Failures and Obstacles in the Third World

Based on a lecture by Michel Oris

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Economic and social history of globalisation, 16th-21st centuries

Agrarian Structures and Rural Society: Analysis of the Preindustrial European Peasantry ● The demographic regime of the Ancien Régime: homeostasis ● Evolution of Socioeconomic Structures in the Eighteenth Century: From the Ancien Régime to Modernity ● Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution ● Structural mechanisms of the industrial revolution ● The spread of the Industrial Revolution in continental Europe ● The Industrial Revolution beyond Europe: the United States and Japan ● The social costs of the Industrial Revolution ● Historical Analysis of the Cyclical Phases of the First Globalisation ● Dynamics of National Markets and the Globalisation of Product Trade ● The Formation of Global Migration Systems ● Dynamics and Impacts of the Globalisation of Money Markets : The Central Role of Great Britain and France ● The Transformation of Social Structures and Relations during the Industrial Revolution ● The Origins of the Third World and the Impact of Colonisation ● Failures and Obstacles in the Third World ● Changing Methods of Work: Evolving Production Relationships from the End of the Nineteenth to the Middle of the Twentieth Century ● The Golden Age of the Western Economy: The Thirty Glorious Years (1945-1973) ● The Changing World Economy: 1973-2007 ● The Challenges of the Welfare State ● Around colonisation: fears and hopes for development ● Time of Ruptures: Challenges and Opportunities in the International Economy ● Globalisation and modes of development in the "third world"

A study of the economic and political history of formerly colonised countries reveals complex dynamics and profound legacies that continue to influence the contemporary world. From Latin America to Africa, India and China, the effects of colonisation and interactions with Western powers have significantly shaped the course of economic, social and political development in these regions.

Latin America, with its varied colonial and post-colonial history, offers an insight into the complex interactions between European colonisers and indigenous populations, and the economic dynamics that evolved from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. British commercial influence, the impact of competition from beet sugar, the abolition of slavery and the development of temperate regions are all facets that illustrate the economic and social transformations of this region. In Asia, India and China each responded in their own unique way to the challenges posed by the West. The period of British rule in India was marked by significant changes in the composition of foreign trade and moderate industrialisation, while China struggled to preserve its civilisation in the face of Western assaults, reflecting a tension between preserving autonomy and adapting to outside influences. Egypt, under the governance of Mehemet Ali, represents a particular case study of an attempt at industrialisation which, although promising, was ultimately hampered by external and internal factors, illustrating the difficulty of pursuing autonomous development in a context of geopolitical rivalries. Finally, Black Africa, with its painful history of the transatlantic slave trade, shows how the practices and policies of the colonial era had a lasting impact, shaping borders, economies and societies. The abolition of slavery in various countries and its prolonged impact, as well as the belated nature of European colonisation, are key elements in understanding the contemporary realities of the African continent.

These regions, each with its own unique history, offer insights into the ways in which interactions with colonial powers have influenced development trajectories and global political and economic dynamics. By exploring these histories, we can better understand the complexities and challenges that continue to shape our interconnected world.

Economic Dynamics in Latin America

Latin America, although marked by a massive reduction in its indigenous population due to colonisation, has experienced significant demographic growth, reaching around 650 million people. The region is culturally and ethnically diverse, the result of centuries of colonisation, immigration and miscegenation. Deeply affected by globalisation, it is integrated into the world economy, particularly in the agricultural, natural resources and manufacturing sectors. However, Latin America faces economic and social challenges such as inequality, poverty, political corruption and violence. On the international stage, Latin American countries are playing a growing role, participating in global debates on issues such as climate change, human rights and international trade. Although representing a small portion of Third World countries, the importance of Latin America in the global context is significant, both influenced by and contributing to the processes of globalisation.

Latin America, with its many countries, presents a complex tapestry of cultures, languages and histories. This diversity is the result of a blend of indigenous, European, African and, to a lesser extent, Asian influences. Each country has cultural elements that are common to the region, but also its own characteristics that make up its unique identity. Politically, Latin American countries vary greatly. From liberal democracies to more authoritarian forms of government, these political systems are shaped by distinct histories, social movements and geopolitical dynamics. This political diversity has a profound impact on the governance of each country and influences the daily lives of its inhabitants. Economically, the region is just as varied. Some countries are strongly oriented towards agriculture, while others focus more on industry or the service sector. This economic variety is influenced by factors such as geography, available natural resources and the legacy of colonisation. Social practices and cultural norms also differ from country to country. These differences manifest themselves in everyday behaviour, values and beliefs, reflecting local traditions and historical influences. Finally, Latin American countries are not isolated from global influences. Relations with external players such as the United States and Europe have shaped and continue to influence the region's economies, politics and cultures. These interactions have contributed to Latin America's integration into the global economy, while at the same time highlighting its regional particularities. This wealth of diversity makes Latin America a fascinating region, where generalisations can often prove misleading. A nuanced approach is needed to grasp the subtleties and particularities of each country and sub-region.

The distinction between different regions within Latin America is important for understanding the cultural, linguistic and historical diversity of this vast geographical area.

Hispano-America, also known as Hispanic Latin America, refers to the countries of Latin America where Spanish is the main language. The term is used to differentiate these nations from others in the region that do not share a Spanish colonial heritage, such as Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken, and Haiti, where French and Haitian Creole are the official languages. The countries of Hispano-America include nations such as Mexico, Argentina and Chile. These countries were colonised by Spain and, as a result, have inherited a marked Spanish influence in their culture, language and institutions. The term highlights the cultural and historical links between these countries, underlining their shared experiences as former Spanish colonies. Spain, although part of the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, has played a central role in the colonial history of these countries, but is not itself a Latin American country. The cultural and historical richness of Hispano-America is therefore a reflection of this colonial heritage, while having evolved in a unique way in each country of the region.

