extractive industry underline the continuing challenges they face as they move towards autonomous and diversified economic development.

In analysing emerging economies, particularly in the extractive industries, a complex and nuanced picture emerges, juxtaposing progress and limitations. Despite the advances linked to globalisation and market diversification, these countries face structural challenges that are holding back their development. One of the main obstacles is the continued production of raw materials that are not processed locally. This dependence on export monopolies makes these economies vulnerable to fluctuations in world markets. Take the example of oil-dependent countries such as Venezuela: the fall in oil prices has led to a deep economic crisis, demonstrating the fragility of an economy based on a single resource. Foreign ownership of many extractive industries in emerging countries is another problem. The profits generated are often repatriated to the companies' countries of origin, mainly in the Western world, limiting the economic spin-offs for producing countries. This situation is illustrated by mining in Africa, where a large proportion of the profits are transferred out of the continent, leaving little benefit for local economies. Technological dependence on Western countries is also a problem. Most of the technology used in the extraction of natural resources comes from outside, with little transfer of skills to local workers. This prevents the development of local expertise and keeps these countries in a position of dependence. The sustainability of resources is also a major concern. For example, oil, a finite resource, is at the heart of the economies of many emerging countries. Its future scarcity poses a major challenge to long-term development. Some countries, such as the United Arab Emirates, have anticipated this problem by investing oil revenues in other sectors to diversify their economies, but this approach is not universal. These challenges underline the need for emerging countries to adopt more diversified and autonomous economic strategies. The road to sustainable economic development is strewn with obstacles, including dependence on foreign-controlled extractive industries, lack of local processing of raw materials, profit leakage and technological dependence. These challenges call for reflection on the development of economic policies that promote more balanced growth and greater autonomy to ensure a sustainable and prosperous future.

The recent evolution of emerging economies has been characterised by a remarkable transformation in the manufacturing and services sectors, challenging the traditional image of these countries as mere exporters of raw materials. This transition has been underpinned by increased competitive capacity and the emergence of new middle classes with diversified consumption needs. The most striking example of this development is China, which has established itself as a global giant in a variety of fields, including textiles, electronics, domestic appliances and IT. Thanks to an affordable workforce and an effective industrial strategy, China has not only dominated certain markets, such as textiles, but has also redefined global production chains. Indeed, the country has managed to align itself with the demands of the global market while maintaining competitive production costs, which has had a profound influence on the global economy.

Alongside the rise of manufacturing, the service sector in emerging countries has also seen significant growth, which is often underestimated. India, for example, has excelled in information technology and financial services, contributing to its own re-industrialisation and stronger integration into the global economy. This expansion of the services sector is largely due to the emergence of middle classes with increasingly sophisticated consumption needs, generating growing demand for a varied range of services. This evolution of emerging economies towards more diversified and resilient structures is a significant development. It indicates a move towards more balanced economies, able to better withstand the fluctuations of global markets and navigate a constantly changing economic landscape. The example of India, which has succeeded in developing a dynamic services sector alongside its manufacturing industry, bears witness to this transformation. The simultaneous growth of the manufacturing industry and the service sector in emerging countries marks an important stage in their economic development. By adapting and innovating, these countries are redefining their role in the global economy and demonstrating the importance of a more comprehensive and diversified approach to their development. This dynamic reflects their growing ability to compete on the international stage, far beyond the simple export of natural resources.

This table shows the evolution of the major economic sectors in China between 1978 and 2004, detailing the percentages of employment and contribution to GDP for the primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.

Primary sector (Agriculture, fishing, etc.): In 1978, the primary sector was dominant in China, accounting for 71% of employment and contributing 28% of GDP. By 2004, these figures had fallen significantly to 47% for employment and 13% for GDP. This decline reflects a major economic transition from agriculture to industrialisation and services. Historically, China's Economic Reform in 1978 marked the beginning of this transition, with the introduction of policies aimed at decentralising economic control and encouraging the private sector, as well as opening up to international trade and foreign investment. Secondary sector (Industry, Construction, etc.): The secondary sector has seen a relative increase in employment, from 17% in 1978 to 23% in 2004, and has maintained a stable contribution to GDP of around 46%. This reflects China's rapid industrialisation, propelled by economic reforms that have attracted foreign investment and made China a global manufacturing centre. Manufacturing, in particular, has benefited from abundant and cheap labour, becoming a major pillar of the country's economic growth. Tertiary sector (Services, etc.): The tertiary sector has seen the most significant growth, with an increase in employment from 12% in 1978 to 30% in 2004, and a contribution to GDP rising from 24% to 41% over the same period. This growth is indicative of the diversification of the Chinese economy and the development of a robust services sector. Economic reforms have facilitated the emergence of new service sectors, such as finance, retail and information technology, which have benefited from rising domestic demand and an expanding middle class.

China's transition from an agrarian economy to one based on manufacturing and services has had profound consequences both nationally and internationally. Nationally, it has led to significant socio-economic changes, including urbanisation, the emergence of a large middle class and changes in the structure of employment. Internationally, China has become a major economic player, influencing global supply chains, financial markets and trade balances. However, this rapid growth has also presented challenges, including growing inequality, environmental problems caused by industrialisation and the need for ongoing reforms to ensure sustainable growth. These data reflect China's successful transformation into a global economic power, while highlighting the challenges the country still faces in maintaining its growth trajectory and managing its social and environmental impacts.

This graph illustrates the evolution of GDP per capita in China from 1953 to 2001. The data, based on constant 1980 prices, show almost constant growth in GDP per capita over this period, with a notable acceleration from the late 1970s. In the years leading up to 1978, China, under the regime of Mao Zedong, implemented socialist economic policies that included the collectivisation of agriculture and industrialisation through five-year plans. These policies had varied and sometimes devastating results, such as the Great Famine caused by the Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

From 1978, under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, China initiated economic reforms that marked the beginning of China's opening up and transition to a socialist market economy. These reforms included the decollectivisation of agriculture, the authorisation of private enterprise, the opening up to foreign investment and the modernisation of state-owned enterprises. The result was a period of unprecedented economic growth, as evidenced by the rise in GDP per capita. The acceleration in GDP per capita growth after 1978 can be attributed to rapid industrialisation, increased exports, infrastructure investment and urbanisation. China became a major global manufacturing powerhouse, exploiting its competitive advantage in labour costs to become the world's leading exporter of manufactured goods.

The consequences of this growth have been far-reaching. Domestically, hundreds of millions of people have been lifted out of poverty, creating a new middle class and profoundly changing the country's social and economic structure. However, this rapid growth has also led to regional inequalities, serious environmental problems and a growing need for political and economic reforms to manage the economy in a more sustainable way. Internationally, China's economic growth has changed the balance of global economic power. China has become a major player in world affairs, with significant influence over global commodity markets, supply chains and international financial flows. This growth has also raised questions about industrial competitiveness, international trade, intellectual property rights and diplomatic relations. This chart not only illustrates China's remarkable achievement in terms of per capita economic growth, but also highlights the internal and external challenges that this rapid growth has created.

Distinctive characteristics of emerging countries

Emerging countries are characterised by a specific combination of socio-economic and demographic factors that distinguish them from developed nations and frontier markets. Historically, these countries have often started from low levels of income and development, but have rapidly industrialised and shown significant potential for continued economic growth. China and India, for example, have undergone rapid expansion of their manufacturing sectors, drawing on a large and young workforce to become global workshops in areas such as electronics, textiles and automobiles. These nations generally have rapidly growing populations and a substantial proportion of young people ready to enter the labour market. However, transforming this demographic wealth into productive human capital requires considerable investment in education and vocational training. Historical examples include countries such as South Korea and Taiwan, which invested massively in education during the second half of the 20th century, contributing to their transition to high-income economies. Although infrastructure in emerging countries has improved, it often remains below world standards, representing both a brake and an opportunity for future development. For example, China's "One Belt, One Road" initiative aims to improve infrastructure and trade connections across Asia, Europe and Africa, promising to boost trade and economic growth.

Emerging countries face significant challenges, including high levels of poverty and social inequality that require government action and international cooperation. In Latin America, for example, despite decades of growth, countries such as Brazil and Mexico are still struggling with extreme inequality and inadequate infrastructure. When it comes to governance, emerging countries present a varied picture, with some making significant progress towards greater political stability and improved governance, while others are hampered by corruption and weak institutional capacity. Political instability can deter foreign investors, as has been the case in parts of Africa and the Middle East. However, despite these challenges, emerging countries continue to attract the attention of international investors because of their economic growth rates, which are often higher than those of developed economies. Their economic dynamism, coupled with their growing role in world affairs, makes them key players in the international economy of the 21st century. In short, the journey of emerging countries is marked by exceptional growth potential, but also by the need to address social and governance issues to realise this potential to the full.

In their quest for economic modernisation, emerging countries have often succeeded in transforming their economies through a development model built around manufacturing and services. This transformation is reflected in strong GDP growth, as illustrated by countries such as China, which has seen its national wealth increase at an impressive rate since the opening up of the economy in the late 1970s. The industrialisation of these nations has created industries capable of transforming raw materials into finished products with high added value, thereby increasing their competitiveness. India, for example, has seen a boom in the manufacture of products ranging from automobiles to information technology, making a significant contribution to its GDP. Exporting industrial products has become a mark of success for emerging countries, which have moved beyond the old dynamics of the colonial pact to become conquering exporters. South Korea, by transforming its economy in the 1960s and 1970s, established world-renowned brands in electronics and automobiles. These countries have also embraced considerable economic openness, rejecting protectionism to exploit their comparative advantages. Nations such as Mexico and Brazil have embraced globalisation through free trade agreements, promoting deeper integration into the world economy. Finally, the domestic markets of these countries are expanding rapidly, driven by a growing population. Indonesia, with a population in excess of 270 million, has a growing middle class, creating a large domestic market for a variety of goods and services. Emerging countries have shown a remarkable ability to adapt and prosper in a changing global economic environment. Their sustained growth is the result of a combination of domestic economic factors and successful integration into global markets. However, for this growth to be sustainable and inclusive, it is essential that these countries continue to strengthen their political and social institutions, to ensure a fair distribution of the benefits of growth and to maintain economic stability.

World Panorama of Emerging Countries

Emerging countries are a diverse group of nations that have undergone rapid and significant economic transition. They span several continents and include both demographic giants such as China and India, and smaller but dynamic economies such as Singapore and Chile.

Mexico and Brazil in Latin America, for example, have developed major manufacturing industries and dynamic service sectors. Argentina and Venezuela are also considered emerging markets, although the Venezuelan economy has been heavily impacted by its dependence on oil and recent political crises. In Asia, China has established itself as an economic superpower, with dazzling growth since the 1980s. South Korea has achieved the miracle on the Han River, moving from an agriculture-based economy to an advanced industrial economy in just a few decades. Taiwan, Malaysia and Thailand have also become major centres of production and export, with high-tech industries and the production of consumer goods. In Europe, countries such as Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary integrated the European economy after the fall of communism, turning to free market models and joining the European Union. South Africa and Egypt, representing the African continent, have shown signs of economic growth and development, albeit unevenly and in the face of significant challenges. Oil-rich countries such as Saudi Arabia have sought to diversify their economies to reduce their dependence on hydrocarbons, recognising that their sole source of wealth represents a long-term vulnerability, especially in a context of global energy transition and oil price volatility.