The notion of Portuguese-speaking Latin America refers primarily to those Latin American countries where Portuguese is the official language, an important distinction in a region dominated by Spanish and, to a lesser extent, French. The term is used to distinguish these countries from other Latin American nations that do not share a Portuguese colonial heritage. The main representative of Portuguese-speaking Latin America is Brazil. As the largest country in the region and the only Portuguese-speaking country in Latin America, Brazil's culture, history and institutions are strongly influenced by Portugal, its coloniser. Brazilian Portuguese, while having its own specificities, reflects this heritage. It is important to note that Portugal and Angola, although Portuguese-speaking and having played a role in Brazil's colonial history, are not Latin American countries. Portugal is in Europe, while Angola is in Africa. However, these two countries share cultural and historical links with Brazil due to their common past under Portuguese rule. The term "Portuguese-speaking Latin America" highlights the cultural and historical links between Brazil and Portugal, as well as their shared experiences as former colonies and colonisers. Brazilian culture, including its language, literature, music and traditions, is deeply imbued with Portuguese influence, although Brazil has also developed a distinct and rich cultural identity, influenced by a mixture of indigenous, African and European peoples.

The Latin American Caribbean is a geographically and culturally distinct region located in and around the Caribbean Sea, encompassing both islands and coastal areas. Its unique position between North and South America has played a crucial role in its historical, economic and cultural development. The geography of this region, characterised by a multitude of islands and coastal areas, has influenced many aspects of local life and culture. This proximity to the sea has encouraged activities such as sailing, fishing and, later, tourism, which have become economic mainstays of the region. What's more, this geographical location made the Caribbean a strategic point on historic trade routes, particularly during the colonial era. The history of the Caribbean is marked by European colonisation, the transatlantic slave trade and the struggle for independence. These events had a profound impact on the social, political and economic structures of the region. The slave trade, in particular, left an indelible mark, bringing African influences that are reflected today in music, dance, religion and other cultural aspects. Cultural diversity is a major characteristic of Latin America and the Caribbean. The influences of indigenous peoples, Africans, Europeans and other migratory groups have created a unique cultural mosaic. This diversity is particularly evident in the languages spoken in the region, which include Spanish, French, English, Dutch and various Creole languages, each reflecting the complex mix of colonial heritage and cultural influences. Economically, the Caribbean region is important, not only for its role in historic maritime trade, but also for its thriving tourism industry and specialised agriculture. These economic sectors are vital to many Caribbean islands and coastal areas. Politically and internationally, the Latin American Caribbean plays a significant role. The region has been the scene of crucial historical events that have shaped not only its own destiny, but that of Latin America as a whole. The Caribbean continues to play an important role in international relations, not least because of its unique history and strategic geographical location. The Latin American Caribbean is characterised by its rich history, cultural and linguistic diversity, economic importance and strategic role in the Latin American region and beyond.

To understand the history of Latin America, we need to distinguish between two major historical phases. The first, extending from the 16th century until independence, is known as the colonial period. During this period, European powers such as Spain and Portugal established their domination over the region, profoundly impacting local societies through economic exploitation, evangelisation and the introduction of European social and legal systems. The transatlantic slave trade also played a central role, transforming the demography and culture of the region. This period saw the emergence of complex societies structured around racial and social hierarchies.

The second phase, the 19th century, represents the post-colonial period, marked by independence movements against the European colonisers. Inspired by the ideals of the French Revolution and the American Revolution, these struggles for independence led to the formation of new nation states. After independence, these countries faced major challenges such as the formation of stable governments, economic development and the creation of a national identity. This period was also characterised by internal conflicts, civil wars and the growing influence of the United States in the region.

These two historical periods are essential to understanding the current dynamics of Latin America. The colonial period laid the foundations for today's structures, while the post-colonial period was an era of significant change, the impact of which is still visible in the region today.

16th Century - Independence: Colonial Era

The 16th century colonial period in Latin America marked an era of profound and lasting change for the region. This period began with the arrival of European explorers and conquistadors, mainly Spanish and Portuguese, who began the process of colonisation. They established colonies, claimed territories in the name of their countries of origin and set up colonial administrations. A central element of this period was the beginning of the transatlantic slave trade. Millions of Africans were deported to the New World to work on sugar and tobacco plantations and in mines. This trade had a profound impact on the demographic, cultural and social make-up of Latin America, a legacy that continues to this day. The 16th century was also marked by the spread of Christianity, particularly Catholicism, which was introduced by European colonisers. The Catholic Church played a major role, not only in religion, but also in education, culture and administration. The conversion of indigenous populations to Christianity was often forced, and was accompanied by the destruction of many indigenous traditions and beliefs. This period also saw the creation of various institutions and structures that shaped the socio-economic and political development of Latin America. Economic systems based on the exploitation of natural resources and forced labour were put in place, and social structures were profoundly influenced by European norms and hierarchies. The 16th century was therefore a period of major upheaval in Latin America. It laid the foundations for the subsequent development of the region and left a complex legacy that continues to influence Latin America in cultural, social, economic and political terms.