These emerging countries are therefore a heterogeneous mix with varied economic trajectories. Their classification as "emerging countries" reflects not only their growth potential but also the challenges they face in the globalised world. Despite the risks and difficulties, their contribution to the global economy is considerable, and their influence continues to grow in international affairs.

The BRICS: Emerging Powers and their Global Impact

Maps of the BRICS countries.

The BRICS countries embody a new dynamic in the global economy, bringing together five nations that collectively signal a potential shift in economic and political power towards emerging economies. Brazil, with its extensive agricultural sector and abundant natural resources, has positioned itself as an economic leader in Latin America. Russia, with its vast hydrocarbon reserves, has played and continues to play a crucial role in global energy supply. India, with its booming population and rapidly expanding service sector, particularly in information technology, has established itself as a major economic power. China, with its rapid industrial transformation and status as the world's leading exporter, has reshaped production and international trade chains. South Africa, meanwhile, has emerged as the leading economy on the African continent, with a relatively advanced financial and industrial sector.

The recent economic history of these countries reflects a growth and transformation that defies the old divisions of the world into developed and undeveloped. For example, since China opened up to foreign trade and investment in the 1980s, it has experienced unprecedented economic growth, resulting in a significant increase in its GDP and its influence in world affairs. India, by deregulating its economy and adopting market reforms in the 1990s, launched a period of rapid economic growth, marked by a significant expansion of its technology sector and rising living standards. These countries have also sought to extend their influence beyond their economic borders through diplomacy and multilateral institutions, as evidenced by the creation of the New Development Bank by the BRICS. This effort is designed to finance infrastructure and sustainable development projects and can be seen as a counterpoint to traditional Western financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF.

Despite their collective rise, the BRICS are not without challenges. They each face internal inequalities, needs for political and economic reform, and issues of environmental sustainability. In addition, their internal differences in terms of economic structure and domestic policy pose challenges to their cohesion as a bloc. Nevertheless, the emergence of the BRICS as a significant bloc in the global economy is symptomatic of a changing world, where emerging economies are playing an increasingly central role and economic and political power is becoming more diffuse. This trend points to a possible reordering of global economic hierarchies and offers a glimpse of a future in which emerging economies could play a leading role in determining the directions of global growth and development.

The term BRIC, which initially encompassed Brazil, Russia, India and China, was coined in 2001 by Goldman Sachs economist Jim O'Neill to identify the high-growth economies that he believed would shape the future of global investment. The idea was to recognise these markets not only for their size but also for their potential for future growth and global influence. Later, South Africa was added to the group, which became BRICS. For the world of finance and investment, the BRICS represent an opportunity to enter fast-growing markets. These economies have undergone rapid development, characterised by increasing urbanisation, a growing middle class, rising consumer spending and major infrastructure initiatives. Investing in the BRICS therefore offers exposure to a growth dynamic that may be less present in more mature and saturated economies. However, the opportunities offered by the BRICS come with a distinct risk profile. Fluctuations in emerging markets can be more pronounced, with higher political, regulatory and economic risks. For example, Russia has often been perceived as a high-risk market due to its political challenges and international sanctions, while the Chinese economy, despite its immense potential, also faces concerns over transparency and debt sustainability.

For investors considering the BRICS, a thorough assessment is essential. This means understanding not only economic indicators but also the political nuances, government policies, demographic trends and sectoral outlook specific to each country. Investors also need to consider currency volatility, corporate governance and legal stability, which can vary considerably from country to country. Ultimately, investing in the BRICS can offer substantial potential returns, but it requires thorough due diligence and a nuanced understanding of local market environments. With the right mix of caution and optimism, investors can find unique opportunities in the BRICS to diversify their portfolios and participate in the growth of what could be tomorrow's dominant economic powers.

Investing in the BRICS countries, which include Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa, represents an attractive but complex opportunity in the global investment landscape. These economies, renowned for their rapid growth and market potential, are attracting investors looking to diversify their portfolios and take advantage of developing markets. Historically, these countries have undergone a remarkable economic transformation. China, for example, has evolved from a closed planned economy to a global manufacturing powerhouse since the economic reforms of the late 1970s. India, with its economy liberalised in the 1990s, has seen considerable expansion in the services and technology sectors. Brazil and Russia, rich in natural resources, have experienced periods of significant economic growth thanks to the export of these resources. However, there are inherent challenges in investing in these countries. Economic fluctuations, political and regulatory changes, and geopolitical risks can affect the stability and predictability of investments. In Russia, for example, investors have to navigate against a backdrop of international sanctions and fluctuating domestic politics. In China, restrictions on foreign investment and concerns about corporate transparency can present obstacles. South Africa, as the newest member of the BRICS, illustrates both the opportunities and challenges associated with investing in emerging economies. As Africa's most advanced economy, it offers access to a growing continental market, but also faces internal challenges such as infrastructure problems and social inequalities. For investors, the key to success in the BRICS lies in a thorough understanding of local market conditions and the specific characteristics of each country. This requires not only an analysis of economic trends and financial data, but also an appreciation of the political and social contexts that can influence investment performance.

This graph shows changes in total GDP for the USA, Japan and China from 1960 to 2007. Three distinct trends emerge from this graph. Firstly, the US shows sustained and dominant GDP growth over the period shown. This reflects the United States' position as the world's leading economy throughout the second half of the 20th century and into the 21st century, driven by its technological leadership, robust service sector and capacity for innovation. Japan, after a period of rapid economic growth in the 1960s to 1980s, known as the 'Japanese economic miracle', has shown stabilisation and slower GDP growth since the 1990s. This period corresponds to the bursting of the property and stock market bubble in Japan, leading to a period of economic stagnation often referred to as the 'lost decade'. As for China, the graph illustrates a spectacular change in its GDP growth from the 1980s onwards, following the implementation of Deng Xiaoping's economic reforms in 1978. These reforms, which introduced elements of the market economy into the socialist planned economy, led to a period of explosive economic growth, making China one of the fastest growing economies in the world. The consequences of these trends are manifold. China's economic growth has had a significant impact on the global economy, including reducing poverty for hundreds of millions of its citizens, increasing global competition, particularly in manufacturing sectors, and expanding its geopolitical influence. The shift of manufacturing production to China has also had repercussions for developed economies, including de-industrialisation in some regions and the need for economies such as the US and Japan to adapt by focusing more on services and high-tech sectors. China's rise has also posed strategic challenges for the US, particularly in terms of trade policy and technological leadership. For Japan, China's growing presence in East Asia has led to economic and political adjustments, as it seeks to strengthen its own technology industries and maintain a significant role in regional economic dynamics. This chart captures a period of significant economic transformation, highlighting the rapid rise of China and the continued presence of the United States as the world's leading economy, while Japan adjusts its position in a changing global economy.

This chart shows quarterly GDP growth for the European Union, Japan, the United States, India and China before and after the shock of the 2008 financial crisis, comparing each quarter with the same period the previous year. It can be seen that all the blocs and countries presented, with the exception of China and India, experienced a sharp contraction in economic growth in 2008. The European Union and Japan showed the most pronounced declines, with growth rates turning negative, indicating a recession. The United States, although affected, showed a slightly better resilience, with a shallower recession than the European Union and Japan.

The 2008 financial crisis, triggered by the collapse of the US housing market and the ensuing banking crisis, quickly had global repercussions. Advanced economies, highly integrated into the global financial system and dependent on credit, were the hardest hit. The European Union was particularly affected because of its close links with the US financial system, and the crisis exacerbated structural weaknesses within the eurozone, leading to the European sovereign debt crisis. Japan, which had not fully overcome the stagnation of its 'lost decade', was hit by the global slowdown, which curbed its exports and weakened its economic growth. This led to unprecedented monetary and fiscal stimulus policies, known as Abenomics, launched by Prime Minister Shinzo Abe in 2012 with the aim of revitalising the Japanese economy. In contrast, China and India have shown continued positive growth throughout the crisis, although China's growth slowed in 2008 compared to previous years. This was partly due to China's rapid response to the crisis, launching a massive fiscal stimulus package and maintaining accommodative monetary policies to stimulate domestic investment and consumption. The long-term impact of this crisis on developed economies has included prolonged low interest rates, increased financial regulation and ongoing discussions about austerity versus stimulus policies. For emerging economies such as China and India, the crisis has underlined the importance of economic diversification and stimulating domestic demand to protect against external shocks. This chart captures a critical moment in recent economic history, highlighting the vulnerability of interconnected economies to systemic shocks and the diversity of economic responses and resilience across the globe.

These two charts offer insights into the economic development and resilience of the BRICS countries over important periods. The first chart, which shows changes in total GDP for the US, Japan and China, highlights the rapid economic growth of China, a key member of the BRICS. It illustrates how, since the economic reforms of 1978, China has experienced an economic ascent that has led it to rival the world's largest economies. This demonstrates the significant impact of opening-up and economic modernisation policies on the growth of emerging countries. The second chart, representing the reaction of the economies of the European Union, Japan, the United States, India and China to the shock of the 2008 financial crisis, shows the relative resilience of India and China during this period. While the advanced economies suffered recessions, India and China continued to record positive growth, albeit more modestly in the case of China. This underlines the ability of the BRICS to maintain economic growth despite the global crises, thanks in part to their large domestic markets and proactive economic policies. Taken together, these charts suggest that the BRICS, and China and India in particular, have become key drivers of global economic growth, able to withstand external economic pressures and maintain positive growth trajectories. They illustrate the shift in the global economic centre of gravity towards emerging economies, which are playing an increasingly influential role in global economic stability and growth.

The trajectory of the BRICS countries is fraught with challenges that threaten to hold back their economic expansion. Poverty, which is still pervasive, and glaring inequality are entrenched realities. In South Africa, for example, the spectre of apartheid still hangs over the distribution of wealth and access to economic opportunities. In Brazil, favelisation bears witness to economic disparities and social exclusion, despite a growing economy. Education and health, two essential pillars of sustainable development, are still far from universally accessible within the BRICS. India, with its huge population, faces a colossal challenge: transforming its youth into an educated and healthy workforce capable of sustaining its growth. In China, the challenge is different but just as pressing: an ageing population threatens to reverse the demographic advantage that has long been a driver of its economic growth. Economic dependence is another Achilles heel. Russia, whose economy is heavily dependent on hydrocarbon exports, finds itself vulnerable to fluctuations in world energy markets. Brazil, for its part, has to contend with the volatility of its commodity exports. Internal political turbulence, from corruption scandals to government instability, is a further brake, sowing doubts among foreign investors and discouraging local investment. In addition, climate change and related natural disasters, such as droughts and floods affecting agriculture, are putting a strain on the BRICS' ability to sustain economic growth. Finally, competition from new economic players with lower production costs is eroding the BRICS' competitive edge. The ability of these countries to navigate through these challenges, diversify their economies and improve governance will define their economic future. It is imperative for them to design policies that not only stimulate growth but also make it inclusive and sustainable, ensuring shared prosperity that goes beyond GDP figures.