The economic evolution of Latin America during the colonial period took place in three distinct stages, each marking a major transformation in the exploitation of the region's resources. The first stage was the plundering of precious metals. At the start of colonisation, the European conquistadors concentrated on finding and extracting gold and silver from indigenous civilisations such as the Incas and Aztecs. This period was characterised by intensive looting, with huge quantities of precious metals being transferred from Latin America to Europe. This pillage had disastrous consequences for indigenous societies, marking the beginning of the systematic economic exploitation of the region. The second phase was the establishment of large-scale mining. After the initial looting, the colonisers set up mines to systematically extract gold and silver. Major mining centres, such as the Potosí silver mine, were created, requiring an abundant workforce often supplied by the indigenous populations and, later, by African slaves. This period saw the establishment of the mining industry as the central pillar of the colonial economy in Latin America. The third and final stage was the development of the plantation system. Aimed at producing tropical goods for export to the European metropolises, these plantations specialised in crops such as sugar, coffee and cotton. Sugar, in particular, became an extremely profitable export product. This system relied heavily on slave labour, with large numbers of Africans deported to work in harsh conditions. These three phases had a profound impact on the colonial economy of Latin America, establishing patterns of exploitation and dependence that continued to influence the region's economic and social development long after the end of the colonial period.

The economy of Latin America during the colonial period can be characterised as highly extraverted and dependent on the European metropolises. This extraversion means that the region's economy was primarily geared towards satisfying the needs and demands of the colonising countries, rather than towards internal development or self-sufficiency. This economic dependence manifested itself in a number of ways. The natural resources and goods produced in Latin America, such as precious metals, sugar, coffee and cotton, were mainly exported to Europe. In return, the colonies depended on the metropolises for manufactured goods and other products that they did not produce locally. This trade dynamic created an imbalance, with the colonies supplying raw materials and importing finished goods, limiting the development of local industries and reinforcing economic dependence. It is notable that Latin America's economy was twice as outward-looking as Europe's at the time. This was partly because the colonial economies were structured to meet the needs of the metropolises. The economic systems put in place by the colonial powers aimed to extract maximum wealth from the colonies, often to the detriment of local economic development and the well-being of the indigenous populations and African slaves. This economic structure had lasting consequences for Latin America, shaping patterns of economic development that persisted even after independence. Economic dependence also contributed to deep social and economic inequalities, problems that continue to affect the region to this day.

Latin American society, formed during and after the colonial period, is remarkable for its multi-ethnic diversity, the result of centuries of colonisation, the slave trade and cultural mixing. The ethnic composition of the region, with a total population of around 24 million, is particularly varied. On the one hand, "whites", who are mainly the descendants of European settlers, make up around 20% of the population. This category is made up of people who have mainly retained European ancestry through the generations. Blacks", the descendants of Africans brought to Latin America through the transatlantic slave trade, also make up around 20% of the population. These black communities are particularly present in regions where the slave trade was intensively practised, such as parts of the Caribbean and Brazil. Secondly, the "mestizos", a mixture of Europeans, indigenous peoples and, to some extent, Africans, make up around 25% of the population. This group illustrates the richness of ethnic and cultural mixing in Latin America, contributing to a great diversity of identities. Finally, the indigenous populations, or "Indians", who make up around 35% of the population, are the descendants of the original peoples of the region. Despite the challenges and disruptions caused by colonisation, these communities have managed to preserve many elements of their ancestral cultures and traditions. In this multi-ethnic society, no single racial group predominates, creating a complex and unique mosaic of cultures, languages and identities. However, it is important to stress that this ethnic diversity has not always led to social or economic equality. The history of Latin America is also marked by racial tensions and inequalities, with disparities often based on ethnic origin.

19th Century: Post-colonial period

British Commercial Influence and Penetration

Britain's support for the independence movements in Latin America in the early 19th century was largely motivated by strategic and economic interests, and played a significant role in overturning Spanish rule in the region. On the one hand, Great Britain, as a major maritime and trading power, sought to weaken Spain's hegemony over Latin America. By supporting the independence movements, it hoped to open up new trading opportunities for its goods and gain access to the region's precious resources. The aim was to redraw the balance of power in its favour and extend its global influence. On the other hand, the newly independent nations of Latin America aspired to break away from the Spanish mercantilist system that limited their foreign trade. By forging links with Great Britain, they could not only diversify their economic relations but also adopt free trade policies. For Britain, this meant privileged access to new markets for its manufactured goods and the possibility of importing raw materials at lower cost. However, this relationship was also a complex political game. By supporting the independence movements, Britain could not only present itself as an ally of the new nations, but also pursue its own geopolitical and economic interests. This support therefore had profound implications for the political and economic development of the Latin American nations, influencing their international relations and trading systems in the years that followed.

The consequences of the new economic orientation and trade relations established between Latin America and Great Britain after independence were significant, particularly in terms of their impact on the region's industrial development.

The first major effect of these changes was deindustrialisation in countries such as Brazil, Colombia and Mexico. These nations had begun to develop their own industrial sectors, with initiatives in areas such as weaving in Mexico and steelmaking in Brazil. However, these fledgling industries found themselves unable to compete with the more advanced and less expensive manufactured goods from Britain. The introduction of free trade policies encouraged the import of British products, which were often more technologically advanced and sold at lower prices. This increased competition had a devastating impact on local industries, which were still in their infancy and could not compete on either cost or quality. As a result, many of Latin America's newer small industries were forced to close, leading to de-industrialisation in several regions. This phenomenon has had long-term repercussions on the economies of these countries, retarding their industrial development and increasing their dependence on exports of raw materials and imports of finished products. This de-industrialisation has helped to shape Latin America's economic model, characterised by heavy dependence on external markets and vulnerability to fluctuations in these markets.

The second major effect of post-independence economic and trade changes in Latin America has been increased specialisation in the export of tropical products. This development is directly linked to the de-industrialisation that the region underwent following the opening up of markets to free trade with countries such as Great Britain. With the weakening or disappearance of their fledgling industries, many Latin American countries found themselves in a situation where their most viable economic option was to export tropical agricultural products. These products included sugar, coffee, cotton and other agricultural products specific to the region. The emphasis on these exports led to a largely single-sector economy, centred on agriculture. However, this dependence on a single economic sector has proved dangerous for the region's economic stability and development. A single-sector economy is extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in world markets, changes in international demand, and climatic hazards, all of which can have a devastating impact on a country's economy. Moreover, this dependence limits economic diversification and long-term growth, as it does not stimulate the development of other industrial or service sectors. This specialisation in the export of tropical products, while lucrative in the short term, has posed major challenges for Latin America in terms of economic sustainability and diversification. It has contributed to perpetuating the region's dependence on external markets and has limited its overall economic development.

Beet Sugar Rivalry and Economic Impact

At the end of the 18th century, Latin America dominated the world sugar market, accounting for 99% of global production. This dominance was mainly due to the extensive cultivation of sugar cane, adapted to the region's tropical and subtropical climates. Sugar cane plantations, often based on a system of forced labour and slavery, were the economic engine of many Latin American countries, particularly in the Caribbean. However, at the beginning of the 19th century, the development of sugar beet cultivation changed the global sugar production landscape. Sugar beet, which can be grown in temperate climates, enabled regions such as Europe, Mauritius and Réunion to compete with sugar cane producers in Latin America. This new competition has had a significant impact on the sugar market. One of the major consequences of the emergence of sugar beet as an alternative to sugar cane has been the deterioration in the terms of trade for Latin American countries. As world sugar supply increased due to the increased production of beet sugar, sugar prices began to fall. This fall in prices had a negative impact on the Latin American economies, which were heavily dependent on sugar exports. This development underlined the vulnerability of single-product economies and highlighted the risks associated with over-reliance on a single type of crop for export. For Latin American countries, this has meant not only a reduction in income from sugar exports, but also the need to seek to diversify their economies to mitigate the impact of such fluctuations on the world market.

The terms of trade is a key concept in economics that measures the ratio between the average prices of a country's exports and the prices of its imports. This ratio indicates the quantity of imported goods and services that a country can obtain in exchange for a fixed quantity of its exports. When export prices rise relative to import prices, the country's terms of trade improve. Conversely, if export prices fall relative to import prices, the terms of trade deteriorate. This concept is intrinsically linked to a country's trade balance, which is the difference between the value of its exports and the value of its imports. An improvement in the terms of trade can lead to a trade surplus (where exports exceed imports), while a deterioration can lead to a trade deficit. It is important to note that the terms of trade are influenced by a variety of factors and are only one part of the overall equation affecting the trade balance. In the case of Latin America and its sugar market in the 19th century, deteriorating terms of trade meant that countries in the region received less revenue for their sugar exports while spending more on imports. This had a significant economic impact, particularly in terms of reduced export earnings and increased vulnerability to fluctuations in the world market. This has highlighted the importance for countries heavily dependent on commodity exports to diversify their economies in order to reduce the risks associated with dependence on a single product or sector.

The evolution of the sugar market in the 19th century had a profound impact on Latin America's economy, particularly on its ability to maintain a dominant position in this field. With the emergence of new competitors in sugar production, notably thanks to the introduction of sugar beet in regions such as Europe, Mauritius and Reunion, Latin America's market share began to decline. This decline has had a direct impact on the ability of Latin American countries to finance their imports from the revenues generated by sugar exports. As revenues from sugar exports declined, Latin America's trade balance began to show a deficit. A trade deficit means that the value of a country's imports exceeds the value of its exports, resulting in a net outflow of capital. This situation led to a process of impoverishment in the region, as nations could no longer generate sufficient export revenues to finance their necessary imports. One of the most striking effects of this economic situation was deindustrialisation. As Latin America's small fledgling industries could not compete with imported manufactured goods, particularly those from Britain, many were forced to close. This de-industrialisation increased the region's dependence on commodity exports, limiting its economic development and increasing its vulnerability to fluctuations in world markets. Latin America's declining market share in the global sugar trade, combined with an inability to develop a competitive industrial sector, has led to an overall economic weakening of the region. This situation has been a key factor in the impoverishment of Latin America and has contributed to its position in the context of Third World countries.

The evolution of cane sugar's share of world sugar production over the centuries shows significant changes, reflecting economic and technological transformations in the sugar industry. In the middle of the 19th century, in 1840, world sugar production was largely dominated by cane sugar, which accounted for 96% of total production. This high proportion reflects the predominance of sugar cane plantations in tropical and subtropical regions, particularly in Latin America, where the climatic conditions were ideal for this crop. This period coincided with a strong demand for sugar around the world, and production was mainly based on labour on colonial plantations. However, at the turn of the 20th century, the situation changed significantly. By 1900, cane sugar's share of world production had fallen to 39%. This drastic fall was mainly due to the emergence and expansion of beet sugar production, particularly in Europe. Technological advances made growing and processing sugar beet more efficient, enabling it to become a competitive alternative to cane sugar. This period was also marked by changes in trade and agricultural policies, encouraging the diversification of sugar sources. Towards the end of the 20th century, in 1990, cane sugar's share of world production rose again, to 78%. This rise can be attributed to a number of factors, including the expansion of sugar cane production areas in tropical countries, improved farming techniques, and increased demand from new developing markets. This recovery in cane sugar's market share also reflects the industry's successful adaptation to the competitive challenges and changing demands of the global market. These data show how the sugar industry has undergone periods of major transformation, with significant economic repercussions for cane sugar producing countries, particularly those in Latin America, and how it has evolved to respond to the changing dynamics of the global market.