Agricultural Processing and Marketing

Land fragmentation is a common phenomenon in regions such as South Asia, where rapid population growth has put immense pressure on agricultural resources. In countries such as India, population growth has led to the repeated division of agricultural land across generations, resulting in plots so small that their productive potential is significantly reduced. This practice, exacerbated by traditional inheritance systems, has led to a decline in productivity and, as a result, a growing number of farmers are living in precarious conditions.

Historically, land subdivision has been a method of ensuring the equitable distribution of land within families. However, with changes in farming methods and increasing populations, this practice is no longer viable. Small farms cannot benefit from the economies of scale needed for modern agriculture, nor can they adopt intensive methods that could compensate for their limited size. In India, for example, the average farm size has fallen from 2.3 hectares in 1970-71 to 1.08 hectares in 2015-16, reflecting the continuing trend towards fragmentation. Alternative farming methods, such as vertical farming or hydroponics, which can theoretically increase production on smaller areas, remain difficult to implement for smallholders who lack capital and technical knowledge. Even traditional techniques such as agroforestry, which can improve the productivity of small farms, require a change of perspective and training that is not readily available to all farmers.

Political and legislative interventions are needed to address land fragmentation. Initiatives to consolidate land or create agricultural cooperatives could help, but they must be sensitively designed to respect local traditions and property rights. Land reforms must also be accompanied by improved access to credit and agricultural education to enable farmers to modernise their practices. Without a comprehensive strategy that addresses both the economic and social aspects of agriculture, the challenges of land fragmentation will continue to threaten the viability of small farmers and the food security of nations. This requires a long-term commitment from governments, financial institutions and farming communities themselves to transform the agricultural sector to support those who depend on it most.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have been introduced as an innovative solution to the challenges posed by the global population explosion. By increasing crops' resistance to herbicides and their ability to resist pests, GMOs promise to improve agricultural yields and food security. Genetically modified maize and soya, introduced to the US market in 1995 and shortly afterwards to Europe by Novartis in 1998, are among the most notable examples of this technology. The adoption of GMOs was driven by the need to increase agricultural production to feed an ever-growing world population. Indeed, estimates suggest that GMOs have made it possible to increase yields by 20-25%, offering a partial response to demographic pressure. This has proved particularly relevant in regions where agricultural conditions are difficult and food security is already precarious. However, the introduction of GMOs has also raised considerable concerns and debate. Environmental issues, such as the impact on biodiversity and the possibility of modified genes escaping into the wild, have been major sticking points. Similarly, concerns have been expressed about human health and consumer welfare. In Europe, the arrival of GMOs on the market was met with a degree of resistance, resulting in strict regulations and compulsory labelling. Public distrust of GMOs has been fuelled by fears of dependence on large seed companies and possible risks to health and the environment. The use of GMOs is therefore a complex issue that requires a balanced assessment of the potential benefits in terms of food safety and agricultural productivity, against environmental and health concerns. Although GMOs have the potential to alleviate some of the demographic pressure by increasing agricultural yields, their use continues to be the subject of public debate, scientific research and in-depth political deliberation.

The issue of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) raises many concerns that go beyond their potential to increase agricultural production. One of the main concerns is the long-term effects of GMOs on human health. Although vitamin-enriched GMOs, such as golden rice, have been developed to combat nutritional deficiencies, the long-term implications of GMO consumption remain open to debate and require further research. From an ecological point of view, the introduction of GMOs into the environment raises complex issues concerning biodiversity and ecosystems. Effects on non-target species, resistance to herbicides and insecticides, and gene transfer to non-modified plants are potential problems that require rigorous management and monitoring. From an economic point of view, the development and marketing of GMOs involves significant research and development costs, often borne by large agrochemical companies. This creates a market where GM seeds are protected by patents, making them expensive for farmers to purchase, particularly smallholders who may not have the means to invest in these expensive technologies. This can exacerbate existing inequalities in farming communities, where wealthier producers or large corporations can reap the benefits of GMOs, while small farmers risk being left behind. The adoption of GMOs therefore has social and economic repercussions that go far beyond increased yields. It raises issues of social justice, fair access to resources and food sovereignty. Dependence on patented seeds can also limit farmers' ability to practise seed saving, an age-old tradition that is the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture.

The development of export agriculture represents a major change in the global agricultural sector, particularly in developing countries. Over the last few decades, a growing number of farming families, who traditionally practised subsistence agriculture, have turned to commercial farming. This transition has been driven in part by the growing demand for agricultural products, particularly tropical produce, due to the rise of the world's middle classes. Export agriculture offers new economic opportunities for farmers. It gives them access to larger and potentially more lucrative markets, helping to improve their livelihoods. For example, countries such as Kenya and Côte d'Ivoire have seen significant growth in their agricultural export sectors, particularly in products such as coffee, tea and cocoa. However, this development is accompanied by challenges and potentially negative consequences. The transition to export agriculture can lead to increased competition for agricultural land. Small farmers, in particular, may find themselves under pressure from large agribusinesses or foreign investors seeking to capitalise on the growing demand for agricultural products. This competition for land can threaten basic food security, particularly when land used for subsistence crops is converted to export crops. In addition, dependence on export markets can make farmers vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices and the demands of international buyers, potentially exacerbating economic insecurity. For example, a fall in world coffee prices can have a devastating impact on farmers who depend on this crop for their income. So, while export agriculture can offer significant economic benefits, it must be managed in a way that ensures equity and sustainability. Agricultural policies must balance market opportunities with the need to preserve access to land for small farmers and guarantee food security. This can include support for agricultural cooperatives, regulation of land purchases by foreign investors, and the development of policies that promote diversified agriculture, both for export and for subsistence.

The case of Vietnam illustrates how demographic challenges and land constraints can lead to significant transformations in agricultural practices and export models. With a rapidly growing population and a limited amount of arable land, particularly in the densely populated delta regions, Vietnam has had to look for creative solutions to support its agricultural development. The migration of farmers from overpopulated deltas to mountainous areas to develop tea plantations is an example of this adaptation. This approach has not only helped to relieve demographic pressure in the delta regions, but has also opened up new economic opportunities in the mountain areas, which were previously less exploited for agriculture. Vietnam's most remarkable success in the agricultural sector is undoubtedly its transformation into a coffee exporting power. At the end of the 20th century, Vietnam was a coffee importer, but thanks to targeted investment and an effective agricultural strategy, it has become the world's second or third largest coffee exporter, depending on the year. This success is attributable to the conversion of suitable agricultural land to coffee growing, particularly in the central and southern regions, and the adoption of intensive production techniques. However, this rapid transformation has also given rise to ecological and social concerns. Extensive monoculture, such as coffee, can lead to soil degradation, intensive use of water and chemicals, and impacts on biodiversity. In addition, dependence on a single export crop exposes farmers to fluctuations in world prices, which can affect their economic stability. As Vietnam navigates these challenges, it must continue to balance its agricultural development with environmental sustainability and economic resilience. This could involve diversifying crops, adopting more sustainable farming practices and putting in place social protection measures to support farmers in the event of market price fluctuations.

The move towards speculative agriculture in developing countries, such as that seen in Vietnam, is a response to global economic dynamics, but it raises considerable paradoxes and challenges. This form of agriculture, focused on growing crops for export or the global market, can offer farmers the opportunity to generate higher incomes. However, it often leads to dependence on price fluctuations on international markets and can lead to a paradoxical situation where farmers sell their produce to buy their own food. This trend is particularly pronounced in regions where land, once used for subsistence crops, is now dedicated to cash crops. While this may seem beneficial in terms of income, it leaves farmers vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices and can make them dependent on imports for their own food consumption. Agriculture in southern countries is generally unable to compete with that in richer countries, often because of differences in subsidies, technology, infrastructure and access to markets. Farmers in developing countries face major challenges such as lack of access to modern technologies, inadequate infrastructure and lack of institutional support. The example of Vietnam and its rice exports is a perfect illustration of the potential repercussions of this dependence. When Vietnam suspended its rice exports, it caused disruption on international markets, demonstrating the vulnerability of global food systems. This decision, although taken in the interests of protecting national food security, had repercussions far beyond its borders, reflecting the interconnectedness of global agricultural markets. This highlights the need for a balanced approach to agricultural policy that not only maximises farmers' incomes, but also protects their food security and that of the world. Solutions could include crop diversification, the development of more resilient and sustainable agriculture, and policies that support small-scale farmers while stabilising global food markets.

The adoption of export-oriented agriculture, focusing on specific crops in high demand on the world market, has been an economic development strategy adopted by many developing countries. This approach, while promoting economic development, is based on a delicate balance, subject to the vagaries of world prices. Historically, countries such as those in Latin America, which have concentrated on monocultures such as coffee or bananas, have experienced periods of prosperity followed by acute economic crises when world prices for these products fell. For example, the coffee crisis of the 1990s led to a drastic fall in income for millions of coffee growers, underlining the vulnerability inherent in over-reliance on a single export crop. In addition to the economic risks, monoculture also presents ecological challenges. It can lead to soil exhaustion and greater vulnerability to plant diseases, threatening the long-term sustainability of agriculture. These ecological impacts have been observed in countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia with intensive palm oil cultivation, leading to environmental problems such as deforestation and loss of biodiversity. In social terms, this approach can make farmers even more precarious. Periods of high world market prices may bring temporary prosperity, but when prices collapse, farmers who have invested in monoculture may find themselves unable to cover their costs, increasing indebtedness and economic insecurity. This has been illustrated by the recurrent agricultural crises in countries dependent on single export crops. Although the shift towards export crops has brought significant economic benefits to some countries, it has also exposed them to significant economic, ecological and social risks. To mitigate these risks, it is crucial to implement strategies for agricultural diversification, sustainable resource management and support for farmers, in order to guarantee long-term economic stability and preserve the ecosystems on which agriculture relies.