Process and Consequences of the Abolition of Slavery

Italian immigrants working on a Brazilian coffee plantation in the early 20th century.

The distinction between the prohibition of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery is essential to understanding the different stages in the fight against slavery throughout history. The ban on the slave trade refers specifically to the legal cessation of the trade in enslaved human beings. This ban targets the transport and sale of slaves, particularly in the context of the transatlantic trade, which was predominant from the 16th to the 19th century. This measure can be seen as a preliminary step towards the abolition of slavery, but it does not mean that slavery as an institution has been eliminated. Individuals already in a state of slavery could remain in that condition even after the prohibition of the slave trade. In contrast, the abolition of slavery concerns the end of slavery as a legal and juridical institution. Abolition means that slavery is no longer legally recognised and that enslaved people obtain their freedom. This implies a deeper and more global change than simply banning the slave trade, as it directly affects the status and rights of enslaved people. Abolition is often the result of long legislative and social struggles, and can sometimes involve military conflict. Although the prohibition of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery are closely linked in their ultimate aim of ending slavery, they represent distinct stages and different processes in the history of this struggle. Understanding this distinction is fundamental to analysing the evolution of slavery-related practices and laws around the world.

The motivations and implications of the prohibition of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery differ considerably, reflecting the complexity of the factors that influenced these two historical processes. The ban on the slave trade, on the one hand, may have been motivated by a combination of moral concerns, economic considerations and international pressure. Abolitionist movements, often guided by ethical and humanitarian principles, played a crucial role in highlighting the horrors and immorality of the slave trade. In addition, changes in economic structures, such as the transition to a system of free and wage labour, also influenced the decision to end the practice. International pressure, including agreements and treaties between nations, was also an important factor in the adoption of legislation banning the slave trade. On the other hand, the abolition of slavery was often the result of more diverse factors. Humanitarian and moral concerns continued to be a key driving force, but political upheavals such as revolutions and civil wars also played a major role. In some cases, the abolition of slavery was a direct consequence of political conflict, as was the case during the American Civil War. In addition, changes in the labour market and the evolution of economies also influenced the decision to end slavery, as many countries began to recognise the need for a free workforce for economic development. These two concepts, although linked in their ultimate goal of ending slavery, had different effects on individuals and societies. The prohibition of the slave trade was often a first step towards abolition, but it did not immediately put an end to existing slavery. The abolition of slavery, on the other hand, had more direct and profound implications for societies, leading to fundamental changes in social and economic structures. It is therefore essential to understand and study these two concepts separately to fully grasp their historical and social impact.

The prohibition of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery, although closely linked, also differ in their legal frameworks and historical chronologies. These differences influence the way in which each process was implemented and the consequences it had. The ban on the slave trade was often implemented through international treaties, national laws or local regulations. These legal measures could be the result of negotiations between countries, international pressure or changes in domestic policy. For example, the Vienna Treaty of 1815 marked an international commitment against the transatlantic slave trade, and the Slave Trade Act of 1807 banned the slave trade in the British Empire. These actions laid the legal foundations for combating the slave trade, but did not immediately lead to the abolition of slavery itself. The abolition of slavery, on the other hand, was often the result of a combination of legislation, executive action, and social and economic change. Abolition could be implemented by legislation, such as the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution, or by executive order, such as Abraham Lincoln's abolition of slavery with the Emancipation Proclamation. Sometimes abolition was the result of wider social changes, such as reform movements or revolutions. These two processes had different impacts on individuals and communities. The prohibition of the slave trade ended a crucial aspect of the institution of slavery, but it did not free those who were already slaves. The abolition of slavery, on the other hand, had a more direct impact on the lives of slaves, by granting them freedom and changing social and economic structures. For all these reasons, it is important to recognise and understand the prohibition of the slave trade and the abolition of slavery as distinct processes, each with its own complexities and implications. This allows for a more nuanced understanding of how slavery was fought and ultimately abolished in different parts of the world.

The prohibition of the slave trade took on increasing international importance in the nineteenth century, a period marked by a growing movement for the abolition of slavery in Europe and the Americas. This abolitionist movement was motivated by a combination of moral, ethical and economic considerations, and led to the adoption of various international agreements and treaties designed to put an end to the slave trade. A significant milestone in this struggle was the declaration issued by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. In the context of negotiations to redraw the map of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars, the European powers took a stand against the slave trade. The declaration of 8 February 1815 condemned the slave trade as "contrary to the principles of humanity and universal morality". This statement represented a crucial moment in the recognition of the inhumanity of the slave trade and established a framework for subsequent international action against the practice. Although the Vienna Declaration marked an important turning point, it was not directly linked to the Vienna Treaty. Its scope was more symbolic and moral, and it did not immediately translate into concrete action to end the slave trade. However, it did lay the foundations for the international community to recognise the need to act against the slave trade, eventually leading to more formal legal prohibitions and coordinated international efforts to end the practice.