Agricultural support policies in developed countries, and their interaction with the World Trade Organisation (WTO), raise complex questions about their impact on the agricultural economies of developing countries. One aspect of this issue concerns international food aid, such as that provided by the World Food Programme (WFP), and the other concerns agricultural subsidy policies, such as the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). The World Food Programme transports foodstuffs, mainly cereals, from developed countries such as the United States and European countries to developing countries. Although this aid is intended to combat hunger and respond to food emergencies, it has been criticised for its potentially negative effects on local agricultural development, particularly in Africa. The distribution of free or heavily subsidised food can destabilise local markets, as imported products find themselves in direct competition with local production. This can prevent local farmers from developing their activities, as they are unable to compete with import prices. On the other hand, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy heavily subsidises its agricultural sector, which has often led to overproduction. These surpluses are sometimes exported to developing countries at subsidised prices, competing directly with local agricultural products. This situation has been criticised for hampering the development of agriculture in developing countries by making their products less competitive on the international market. Indeed, agricultural subsidies in developed countries and food aid policies have been points of contention in world trade negotiations. Developing countries argue that these practices distort world trade and limit their ability to develop their own agricultural sectors. Although the intention behind food aid and agricultural subsidies is often to support struggling populations and stabilise national agricultural sectors, these practices can have unintended consequences, notably by preventing the development of agriculture in southern countries. This is a complex area requiring a balance between the immediate needs of food security and the long-term objectives of sustainable agricultural development and fair trade.

Towards Sustainable Development

The World Bank's 2000 report "The Quality of Growth" offers an important perspective on development models, emphasising that the quality of growth is as crucial as its quantity. This report highlights several strategic areas for sustainable and equitable development. Firstly, investment in education is seen as essential. Training and education are drivers of sustainable growth because they improve human capital, which is essential for a dynamic and innovative economy. A well-educated population is better equipped to contribute to economic growth, participate productively in the labour market and adapt to technological change. For example, countries that have invested heavily in education, such as South Korea, have experienced rapid economic growth and significant improvements in living conditions. Secondly, environmental protection is highlighted. Recognising the real value of natural resources and establishing clear property rights are essential to prevent over-exploitation and environmental degradation. This often involves setting prices that reflect the ecological cost of resource use and encourage conservation and more sustainable use. Thirdly, steady economic growth is preferred to extreme fluctuations. Poor populations are particularly vulnerable to economic crises, which can rapidly reduce development gains and exacerbate poverty. Stable growth enables more effective planning and reduces the vulnerability of the most disadvantaged sections of society. Finally, the fight against corruption is essential. Corruption hinders growth by diverting resources, discouraging investment and distorting competition. Strong, transparent and accountable institutions are needed to ensure a fair distribution of resources and to support economic development. The World Bank report stresses that sustainable and equitable economic growth requires a holistic approach that goes beyond simply increasing GDP. It involves investment in human capital, environmental protection, economic stability and good governance, thereby creating the conditions for inclusive and sustainable development.

Since the 1990s, a series of international initiatives have been put in place to provide debt relief to developing countries, an essential step in enabling them to focus on social and economic development. The most notable of these initiatives is the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative, launched in 1996. Conceived by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, this initiative aimed to substantially reduce the debt burden of the most heavily indebted nations, subject to reforms and poverty reduction programmes. In 1999, in response to the need for deeper action, the HIPC initiative was strengthened to offer more substantial debt relief. This new phase enabled a greater number of countries to benefit from more flexible conditions and greater debt relief, in exchange for committing to more robust poverty reduction programmes. Alongside the HIPC initiative, other measures have been taken to provide debt relief to developing countries. Bilateral debt cancellation, new concessional lending facilities, and debt-for-development swaps, where debt is swapped for development commitments, have been key aspects of these efforts. These initiatives have had a significant impact on beneficiary countries. For example, Tanzania has benefited from the enhanced HIPC initiative, which has led to a significant reduction in its external debt and increased investment in key areas such as education and health. However, these programmes have not been without their critics. Some have argued that debt relief, while beneficial in the short term, does not address the root causes of underdevelopment and poverty. In addition, the conditions often imposed for debt relief, such as structural reforms, have sometimes been perceived as burdensome or as having negative social consequences. While debt relief initiatives have provided crucial support to many developing countries, enabling significant investment in social and economic development, they have also raised questions about how best to support equitable and sustainable long-term development. These initiatives illustrate the complexity of balancing immediate financial assistance with the need to address broader structural issues in the global economy.

In Brazil, the fight against poverty and the improvement of economic opportunities have been at the heart of various government initiatives over the years. One of the most emblematic is the Bolsa Família programme, launched in 2003. This conditional cash transfer programme was designed to provide direct financial support to families living in poverty and extreme poverty, provided they met certain requirements, such as vaccinating their children and ensuring they attended school. Bolsa Família has been widely praised for helping to reduce poverty and improve health and education indicators among beneficiaries. At the same time, Brazil has made considerable efforts to widen access to education and healthcare. Programmes such as the reform of higher education and the extension of health services to rural and underdeveloped regions have played a crucial role in improving access to essential services. On the economic front, policies aimed at stimulating growth and reducing inequality have been implemented, notably through increased investment in infrastructure and support for the development of small businesses. These policies have sought to create jobs, stimulate the economy and offer new opportunities to the most disadvantaged sections of the population. Despite these efforts, Brazil continues to face significant challenges in terms of poverty and inequality. Regional disparities, economic fluctuations and political crises have sometimes hampered progress. In addition, the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of some of these programmes, such as Bolsa Família, is a matter of debate, particularly with regard to their ability to offer sustainable solutions rather than palliative measures against poverty. Brazil's initiatives to combat poverty and improve economic opportunities have had a positive impact on the lives of many of its citizens, but the path to a sustainable reduction in poverty and inequality remains fraught with difficulties and requires ongoing commitments in terms of social and economic policies.

As part of its efforts to combat poverty, the Brazilian government has historically adopted a multifaceted approach to funding its social protection programmes. Initiatives such as Bolsa Família, which has played a key role in reducing poverty in Brazil, are financed through a mixture of tax revenues and borrowing. The financing of these programmes relies heavily on tax revenues, collected through various taxes and levies. The Brazilian tax system, which includes income taxes, sales taxes and social contributions, is the cornerstone of social policy funding. For example, Bolsa Família, launched in 2003, was supported by government funds from these revenues, lifting millions of Brazilians out of poverty and improving their quality of life.

At the same time, Brazil has also relied on borrowing, both nationally and internationally, to supplement the funding of its social initiatives. These loans can come from international organisations such as the World Bank, or through sovereign bonds on the financial markets. While this approach has helped to mobilise additional resources for anti-poverty programmes, it has also contributed to an increase in the country's public debt, posing challenges in terms of long-term financial sustainability. The private sector in Brazil also plays a role in financing the fight against poverty, albeit to a lesser extent than public funding. The contribution of businesses and non-governmental organisations, particularly through corporate philanthropy and public-private partnerships, has complemented government efforts. These partnerships can include direct donations to social programmes or community development initiatives designed to improve living conditions in disadvantaged regions.

However, managing these various sources of funding requires careful planning and coordination to ensure not only the effectiveness of the programmes, but also to maintain the country's fiscal balance. Debt dependency, in particular, must be carefully monitored to avoid excessive financial pressure on the national economy. The financing of social policies in Brazil, particularly in the fight against poverty, involves a delicate balance between the use of tax revenues, responsible borrowing and private sector participation. While these policies have had a significant positive impact on reducing poverty, their sustainability will depend on Brazil's ability to manage these sources of funding effectively.

Combating intergenerational poverty requires an integrated strategy that addresses the root causes of poverty while offering concrete ways to improve the economic situation of individuals and families. Historically, the most effective approach to breaking this cycle has involved significant investment in education and vocational training. For example, countries that have focused on universal education, such as South Korea in the decades following the Korean War, have seen remarkable improvements in terms of poverty reduction and economic growth. At the same time, social assistance programmes play a crucial role in providing support to low-income families. Initiatives such as Bolsa Família in Brazil have demonstrated how conditional cash transfers can not only provide immediate financial assistance, but also encourage long-term investment in health and education, helping to reduce poverty over several generations. Promoting economic growth and job creation is also essential. Countries that have succeeded in developing diversified and inclusive economies have shown significant progress in reducing poverty. For example, China, through its economic reforms since the 1980s, has created an environment conducive to business growth and employment, leading to a dramatic reduction in poverty. However, it is crucial to recognise that these measures cannot be fully effective without addressing structural and systemic inequalities. This means ensuring equitable access to resources and services for all sections of society and developing policies that promote social and economic equity.

Investing in education is a crucial factor in the economic and social development of emerging countries, having a profound and varied impact. Modern economic history offers many examples where education has played a decisive role in transforming societies. Take the example of South Korea, which invested massively in education in the years following the Korean War. This strategic choice led to the development of a highly skilled workforce, propelling the country from an agrarian economy to a global industrial and technological powerhouse. Not only has education improved individual productivity and skills, it has also fostered innovation and entrepreneurship, key elements in South Korea's economic miracle. Another example is India, specifically in regions such as Bangalore, where a focus on higher education and technical training has led to the creation of a thriving technology hub. The individuals trained in these institutions have been essential in establishing India as a leader in the IT sector, attracting international investment and creating millions of jobs.

Education also plays an important role in reducing poverty and inequality. It provides individuals with the tools they need to improve their economic situation, thus contributing to a fairer distribution of wealth. In countries such as Brazil, educational initiatives have helped to reduce inequalities and provide better opportunities for disadvantaged groups. However, this progress is not without its challenges. Investment in education must be sustained and accompanied by political and economic reforms to ensure its effectiveness. Furthermore, education must be adapted to the needs of the labour market to avoid a mismatch between the skills acquired and the employment opportunities available. Investment in education is a powerful driver of development for emerging countries. Not only does it improve individual economic prospects, it also contributes to overall economic growth, innovation and the reduction of inequalities. The successes of South Korea, India and Brazil demonstrate the transformative impact that quality education can have on a developing country.

The successful integration of skilled young people into the labour market is a crucial element in stimulating the economies of emerging countries. Historically, countries that have invested in the education and vocational training of their young people have reaped significant economic benefits. Take the example of South Korea, which, in the years following the Korean War, embarked on an ambitious education policy. This strategy produced a generation of highly skilled workers, propelling the country from an agricultural-based economy to an advanced industrial one. South Korea's skilled workforce has been a key factor in the development of cutting-edge industrial sectors such as electronics and automobiles, transforming the country into a major global economic player. Similarly, India, with its emphasis on higher and technical education, has created an abundance of skilled professionals, particularly in information technology. This has not only boosted the local economy, but has also attracted significant foreign investment, making India a global centre for IT and technology services. These skilled young people contribute to the economy not only through their productive work but also through their propensity to take up better-paid jobs. This translates into increased income and tax revenues for the government, enabling reinvestment in key areas such as public health and infrastructure. In addition, entrepreneurship among skilled young people is an important source of innovation and job creation. Start-ups and small businesses, often led by young entrepreneurs, are vital drivers of innovation and play a crucial role in creating new jobs. This entrepreneurial dynamism is evident in countries such as Brazil and Nigeria, where start-ups are making a significant contribution to the national economy.

Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) represent a major innovation in poverty alleviation strategies, particularly in developing countries. These programmes aim to provide direct financial support to low-income families, while encouraging them to invest in their own future through specific actions. An emblematic example of TCE is the Bolsa Família programme in Brazil. Launched in the early 2000s, it offers regular payments to families in exchange for a commitment to keep their children in school and ensure regular monitoring of their health. The programme has had a significant impact on reducing poverty and hunger, while increasing school attendance rates and improving child health. In Mexico, a similar programme called Oportunidades (formerly Progresa) has also demonstrated the effectiveness of CCTs. Beneficiaries receive payments in exchange for taking part in education, health and nutrition programmes. These initiatives have helped to improve the living conditions of millions of Mexicans, while providing a model of social policy that has been studied and emulated in other parts of the world. In India, programmes such as the National Child Protection Scheme offer conditional transfers to encourage school attendance and access to healthcare for children. These programmes aim to address the root causes of poverty by focusing on education and health, which are essential for long-term economic development. These cash payments not only meet the immediate needs of families, but are also an investment in the future. By ensuring children's education and health, CCTs help to break the cycle of intergenerational poverty. In addition, these programmes can stimulate the local economy, as the funds received are often spent on local goods and services. However, CCTs are not a one-size-fits-all solution and need to be integrated into a broader framework of social and economic policies. Effective implementation and monitoring are crucial to ensure that beneficiaries comply with conditions and that programmes achieve their poverty reduction objectives.

Adopted by the United Nations in 2000, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) marked a decisive step in the international fight against poverty. Comprising eight ambitious goals, the MDGs aimed to tackle the many facets of poverty and underdevelopment. These goals included reducing extreme poverty and hunger, ensuring universal primary education, promoting gender equality, reducing child and maternal mortality, combating HIV/AIDS and other diseases, preserving the environment, and strengthening global partnerships for development. Over the next 15 years, the MDGs have catalysed global efforts and led to significant progress in a number of areas. For example, access to primary education has improved considerably in many regions, and significant progress has been made in reducing child and maternal mortality and in combating HIV/AIDS and other diseases. However, the goals have not been fully achieved by the 2015 deadline. Progress has been uneven, with remarkable achievements in some regions and persistent gaps in others. This underlined the need for a more comprehensive and integrated approach to tackling the challenges of sustainable development. In response, the UN launched the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015. These 17 goals aim to build on the achievements of the MDGs while addressing their shortcomings. The SDGs cover a wide range of issues, including ending poverty in all its forms, tackling climate change, promoting peace and justice, and ensuring quality education for all. The ambition of the SDGs is to create a fairer, more prosperous and sustainable world by 2030.

From Debt Reduction to the Millennium Goals

The 1989 Brady Plan: A Turning Point in the Management of Southern Countries' Debt

Initiated in 1989 by Nicholas Brady, the US Treasury Secretary at the time, the Brady Plan was a key response to the debt crisis that was crippling many developing countries. The plan came at a time of global change, with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War redefining the geopolitical and economic stakes on a global scale. Before the introduction of the Brady Plan, a large number of countries in the South were in a precarious financial situation, with a significant proportion of their export revenues being absorbed by servicing their foreign debt. This situation had profound repercussions on their economic and social development, hampering their ability to invest in key areas such as education, health and infrastructure.

The Brady Plan provided an innovative solution to this debt crisis. It proposed debt restructuring, allowing indebted countries to renegotiate the terms of their obligations with creditors, notably private banks. The plan included measures such as reducing the principal of the debt and extending repayment terms. One of the key features of the plan was the purchase of debt by debtor countries at a price below its nominal value, thereby reducing their debt burden. This restructuring enabled several countries to significantly reduce their debt burden and redirect their financial resources towards economic and social development. For example, countries such as Mexico, which were heavily indebted, were able to benefit from this initiative to stabilise their economies and return to growth.

However, the Brady Plan was not without its flaws. Although it provided immediate relief, it did not address some of the root causes of debt in developing countries. Moreover, it imposed conditions that were sometimes criticised for their impact on the domestic economic policies of debtor countries. Despite these limitations, the Brady Plan was an important step towards a more nuanced understanding of debt problems in developing countries. It paved the way for other initiatives, such as the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative, which sought to take a more holistic approach to debt and development issues. Ultimately, the Brady Plan marked an evolution in international debt policy, recognising the need for a more co-operative and sustained approach to helping developing countries overcome their financial challenges.

The Brady Plan, launched in 1989, was a major intervention to alleviate the debt crisis in developing countries. The plan had several key components aimed at restructuring and easing the debt burden of these countries. The first and main component of the Brady Plan was debt restructuring. This involved renegotiating the terms of developing countries' debt with their creditors. The aim was to reduce the debt burden by reducing the principal owed or extending repayment schedules, thereby making the debt more manageable for debtor countries. Secondly, the plan provided for the granting of new loans to help countries meet their debt obligations. These loans, often from international financial institutions or bilateral creditors, were intended to provide countries with the resources to manage their restructured debt payments. A major innovation of the Brady Plan was the creation of "Brady bonds". These were restructured debt instruments issued by developing countries in exchange for their existing commercial debts. These bonds often came with partial guarantees of principal or interest, provided by bodies such as the World Bank or governments of creditor countries, making them more attractive to investors. The plan also called for greater transparency and accountability in the management of developing countries' debt. This was intended to boost investor confidence and ensure more effective and sustainable debt management. Although the Brady Plan was an important step in resolving the debt crisis of the 1980s, it was not a complete solution. It did, however, lay the foundations for more innovative and collaborative approaches to debt management in developing countries, and underlined the importance of financial transparency and accountability. By helping countries restructure their debt, the Brady Plan has enabled many countries to stabilise economically and refocus on growth and development.

The Brady Plan, named after Nicholas Brady, US Secretary of the Treasury in the late 1980s, is often seen as a successful and innovative intervention to resolve the debt crisis that plagued developing countries during that period. The plan marked a turning point in the way the international community approached the issue of developing country debt. The debt crisis of the 1980s had left many developing countries, particularly in Latin America and Africa, in a precarious economic situation. High levels of foreign debt and high interest rates led many countries into a cycle of recession and debt. Nicholas Brady, recognising the scale of the problem and its implications for global economic stability, proposed a bold plan to tackle the issue. The Brady Plan offered a structured approach to debt restructuring, allowing debt to be reduced or payments to be rescheduled to make the debt more manageable. Brady Bonds, introduced as part of the plan, enabled countries to transform their debt into tradable securities, often with some form of payment guarantee, making them more attractive to international investors.

The success of the Brady Plan lies in its pragmatic and flexible approach to debt restructuring. By easing the debt burden of developing countries, the plan has helped these countries to stabilise their economies, return to economic growth and redirect their resources towards investment in social and economic development. The Brady Plan also set a precedent for future debt restructuring initiatives. It demonstrated the importance of international cooperation and a coordinated approach to managing debt crises. This model has influenced subsequent policies and strategies, such as the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative and other debt restructuring programmes. The Brady Plan, through the involvement and vision of Nicholas Brady, was an important step in resolving the debt crisis of the 1980s and provided a framework for more effective and sustainable debt restructuring solutions in the future.

The Jubilee Year 2000: A Renewed Vision for Debt Relief

The Great Jubilee of the Year 2000, celebrated by the Catholic Church, was a landmark period of spiritual renewal and celebration at the dawn of the new millennium. It was part of a long tradition of jubilees in the Catholic Church, special occasions celebrated every 25 years, offering the faithful an opportunity for reflection, repentance and spiritual renewal. For the year 2000, the Jubilee took on a special significance, marking not only a new century but also a new millennium. Led by Pope John Paul II, the celebration encouraged Catholics around the world to contemplate the passage of time and to renew their faith and commitment to Christian teachings. The Jubilee was characterised by special ceremonies, pilgrimages and religious events around the world, with a particular focus on Rome, the centre of the Catholic Church. One of the notable aspects of the Jubilee Year 2000 was the call for reconciliation and peace. John Paul II encouraged the faithful to reflect on past mistakes, both personal and collective, and to seek reconciliation. This period was also marked by calls for social justice and solidarity with those most in need, underlining Catholic teachings on charity and compassion. The Great Jubilee was also an opportunity for the Church to become more open to inter-religious dialogue and to reflect on its place in a rapidly changing world. The Pope organised meetings with leaders of other religions, promoting a message of unity and peace between different spiritual traditions. The Jubilee of the Year 2000 left a lasting legacy of spiritual renewal within the Catholic Church and helped shape its direction for the new millennium. It symbolised a moment of transition, not only marking a historic moment, but also orienting the Church towards the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century.

The Great Jubilee of the Year 2000, declared by Pope John Paul II, was a significant celebration in the Catholic Church, marking the passage into the new millennium. The event attracted Catholics from all over the world, uniting the faithful in a time of spiritual reflection and renewal. The Holy Year, which ran from 24 December 1999 to 6 January 2001, was the culmination of the Jubilee. During this period, Catholics were encouraged to deepen their faith and to repent. A central aspect of the Holy Year was the traditional practice of pilgrimage. Many of the faithful undertook journeys to Rome and other important religious sites, such as Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela, to take part in special rites and obtain a plenary indulgence, seen as a remission of the penalties due for sins. Pope John Paul II also opened the Holy Door in St Peter's Basilica in the Vatican, a symbolic ritual that only takes place in Holy Years. By passing through this door, pilgrims expressed their desire for repentance and spiritual transformation. The Great Jubilee was also marked by calls for peace, reconciliation and social justice. John Paul II encouraged the faithful to reach out to those who are marginalised and to work for a more just and peaceful world. This period underlined Catholic teachings on mercy, forgiveness and love of neighbour. The event also provided an opportunity to strengthen unity within the Catholic Church and to promote inter-religious dialogue. The Pope organised meetings with leaders of other religions, seeking to build bridges and deepen mutual understanding between different faith traditions. The Great Jubilee of the Year 2000 was a time of intense spiritual reflection for Catholics around the world, a time to reaffirm their faith, seek forgiveness and engage in acts of piety. It was also a call to look to the future with hope and commitment to building a better world, in accordance with the Christian values of peace, justice and charity.

The Catholic Church, guided by its principles of social justice and solidarity with the most disadvantaged, has long been an influential voice in advocating debt cancellation for developing countries. This position is based on the conviction that debt relief is essential to enable Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCs) to overcome the obstacles to development and improve the well-being of their populations. The Church has repeatedly stressed that high levels of external debt in many developing countries hamper their ability to provide basic services such as health and education. These debts, often contracted under unfavourable conditions and sometimes exacerbated by high interest rates, drain precious resources that could be used for internal development. Calls for debt cancellation have been particularly strong around key moments such as the Jubilee Year 2000, when the concept of a "Debt Jubilee" was promoted. Inspired by the biblical tradition of the Jubilee, a year of liberation and debt forgiveness, the Church called for a global effort to free developing countries from their unsustainable debt burdens. Figures such as Pope John Paul II and, later, Pope Francis, urged rich nations and international financial institutions to adopt concrete measures for debt cancellation. The idea is that this debt relief could free up funds for investment in essential areas such as infrastructure, education and healthcare, thereby helping to combat poverty and promote sustainable development. In addition, the Catholic Church has often stressed that debt cancellation should be accompanied by fair and equitable policies to ensure that the benefits of debt relief reach those most in need and are not absorbed by corruption or mismanagement. The Church's commitment to this cause reflects its wider teaching on human dignity and the common good. By supporting debt cancellation, the Church seeks to encourage a more ethical and equitable approach to the global economy, which places the needs of the poorest and most vulnerable at the centre of international concerns.