The abolition of slavery in Latin America, and Brazil in particular, was a complex and protracted historical process, characterised by a diversity of rhythms and modalities in different countries of the region. In the case of Brazil, the abolition of slavery in 1888 was the result of legal and political developments spanning the entire 19th century. Brazil, whose economy relied heavily on slave labour, particularly on coffee and sugar plantations, was one of the last countries on the American continent to put an end to this practice. The abolition process was influenced by several factors, including international abolitionist movements and socio-economic changes. However, resistance from the Brazilian economic elite, which depended on slave labour, considerably delayed the process. It was not until 1888, with the promulgation of the "Lei Áurea" (Golden Law) by Princess Isabel, that slavery was officially abolished in Brazil. However, this legal abolition was not accompanied by adequate measures to integrate former slaves into society as free citizens, resulting in considerable challenges for them and for Brazilian society as a whole. This period of transition to a post-slavery society was marked by social struggles and major economic challenges. The experience of the abolition of slavery in Latin America demonstrates the complexity of dismantling an institution so deeply rooted in economic and social structures, and the impacts of slavery were felt long after its official abolition.

The "Lei do Ventre Livre", or Free Womb Law, adopted in Brazil in 1871, represented a crucial step in the process of abolishing slavery in that country. This law represented a fundamental change in the legislation on slavery in Brazil and played an important role in the gradual erosion of this institution. Under this law, all children born to slave mothers after its enactment were declared free at birth. Although they remained in the care of their owners until adulthood, often working to offset the 'costs' of maintaining them, the status of these children was legally different from that of their parents. The "Lei do Ventre Livre" represented an implicit recognition of the unacceptability of slavery, and paved the way for subsequent reforms. This law did not put an immediate end to slavery, but it did mark the beginning of a process that would gradually reduce the number of slaves in the country. By guaranteeing freedom for future generations, the law laid the foundations for a slavery-free Brazilian society, although the full effects of the legislation would not be seen until years later. The adoption of the "Lei do Ventre Livre" was the result of a combination of internal and external pressures. The abolitionist movement was gaining strength in Brazil, influenced by similar movements in other parts of the world, while economic and social changes were making the continuation of slavery increasingly untenable. This law was therefore a crucial step towards the complete abolition of slavery in Brazil, which was finally achieved with the "Lei Áurea" in 1888.

Although the "Lei do Ventre Livre" of 1871 was an important step towards the abolition of slavery in Brazil, it did not immediately lead to the end of this institution. It was not until the 1880s that more decisive measures were taken by the Brazilian government. In 1885, a significant step forward was taken with the signing of a new law by Emperor Dom Pedro II. This law provided for the gradual abolition of slavery. It represented a firmer commitment to the eradication of slavery, although it still envisaged a gradual transition rather than an immediate end to slavery. Finally, in 1888, Brazil took a historic step with the promulgation of the "Lei Áurea" or "Golden Law". This law, signed by Princess Isabel during the regency of Dom Pedro II, declared the immediate and unconditional emancipation of all slaves in Brazil. The signing of the "Lei Áurea" marked the official end of slavery in the country and was a major victory for the abolitionist movement. It represented the culmination of several decades of struggle against slavery and was celebrated throughout Brazil as a historic moment. However, it is important to recognise that the abolition of slavery was not accompanied by sufficient measures to integrate former slaves into Brazilian society as free and equal citizens. The post-abolition period presented many challenges, including discrimination, poverty and limited access to education and economic opportunities for former slaves.

The abolition of slavery in Latin America led to a major transformation of the regional economy, with varied and complex consequences. On the one hand, abolition paved the way for the development of a more diversified and dynamic economy. Former slaves, by joining the workforce as free workers, were given the opportunity to contribute to different sectors of the economy. This enabled certain industries to develop and prosper, increasing productivity and economic growth in many regions. This economic diversification was essential for the long-term development of Latin American countries, as it reduced their dependence on economies based mainly on agriculture and mining. However, the transition to a system of free labour was not easy. Many former slaves faced considerable economic challenges, not least persistent discrimination and a lack of access to resources and opportunities. Finding stable employment and securing a decent standard of living have become major challenges for these newly freed people. This situation has been exacerbated by the fact that the abolition of slavery was often not accompanied by adequate policies or programmes to facilitate the economic and social integration of former slaves. In addition, the abolition of slavery had a significant impact on industries that traditionally depended on slave labour, such as agriculture and mining. These sectors had to adapt to new working practices and a potentially smaller and more expensive workforce. This change sometimes led to a period of disruption and adjustment, affecting production and profitability.

The abolition of slavery in Latin America had significant economic consequences, marked mainly by an increase in production costs and a significant transformation in the composition of the workforce. Following the abolition of slavery, plantation owners and industrialists were faced with rising production costs. Previously, these companies had relied on slave labour, which represented an extremely cheap source of labour. With abolition, they were forced to resort to salaried labour, which, even if the wages were low, represented a higher cost than slavery. This transition necessitated a reorganisation of production methods and had an impact on the profitability of businesses, particularly in agriculture and mining, which depended heavily on slave labour. At the same time, the abolition of slavery coincided with a wave of European immigration to Latin America. This immigration was encouraged by the region's governments as a means of compensating for the loss of slave labour and meeting the growing need for workers on plantations and in other sectors of the economy. European immigrants, attracted by the prospect of economic opportunity and a better life, provided a new paid workforce. They brought with them a variety of skills and knowledge, helping to diversify and modernise local economies. However, this massive immigration also created social challenges, particularly in terms of integrating these new arrivals and interacting with local populations, including former slaves and indigenous communities. The abolition of slavery marked a turning point in the economic development of Latin America, characterised by changes in production costs and labour dynamics. These transformations have shaped the societies and economies of the region in the post-abolition years, posing both challenges and new opportunities for growth and development.