The Jubilee of the Year 2000, initiated by Pope John Paul II, marked a turning point in the recognition of the debt of developing countries as a global problem requiring a concerted solution. This movement, rooted in Christian values of justice and solidarity, emphasised the urgent need to address the debt of the world's poorest countries, highlighting how this debt was hindering their development and exacerbating poverty. In the historical context of the 1990s and 2000s, several developing countries borrowed significantly on private markets. Although these debts were envisaged as a means of generating economic growth by supporting industrial development, the reality proved more complex. In cases such as Africa, where some of these funds have been diverted, the loans have not produced the expected results, leaving these countries with an increased debt burden and little economic development to show for it. Faced with these challenges, the "Swiss compromise" offered an innovative approach. Rather than simply cancelling debt, this mechanism converted debt into funding for local development projects. This initiative has not only helped to relieve the debt burden of 19 states in ten years, but has also helped to stimulate local economic growth, by supporting projects that have generated around 1.1 billion in growth. These efforts are part of the wider framework of the Millennium Development Goals adopted by the United Nations. These ambitious goals aimed to significantly reduce global poverty and promote sustainable development, recognising debt cancellation as a crucial element in achieving these objectives. The Jubilee Year 2000 and subsequent initiatives represent a growing awareness of the complexity of developing country debt and its impact on poverty and development. These efforts have highlighted the need for equitable debt management and a commitment to sustainable development, underlining international solidarity in addressing global economic challenges.

The setting of ambitious targets as part of international development initiatives, such as the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), can sometimes be perceived as disconnected from the realities and dynamics on the ground. This perception often stems from the contrast between the lofty aspirations of these goals and the practical challenges encountered in implementing them. The idea that the MDGs, for example, may have been too ambitious is fuelled by the inherent difficulty of achieving large-scale development goals within a tight timeframe. Although these goals were designed to inspire and mobilise international action, they have come up against obstacles such as limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, political instability and economic crises in several regions. In addition, the complexity and interdependence of global challenges such as poverty, hunger, education and health make it difficult to achieve uniform and rapid progress. This perception of "target nonsense" may also stem from an insufficient understanding of conditions on the ground and the need for differentiated approaches tailored to each context. Significant progress in areas such as poverty reduction and improved education requires not only political and financial commitment, but also a thorough understanding of local social, economic and cultural dynamics. Despite these criticisms, it is important to recognise that the international development goals play a crucial role in providing a vision and a framework for collective action. Even if the goals are not fully achieved, they can lead to significant progress and improvements in people's lives. For example, the MDGs have helped focus global attention on critical issues and stimulated investments and initiatives that have improved the lives of millions of people. Although the international development goals can sometimes seem overly ambitious, they are essential to direct global efforts towards significant improvements in crucial areas. The challenge lies in adjusting expectations, adapting strategies to local realities and maintaining a sustained commitment to tackling these complex global challenges.

The idea of endogenous progress, i.e. development that emanates from within a country or region, is fundamental to achieving sustainable and equitable growth. This approach emphasises the importance of transforming internal structures - economic, social, political and cultural - to promote development that is both relevant and beneficial to the society concerned. Endogenous progress means drawing on local resources, talents and capacities to stimulate growth and development. This means investing in education, strengthening infrastructure, supporting local innovation, and creating an economic environment that allows local businesses and entrepreneurs to thrive. This type of development focuses on creating economic opportunities that correspond to the specific contexts and needs of a country or region, rather than relying primarily on external aid or imported development models. Changing structures to foster endogenous progress also means tackling the systemic obstacles that hinder development, such as corruption, inequality, ineffective policies and restrictive regulations. This requires strong, transparent and accountable governance, as well as the active participation of civil society to ensure that development meets the needs of all segments of the population. In addition, effective endogenous progress recognises the importance of environmental sustainability. This means striking a balance between economic growth and the preservation of natural resources for future generations. Successful endogenous progress relies on the ability of a country or region to mobilise and use its own resources and capacities for development. This requires a change in existing structures to create an environment that fosters innovation, entrepreneurship and social equity, while ensuring environmental and economic sustainability.

Development as freedom: Amartya Sen's vision

Development cooperation, based on the principle of equality and partnership, represents a more balanced and respectful approach to international development efforts. This approach marks a change from the traditional idea that development should be driven from the outside, often by wealthier countries or organisations, to countries in need. In development cooperation, the emphasis is on supporting projects initiated and managed by the developing countries themselves. This method recognises that local actors are best placed to understand their own needs and challenges. So, rather than imposing solutions from outside, development cooperation involves working alongside partner countries to build their capacity and support their initiatives.

This approach is characterised by mutual dialogue and exchange, where knowledge and resources are shared in a spirit of mutual respect and understanding. It also recognises the importance of sustainability and local ownership of development projects. Involving local communities in the planning and implementation of projects increases the chances of long-term success and lasting impact. Renouncing the belief that development must be created from outside is crucial. This old perspective often led to interventions that did not correspond to local realities or take account of the perspectives and needs of the target populations. In contrast, development cooperation encourages equitable partnerships and the recognition that development is a complex, multidimensional process that requires the participation and commitment of all stakeholders.

The reproductive health paradigm, which emphasises the control of population growth and freedom of choice, represents a complex and multidimensional approach to health and well-being. This paradigm recognises that decisions about reproduction and sexual health are not made in a vacuum, but are influenced by a range of social, cultural and economic factors. In the context of reproductive health, it is essential to understand that policies and programmes are never neutral. They are shaped by societal values, cultural norms and economic contexts. For example, access to reproductive health services, including family planning, sex education and care related to pregnancy and childbirth, can be influenced by factors such as gender, socio-economic status, age and geographical location. The reproductive health paradigm emphasises the notion of freedom of choice, asserting that individuals should have the capacity to make informed and autonomous decisions about their reproductive health. This implies access to comprehensive sexual and reproductive health education, quality health services and a range of contraceptive choices. However, the effective implementation of this paradigm requires the recognition and addressing of barriers that may limit freedom of choice. These barriers may include economic constraints, lack of access to reliable information, restrictive cultural norms and laws or policies that limit access to reproductive health services.

The notion of technocratisation in the context of population development and control refers to an approach that prioritises technical solutions and efficient management methods over political and social considerations. However, changes in the approach to managing population growth illustrate how a more humanistic and balanced vision can be more effective. Between 1970 and 2000, forecasts suggested a rapid increase in the world's population, with estimates as high as 75%. However, actual growth has been slower, with an increase of around 50%. This slowdown is partly attributable to the adoption of more people-centred and rights-based reproductive health policies. By emphasising education, access to healthcare, including family planning, and the empowerment of women, these policies have contributed to a change in demographic trends. Development cooperation has also evolved to adopt a more egalitarian approach. Rather than seeing developing countries as passive recipients of aid, this approach recognises their active role in formulating and implementing policies and programmes. This shift reflects a more nuanced understanding of development dynamics, recognising that effective solutions need to be tailored to specific cultural, social and economic contexts. This shift towards more humanistic and rights-based policies has proven to be effective in terms of development outcomes. By treating population growth issues not just as technical problems to be solved, but also as issues involving individual rights, choices and needs, a more holistic approach respectful of human dignity has been adopted.

Navigating the complex landscape of interculturality is a major challenge in our increasingly globalised world. This approach, based on mutual respect and understanding between different cultures, is essential to creating harmonious and inclusive societies. Culture, as a vector of moral values and a potential source of misunderstanding, plays a central role in this process. Historically, intercultural interactions have often been marked by conflict and misunderstanding, resulting from a lack of understanding or respect for cultural differences. However, with globalisation and increasing population movements, it has become imperative to develop policies that facilitate positive intercultural dialogue. Intercultural policy seeks to establish norms and practices that promote mutual respect and peaceful coexistence. This involves recognising the diversity of traditions, languages and beliefs, while fostering a space for dialogue where these differences can be shared and appreciated. For example, in multicultural countries such as Canada, policies have been put in place to promote multiculturalism and encourage understanding between different cultural communities. However, developing intercultural policies also requires defining the limits of freedom and tolerance. It is essential to strike a balance between protecting cultural diversity and defending universal human rights. This complex task often involves navigating delicate issues such as freedom of expression, minority rights and conflicting cultural norms.

Amartya Sen, a renowned Indian economist and philosopher, has made significant contributions to the fields of welfare economics and social choice theory. A professor at Harvard University, where he holds the Thomas W. Lamont Chair, he has received international recognition for his groundbreaking work, including the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998. Sen's work is distinguished by its interdisciplinary approach, combining economics and philosophy, and by its emphasis on the human aspects of economics. His work on the causes of famine has revolutionised our understanding of this issue. Unlike traditional explanations that focused on the lack of food, Sen demonstrated that famines were often the result of imbalances in the capacity to access food, caused by problems such as poverty, inequality and market failures. In addition to his research on famine, Sen has also made significant contributions in the field of human development. He was a key player in the creation of the Human Development Index (HDI), used by the United Nations to measure the progress of countries not only in terms of GDP, but also in terms of education, health and quality of life. Sen's approach to economics focuses on freedoms and capabilities, arguing that economic development should be measured by the increase in freedoms available to individuals, rather than simply by growth in income or wealth. This perspective has had a considerable influence on development theory and public policy worldwide. Amartya Sen remains an influential figure in debates on the global economy, social justice and human rights, bringing a critical and humanist perspective to the study of economics. His work continues to inspire and guide economists, policy-makers and researchers in their approach to development and economic well-being.

Amartya Sen, through his prolific research and writing, has profoundly influenced contemporary understanding of poverty, inequality and social justice. His work has highlighted the crucial importance of individual freedom and human rights in the development of a just and equitable society. In his influential book "Development as Freedom", Sen explores the idea that development should be seen as a process of expanding the real freedoms enjoyed by individuals. In his view, freedom is both the main objective of development and its most effective means. This framework highlights the need to look beyond traditional economic measures such as GDP to assess a society's progress. Sen argues that development involves improving people's opportunities and choices, including the freedom to participate in economic and social life, to access education and healthcare, and to live without fear of poverty or oppression.

In "The Idea of Justice", Sen examines the theory of justice, criticising traditional approaches based on the search for perfectly just arrangements. Instead, he proposes a model that focuses on the practical amelioration of injustice and inequality, concentrating on the ability of individuals to lead the lives they have reason to value. This approach emphasises the importance of public reasoning and democratic dialogue in the formulation of justice policies. Sen's contributions to the study of poverty and inequality are not limited to economic theory; they also have a direct impact on global policy and development practice. His ideas have influenced international organisations and governments in their approach to development, with an emphasis on human rights, emancipation and social inclusion.

In addition to his academic contributions in economics and philosophy, Amartya Sen has played an active role in the sphere of public policy. His expertise and influential research have led him to advise governments and international organisations on crucial issues relating to economic development and social well-being. This interaction with public policy has enabled his theoretical ideas to find practical applications and have a real impact on development policies around the world. His unique perspective, which combines rigorous economic analysis with ethical and philosophical considerations, has been particularly valuable in the formulation of policies aimed at improving the living conditions of the most disadvantaged populations. Its advice has covered a wide range of issues, from the fight against poverty and hunger to the promotion of social justice and human rights.

The extent of Sen's influence and impact has been recognised by numerous awards and distinctions. These include the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian honour, in recognition of his outstanding contribution not only to academia but also to social and economic well-being. This distinction illustrates the value that his home country places on his intellectual and practical contributions. Sen's career serves as an eloquent example of how an academic can have a profound and lasting impact beyond academic boundaries, influencing public policy and helping to shape global debates on key issues of our time. His work continues to inspire and guide policy-makers, economists, philosophers and all those interested in creating a more just and equitable world.

Amartya Sen played an influential role in the conceptual development of the Human Development Index (HDI), although the index itself was officially introduced by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990. The HDI represents an attempt to measure a country's social and economic development in a way that goes beyond a simple assessment based on gross national income or gross domestic product. Sen's influence is particularly evident in the way the HDI takes into account a range of factors that contribute to human well-being. The HDI assesses countries according to three key dimensions: longevity and health (measured by life expectancy at birth), educational attainment (measured by average length of schooling for adults and expected length of schooling for children) and standard of living (measured by gross national income per capita). This multi-dimensional approach reflects Sen's philosophy that development should be seen in terms of improving the quality of life and widening people's choices and opportunities, and not just in terms of economic growth. The HDI has been widely adopted as an important tool for assessing and comparing development between countries, and has helped to focus the attention of policy-makers and the public on broader aspects of human development. The index has also encouraged governments to focus on policies that aim to improve the health, education and living standards of their populations.

Amartya Sen, in his influential work "Development as Freedom", laid the conceptual foundations of the Human Development Index (HDI). His theory of capabilities and emphasis on human freedom provided an innovative framework for rethinking and measuring development. In "Development as Freedom", Sen argues that development should not be measured solely by economic growth or income, but rather by the expansion of human freedoms and capabilities. In his view, development is about expanding people's choices and their ability to lead lives they value. This perspective emphasises the qualitative aspects of development, such as access to education, health, political and economic freedom, and the opportunity to participate actively in social and cultural life.

This approach has had a profound impact on the way in which human development is perceived and assessed. By focusing on people's capabilities rather than material resources, Sen redefined development as a process that aims to improve quality of life and expand human opportunities. The HDI, influenced by Sen's ideas, measures development by integrating indicators of health, education and living standards, offering a more comprehensive and humane view of progress. This approach has had a significant impact on development policy and practice, prompting governments and international organisations to recognise the importance of investing in human capabilities and creating environments where people can realise their full potential.

The Human Development Index (HDI), inspired by the conceptual framework developed by Amartya Sen, is a tool designed to assess and compare the level of human development of countries around the world. By integrating three key dimensions - health, education and income - the HDI offers a more comprehensive view of development than a simple economic measure based on gross national income. The health dimension is measured by life expectancy at birth, an indicator that reflects a country's ability to ensure a long and healthy life for its citizens. This criterion takes into account the quality of healthcare, access to adequate food, clean water and sanitary conditions, as well as other factors that affect public health. With regard to education, the HDI assesses the average years of schooling for adults aged 25 and over, as well as the expected years of schooling for school-age children. These indicators reflect not only access to education but also its quality and relevance, underlining the importance of education in the development of human capabilities. The third dimension, income, is measured by gross national income per capita, adjusted for purchasing power parity. This criterion aims to capture the economic dimension of development, by considering the ability of individuals to access resources to satisfy their needs and to participate in the economic activity of their country. By combining these three dimensions, the HDI offers a more nuanced and balanced perspective of development, going beyond simple economic growth to include key factors that influence quality of life. Countries are then ranked according to their HDI score, making it possible to track progress over time and compare levels of development between nations. The HDI has therefore played a crucial role in the way governments, international organisations and researchers approach and evaluate development, emphasising a more holistic and human-centred view of progress.

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a holistic measure that assesses a country's progress in terms of health, education and standard of living. Launched in the early 1990s, it marked a turning point in the way development is understood, by seeking to go beyond economic considerations alone.

The health component of the HDI is represented by life expectancy at birth, an indicator that provides information on the longevity of individuals in a given country. This measure reflects the effectiveness of health systems, the state of the environment and other factors influencing public health. For example, the increase in life expectancy in countries such as Japan is largely explained by quality healthcare and healthy lifestyles. In terms of education, the HDI considers both the adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio, covering aspects of both formal and continuing education. These indicators reflect the importance of access to education and its quality, as shown by the experience of countries such as Finland, where strong investment in education has led to high human development scores. The economic dimension, meanwhile, is measured by GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power parity, providing an assessment of living standards. Countries such as Qatar and Norway, with high GDP per capita, rank well in this dimension, although this indicator alone does not capture the distribution of wealth within society.

The HDI combines these three dimensions to provide an overall assessment of human development. Rather than focusing solely on national income, the HDI recognises that development must also promote people's health, education and general well-being. Countries such as Australia and Canada regularly rank at the top of the index, reflecting significant investment in human capital and a commitment to social well-being. As a result, the HDI has become a valuable tool for policymakers and analysts seeking to understand and improve human well-being beyond economic criteria alone. By assessing progress and challenges in the areas of health, education and living standards, the HDI helps guide policies towards more inclusive and balanced development.

Amartya Sen's vision of development emphasises the importance of individual freedoms and capabilities, or 'capabilities', that enable people to achieve happiness and fulfil their potential. This approach, often referred to as capability theory, was co-developed with the philosopher Martha Nussbaum. According to this theory, the conditional factors of individual freedom, such as utility, income and access to private goods, play a decisive role in people's ability to create the conditions for their social existence and achieve happiness. Utility can be seen as an indicator of happiness, or the satisfaction that individuals derive from their lives. Income, particularly real wages, is a means of acquiring private goods and participating in society. Private goods, on the other hand, are not limited to material objects, but include everything that enables a person to lead a rich and fulfilling social life. These are essential elements that contribute to individual freedom and the ability of each person to live the life they value. Capability represents the real freedoms people have, i.e. their real ability to make choices and act in ways that fulfil their aspirations and goals. For Sen, development is measured by the progression of these real freedoms. In other words, genuine development is not just an increase in income or GDP, but an expansion of opportunities for people to lead lives they have reason to value. The environment, including socio-political conditions, is also a determining factor in this equation. An environment that limits individual freedoms or is marked by inequality and exclusion can be seen as a deprivation of capabilities. This can range from repressive political systems to social structures that limit opportunities for certain groups. Finally, development, in the context of this theory, is understood as an increase in real freedoms. Poverty, by depriving individuals of choices and opportunities, is seen as a deprivation of freedom, as are dictatorial regimes or any other form of repression. Development therefore implies a fight against these deprivations and a quest to broaden the capabilities of all individuals.

Amartya Sen has made a significant contribution to our understanding of famines, by establishing a link between the prevalence of these crises and the type of political system in place. In his research, he observed that famines are not only caused by a lack of food, but also by the absence of adequate policies and the failure of food distribution systems. This is particularly striking when you look at the history of famines around the world. Sen pointed out that democratic countries tend to be more effective in preventing famines than non-democratic regimes. Democracies, with their accountability mechanisms such as elections, freedom of the press and civic activism, allow for greater transparency and a better flow of information. This creates an environment where food shortages are quickly reported and governments are encouraged to intervene to avoid humanitarian disasters. For example, in India, a democracy with a free press and relatively robust institutions, there has not been a major famine since independence in 1947. This contrasts with cases such as Bengal in 1943, where, under British colonial rule, famine caused the deaths of millions of people. The difference in the management of food crises between the pre- and post-independence periods in India illustrates the impact of democratic governance on famine prevention. On the other hand, countries with authoritarian or totalitarian regimes, where information is controlled and government responsibility is limited, have experienced devastating famines, as in the Soviet Union in the 1930s or in China during the Great Leap Forward in the late 1950s and early 1960s. In these cases, the lack of transparency and the suppression of warning signals prevented a rapid response and exacerbated the effects of the food crises. Sen's analysis reveals that democracy is a crucial element in the fight against poverty and hunger. It suggests that political freedom and human rights are intimately linked to development outcomes and human well-being. Thus, the promotion of democracy and transparent governance is not only a moral ideal but also a practical strategy for avoiding the human suffering caused by famine.

Amartya Sen, in his analyses of famine, has profoundly challenged the conventional wisdom that famine is primarily due to a lack of food. He pointed out that famines can occur even in the presence of sufficient food, if economic and political conditions create inequalities in the distribution of resources. Sen stressed that poverty, inequality and political oppression are often the real culprits that prevent access to food and lead to famine. These factors, which are widely present in non-democratic societies, create a breeding ground for famine. The absence of accountability mechanisms, political rights and civil liberties leads to a situation where governments do not feel the pressure to respond to the needs of their citizens or to correct social and economic imbalances. Historical examples of famines under authoritarian regimes, such as the Holodomor in Soviet Ukraine or the Cultural Revolution in China, tragically illustrate these points.

Conversely, in democratic societies, the presence of fundamental freedoms, such as freedom of expression and of the press, allows for a freer flow of information and greater awareness of the issues. Citizens can voice their concerns and demand answers, creating an environment in which governments are pushed to act against inequalities and put in place measures to prevent and respond to food crises. In addition, democracies often offer stronger safety nets and social protection policies that help to mitigate the effects of poverty and prevent famine. In short, Sen has shown that famine is a complex problem that requires an understanding of the social and political structures of a society. His argument underlines the importance of democracy, not just as a political ideal, but as an essential element in preventing famine and promoting human well-being. He insists that to combat famine effectively, societies must cultivate strong democratic institutions that promote equity and civic engagement.