Colonisation and Development of Temperate Regions

The differentiation in economic development in Latin America, particularly between the countries at the southern "tip" (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) and those closer to the tropics, is a significant phenomenon of the early twentieth century. The countries at the southern "tip" of Latin America - Argentina, Chile and Uruguay - underwent a successful process of industrialisation during this period. This industrialisation was accompanied by significant demographic and economic growth. In 1800, these countries accounted for around 5% of the total population of Latin America, but by 1913 this share had almost tripled to 14%. At the same time, their share of the region's total exports also rose impressively, from 14% in 1800 to 41% in 1913. These figures testify to significant economic and demographic expansion in these countries. By contrast, the countries closer to the tropics, which often specialised in plantation agriculture, underwent a process of deindustrialisation and were affected by the plantation crisis. This difference in economic trajectory between the countries of the southern tip and those of the tropical interior can be explained by a number of factors, including climatic conditions, the nature of available resources, the economic policies adopted and colonial history. Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, with their more temperate climates, have been able to develop a variety of economic sectors, including industry and livestock, while the tropical countries have concentrated more on plantation agriculture, a dependence that has made them vulnerable to fluctuations in world markets and international competition. These economic dynamics have had profound implications for the development of Latin America, influencing the economic and social trajectories of the region's various countries right up to the present day.

At the end of the 19th century, Argentina distinguished itself by becoming one of the richest countries in the world, thanks to an economic model that differed from that of other Latin American nations. Several factors have contributed to this prosperity and the country's economic development. Firstly, Argentina benefited from a prosperous agricultural sector, with huge areas of land developed for commercial farming. This agricultural land was mainly dedicated to the production of products for export, such as cereals and beef. This export orientation was supported by a favourable climate and fertile soils, as well as the adoption of modern and efficient agricultural techniques, placing Argentina among the world's leading agricultural exporters. Secondly, Argentina has benefited from a significant influx of European capital. This foreign investment has been crucial to the country's economic development, financing the construction of essential infrastructure such as railways, public utilities and industrial development. This injection of capital has stimulated economic growth and helped to diversify the Argentine economy, making it more robust and dynamic. Finally, strong European immigration played a major role in Argentina's development. Immigrants arrived in large numbers, bringing with them new skills and a workforce essential to the country's economic expansion. They were a key factor in the development of agriculture, the construction of infrastructure and urban growth, also contributing to Argentina's cultural and demographic diversity. The combination of these factors has enabled Argentina to enjoy a period of economic prosperity and to stand out from other Latin American countries, which are often less diversified economically and more dependent on the export of raw materials.

The introduction of refrigerated ships at the end of the 19th century marked a significant transformation in Argentina's economy, particularly in its agricultural and cattle sectors. This technological advance enabled Argentina to export its agricultural produce and beef to more distant international markets, transforming its economy towards a more speculative and export-oriented agriculture. This ability to export fresh produce has opened up new economic opportunities for Argentina and strengthened its role as a key supplier on the world market, particularly in Europe. However, it has also led to increased dependence on the UK, which was one of its main trading partners. Although this relationship was beneficial to the Argentine economy in terms of market access and export revenues, it also entailed risks linked to fluctuations in demand and British trade policies. Meanwhile, other Latin American countries that had failed to diversify their economies faced different challenges. While nations like Argentina benefited from their ability to adapt and capitalise on new technologies and emerging markets, countries heavily dependent on plantation agriculture and the export of raw materials struggled. These countries have had to contend with increasing competition and changes in global markets, which have hampered their economic development and growth. Developments in transport technology, particularly the advent of refrigerated ships, have played a crucial role in shaping Argentina's economy and have had a significant impact on the economic landscape of Latin America as a whole. Countries that have been able to adapt and diversify have benefited, while those that have failed to do so have faced increased challenges.

The economic development of Latin America has been profoundly influenced by the legacy of the plantation system established during the Spanish and Portuguese colonial periods. Under the colonial pact, Latin America's economy was primarily geared towards meeting the needs of the colonising countries. This orientation favoured an economy based on the export of raw materials, such as agricultural products and minerals, rather than on the development of local industries. With the acquisition of independence at the beginning of the 19th century, the countries of Latin America had the opportunity to reshape their economies. In theory, they could have followed the example of the United States of America, which adopted protectionist policies to support and develop its fledgling industry. Protectionism, by imposing tariffs on foreign imports, could have helped to protect and encourage industrial development in Latin America, fostering a more diversified and self-sufficient economy. In practice, however, many Latin American countries have continued to focus on exporting commodities. Several factors have contributed to this trend, including an established dependence on export markets, the influence of foreign investment, and sometimes internal resistance to radical economic change. In addition, domestic political and economic conditions in many Latin American countries have made it difficult to implement effective protectionist policies. Although independence offered the possibility of economic transformation, the reality of the political and economic choices made in many Latin American countries led to the perpetuation, to some extent, of the economic structures established during the colonial period. This has had lasting implications for the economic and social development of the region.

The influence of British imperialism in Latin America in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries manifested itself mainly through the exercise of economic and political power, rather than through direct colonisation. Instead of controlling territories, Britain exerted its influence over Latin American countries by engaging them in economic relationships that made them dependent on British terms, particularly in terms of trade and finance. Britain promoted free trade policies in Latin America, allowing British products to penetrate the region's markets on a large scale. This strategy opened up Latin American economies to British manufactured goods, while Latin American countries exported raw materials and agricultural products in return. This trade dynamic benefited the British economy while limiting local industrial development in Latin America. In addition to trade, British investment in key sectors such as railways, mining and utilities was significant. These investments contributed to the development of the region's infrastructure and economy, but also created a financial dependence of Latin American countries on Britain. This has strengthened British economic influence in the region. British pressure to maintain free trade policies also prevented Latin American countries from adopting protectionist policies that could have encouraged the development of their own industries. As a result, British products dominated Latin American markets, and industrial development in the region was hampered.