Amartya Sen's work on famine and democracy has made a major contribution to our understanding of the mechanisms for preventing humanitarian crises. He highlighted the crucial importance of accountability, transparency and responsiveness on the part of governments and institutions. Sen argued that famines do not occur in democracies not only because citizens have the freedom to criticise and compel their governments to act, but also because democracies have institutional mechanisms that compel governments to be responsive to the needs of their citizens. Elections, free expression, an independent press and political opposition function as checks and balances that prevent governments from ignoring the suffering of their people. Transparency is also a key factor, as it allows information on the food situation and emergency needs to be disseminated. This not only helps to mobilise the necessary aid and resources, but also prevents problems from being concealed or denied. In authoritarian regimes, where information can be controlled or censored, the ability to react quickly to early warning signs of a food crisis is often hampered, which can worsen the situation and lead to disaster. In addition, Sen stressed that accountability is essential to ensure that governments take timely preventive and remedial action. In democracies, politicians are aware that they can be held accountable by the electorate and are therefore more inclined to act to prevent scourges such as famines. Sen's perspective suggests that to effectively prevent famine and other humanitarian crises, it is essential to promote democratic governance, strengthen institutions and encourage the active participation of citizens. This suggests that efforts to improve food security must go hand in hand with strengthening democracy and human rights. His ideas continue to inform international development policies and crisis response strategies.

Principles and Practices of Good Governance

Good governance is an essential pillar for the development and well-being of societies. It encompasses principles such as efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsiveness to the needs of the people. These principles are fundamental to ensuring that governments serve the general interest and not particular or private interests. Efficiency in good governance means that decisions and policies are implemented in a way that maximises the use of available resources and achieves the best possible results. Transparency is crucial, as it enables citizens to be informed about how decisions are taken and how public funds are used, thus contributing to confidence in institutions. Accountability is another central component of good governance. It ensures that leaders are held accountable for their actions and decisions before citizens and the appropriate legal bodies. This accountability is often exercised through democratic mechanisms such as elections, commissions of enquiry and free media. Responsiveness, on the other hand, reflects the ability and willingness of governments to listen and respond to the needs and demands of the people. It is closely linked to the notion of citizen participation, which enables individuals to play an active role in the political and decision-making processes, ensuring that policies reflect the interests and concerns of the community. Good governance is often associated with democracy because of the correlation between these principles of governance and democratic values. In a democratic framework, government is open to scrutiny and criticism from its citizens, which reinforces its obligation to respond appropriately to the needs of its population. Democracy also promotes the protection of rights and freedoms, creating an environment where citizens can express themselves freely and without fear.

Amartya Sen's research on the relationship between famine and democracy highlights the crucial role of good governance, in particular accountability, transparency and responsiveness, in preventing famines and other humanitarian crises. Sen has shown that famines are not just the result of a lack of food, but are often exacerbated by failures in governance. Accountability is key in this context. In democracies, governments are obliged to respond to the needs of their people and are more likely to be accountable to their citizens. The ability of citizens to vote and change their leaders creates pressure for leaders to respond effectively to food crises and other emergencies. Transparency is also vital. Access to information allows citizens and the media to monitor the actions of government and to report early warning signs of famine. In democratic systems, freedom of the press and freedom of expression facilitate the flow of information, which is essential for mobilising both government action and international aid in times of crisis. Responsiveness, on the other hand, implies the ability and willingness of governments to act quickly and effectively in the face of a crisis. Democracies, with their inclusive and participatory structures, are often better equipped to respond rapidly to emergencies, including famines. Ultimately, Sen's work highlights how a country's political structure and governance practices can directly influence its ability to avert humanitarian disasters. It underlines the importance of strengthening democracy and good governance not only as goals in themselves, but also as essential means of achieving sustainable food security and preventing humanitarian crises.

The notion of good governance has taken on increasing importance over the decades, not least because of its significant impact on economic and social development. Historically, countries that have adopted principles of good governance have often been more successful in terms of economic growth, social stability and citizen satisfaction. For example, the Nordic countries, known for their transparent, accountable and responsive governments, have not only achieved solid economic growth rates, but have also maintained high levels of social well-being. Their commitment to good governance practices has helped to build strong trust between citizens and state institutions, resulting in high levels of civic participation and a strong sense of social cohesion. Conversely, countries where governance has been weak, marked by corruption, lack of transparency and lack of accountability, have often struggled to achieve similar levels of development. Historical examples in parts of Africa and Latin America show that poor governance has hampered economic development and exacerbated social problems such as poverty and inequality. Good governance is also linked to the promotion of civic engagement and responsibility. Societies where citizens feel involved and listened to tend to be more stable and just. When governments are open and accountable, citizens are more inclined to participate actively in political and community life, which strengthens democracy and the social fabric. Good governance is an essential driver of development and well-being in societies. It plays a decisive role in creating an environment where economic growth can flourish, social rights are protected and citizens are engaged and accountable. Examples from around the world show that countries that adhere to the principles of good governance enjoy a fairer, more stable and more prosperous society.

Democracy is intrinsically linked to the idea of good governance, as it is based on the principles of citizen participation, government accountability and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. In a democratic system, the government is seen as a representative of the people, with a mandate to act in accordance with the interests and wishes of its citizens. Citizen participation is a central element of democracy. It is not limited to the right to vote in elections, but also encompasses active participation in political and civic life, such as public debate, consultation on important policies and involvement in civil organisations. This participation ensures that government decisions reflect the needs and wishes of the population. Government accountability is another pillar of democracy. Leaders must be transparent in their actions and decisions, and accountable to their constituents. Transparency allows citizens to monitor government actions and ensure that they are carried out in the public interest. It is also crucial in preventing corruption and abuse of power. Democracy also means protecting fundamental rights and freedoms. These include freedom of expression, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial and protection against discrimination. These rights are essential to maintaining a climate of freedom where citizens can express themselves and act without fear of repression or reprisal.

Historically, democratic countries have often been more successful in meeting the needs of their citizens and promoting balanced social and economic development. This can be attributed to their commitment to the principles of good governance, which promote more efficient and equitable management of resources, and encourage broader and more meaningful participation of the population in decision-making processes. Democracy is seen as an essential framework for achieving good governance, as it encourages accountable, transparent and responsive government, while guaranteeing the protection of individual rights and freedoms. These characteristics are fundamental to building fair, stable and prosperous societies.

The fundamental principles of good governance and democracy are closely intertwined, and many of their key elements overlap. Accountability, transparency and responsiveness are crucial aspects of both concepts, underlining their importance in creating effective and equitable government. Accountability is a cornerstone of good governance and democracy. It holds government to account for its actions and decisions. In a democratic system, this often translates into regular elections, where citizens have the opportunity to judge the performance of their leaders and sanction them if necessary. In addition, the presence of control mechanisms, such as audits, judicial enquiries and media monitoring, ensures that governments act in the public interest and are held accountable for any failings. Transparency, on the other hand, is essential for ethical governance and a functioning democracy. A transparent government openly shares information about its activities and policies, enabling citizens to understand and evaluate the decisions taken on their behalf. This transparency is crucial for building trust between governments and citizens and for informed public participation in public affairs. Finally, responsiveness is essential to ensure that governments respond effectively to the needs and concerns of their citizens. In a democratic system, responsiveness is often guaranteed by feedback mechanisms such as polls, public consultations and petitions, which allow citizens to express their opinions and shape government policies. The principles of good governance are not only complementary to those of democracy, but are often seen as essential components for the success of the latter. Together, they form the basis of a form of government that not only respects the rights and needs of citizens, but also strives to promote a fair, stable and prosperous society.

The close association between democracy and good governance is based on shared fundamental principles such as accountability, transparency and responsiveness. These principles are crucial to the proper functioning of a society and play a decisive role in promoting economic and social development. Accountability in a democracy ensures that government leaders are answerable to citizens for their actions and decisions. This creates an environment where decision-makers must act ethically and in the public interest, knowing that they may be called upon to justify their actions. This accountability is reinforced by regular elections, independent judicial institutions and a free press, which together form the pillars of responsible governance. Transparency is essential to enable citizens to understand the actions of their government. It involves open and honest communication of government policies, procedures and spending. Transparent government enables citizens to stay informed and actively participate in the democratic life of their country. Responsiveness ensures that governments respond quickly and effectively to the needs and concerns of their citizens. In a democratic system, this responsiveness is often facilitated by the direct participation of citizens through mechanisms such as public consultations, petitions and discussion forums. These principles not only improve political processes, but also have a direct impact on economic and social development. Governments that adhere to these principles are more likely to create policies that promote growth, reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their citizens. By cultivating an environment of good governance, they strengthen public and investor confidence, which is crucial for sustainable economic development.

The growth of democracy is often accompanied by improvements in governance. This correlation can be observed in various contexts around the world, including in less economically developed countries which, despite their limited resources, manage to make significant progress in terms of health and longevity. This is largely due to effective resource management policies and a commitment to informing and involving people in the decisions that affect their lives. The example of some countries with relatively low GDP but high life expectancy illustrates this point. These nations have often put in place effective public health policies, despite limited budgets. They have managed to maximise the impact of their investments by focusing on high-yield interventions such as immunisation, access to drinking water and adequate sanitation, and health education programmes. The dissemination of information also plays a crucial role. When citizens are well informed about health and hygiene issues, they are better able to make informed decisions for their own well-being and that of their families. Furthermore, in democratic societies, where citizens have the freedom to express themselves and participate actively in civic life, it is more likely that public health needs will be addressed effectively. Moreover, the efficient allocation of even limited resources can have a significant impact on quality of life. Governments that prioritise health, education and social well-being, even with limited budgets, can make significant strides in improving the living conditions of their populations. This shows that a country's economic wealth is not the only determinant of its people's quality of life. Government policies, governance and citizen participation play an equally crucial role in promoting well-being and longevity. This reality underlines the importance of good governance and democracy in achieving sustainable and equitable development objectives.

Democracy is often associated with good governance, but this relationship is not limited to economically prosperous countries. Even in less economically developed countries, there is evidence that good governance can lead to significant improvements in social well-being. A key element of this positive dynamic is the emphasis on education, particularly women's education, which plays a crucial role in social and economic development. Women's education is a powerful driver of social and economic change. When women are educated, they are better equipped to make informed decisions about their health, their families and their working lives. Educating women has a direct impact on reducing infant and maternal mortality, as educated mothers are more likely to understand the importance of nutrition, health care and hygiene for themselves and their children. In addition, educating women helps to delay the age of first marriage and childbearing, which has positive effects on the health of women and children. It also encourages family planning practices, which can reduce the birth rate and enable family resources to be better allocated. In countries where resources are limited, good governance often means prioritising education, particularly the education of girls and women, as a strategic investment for long-term development. These countries demonstrate that effective and equitable management of even modest resources can lead to substantial improvements in the health and well-being of the population. Democracy and good governance are not just about economic prosperity; they also encompass inclusive and equitable strategies for social development. By focusing on key aspects such as women's education, even countries with limited resources can make significant progress in combating poverty, improving health and promoting sustainable development.

Appendices

• Council on Foreign Relations,. (2015). Is Universal Health Care an Attainable Goal?. Retrieved 14 September 2015, from http://www.cfr.org/health/universal-health-care-attainable-goal/p36998?cid=soc-facebook-is_universal_healthcare_an_attainable_goal-91415