British economic influence in Latin America in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries had a profound effect on the region's economic development, leading to a series of consequences that perpetuated certain aspects of the colonial pact and contributed to the underdevelopment of these nations. The first notable consequence was deindustrialisation. Under the pressure of free trade favoured by the British, Latin American countries found it difficult to develop their own industries. Faced with competition from British manufactured goods, which were often more advanced and cheaper, the region's fledgling industries were unable to develop. This situation has prevented economic diversification and maintained the region's dependence on foreign markets. Furthermore, Latin America's economy has remained focused on the export of raw materials. The dominance of exports of products such as agricultural produce and minerals has continued to characterise the region's economies, increasing their vulnerability to fluctuations in world markets and limiting their ability to develop a diversified and autonomous economy. Finally, the trade system that has been put in place has largely benefited Great Britain. British trade agreements and investments in the region were designed primarily to meet the needs of the British economy. This was often to the detriment of local economic development in Latin America, perpetuating a form of economic dependence reminiscent of the colonial pact. Together, these factors have contributed to keeping Latin American countries in a state of economic underdevelopment. Although politically independent, these countries have struggled to free themselves from the economic shackles of their colonial past and subsequent imperialist influences, hindering their path towards autonomous and diversified economic development.

India and China: Responding to Western Challenges

India and China share a long and complex history of significant interaction with Western powers, although this interaction has taken different forms in each country.

In India, interaction with the West was profoundly influenced by British colonisation. From the seventeenth century onwards, with the arrival of the British East India Company, India began to be integrated into the global economy dominated by European powers. Over time, what began as a trading relationship evolved into political and cultural domination, culminating in the British Raj in the nineteenth century. Under British rule, India underwent profound economic, social and political transformations. India's response to this domination took various forms, ranging from cooperation and adaptation to resistance and the struggle for independence, which was finally achieved in 1947.

China, for its part, experienced a series of complex interactions with the Western powers, particularly from the mid-nineteenth century onwards. The Opium Wars, initiated by Great Britain to impose the opium trade in China, marked the beginning of a period of increased Western influence in China, known as the "century of humiliation". This period was characterised by territorial concessions, unequal treaties and the loss of sovereignty in certain regions. China responded with a series of reforms, popular uprisings such as the Boxer Rebellion, and finally the 1911 Revolution that ended the Qing Dynasty and established the Republic of China. These interactions with Western powers had a lasting impact on India and China. They not only shaped their economic and political development, but also left a complex cultural and social legacy. India's and China's responses to Western influence have been influenced by their unique historical and cultural contexts, and have shaped their trajectory in the modern world.

The main challenge India faced in its interactions with the West was British colonisation. Initially, the British presence in India was primarily commercial, initiated by the British East India Company in the 17th century. This trading company, endowed with extensive powers, gradually extended its influence in India, exploiting political divisions and internal conflicts to establish its control. In the 18th and early 19th centuries, the East India Company succeeded in extending its control over vast areas of India, using both diplomacy and military force. This period saw the emergence of a British administration in India, although power was exercised indirectly through the Company. The situation changed radically after the Cipaye Revolt in 1857, a major uprising against British rule. In response to this revolt, the British government dissolved the East India Company and took direct control of India, ushering in the era of the British Raj. From 1858 to 1947, India remained under direct British rule, marking a period of profound change in the country's political, economic and social structure. Under the British Raj, India was integrated into the global colonial economy, serving as a market for British products and a source of raw materials. Colonisation had a lasting impact on India, particularly in terms of economic restructuring, changes in social structures and the emergence of the Indian nationalist movement, which eventually led to independence in 1947. This period in India's history is crucial to understanding the country's contemporary dynamics, particularly its relations with the West and its political and economic development.

Throughout its modern history, China has faced major challenges from Western imperialism, even though it has not been directly colonised like India. China's interactions with Western powers in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were marked by coercion and the imposition of so-called "unequal treaties". These unequal treaties were imposed on China following a series of conflicts, notably the Opium Wars, initiated by Great Britain to force China to open up its trade, particularly in opium. Following these conflicts, powers such as Great Britain, France and later the United States forced China to accept disadvantageous agreements. These treaties forced China to open several of its ports to international trade (treaty ports), cede territory, limit customs tariffs and grant extraterritorial privileges to foreign citizens. In addition to the treaty ports, foreign concessions were established in several Chinese cities. These concessions were governed by foreign powers and were outside Chinese jurisdiction. They enabled the Western powers to exert considerable economic and political influence over these regions. This period, often described in China as the "century of humiliation", had a profound impact on Chinese society, economy and politics. It contributed to the weakening of the Qing dynasty, fuelled nationalist and anti-imperialist sentiments, and ultimately led to major political changes, including the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which ended the monarchy in China and established the Republic of China. These experiences with Western imperialism left a lasting legacy in China, influencing its foreign policy, national identity and development trajectory throughout the twentieth century.

India and China, while facing similar challenges from Western imperialism, have responded in distinct ways, shaping their modern identities and political systems differently. In India, the response to the challenges posed by British colonisation was marked by a movement of struggle for independence that gained momentum in the early twentieth century. This struggle, embodied by figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, was characterised by non-violent approaches and campaigns of civil disobedience. India's independence, achieved in 1947, was the result of a combination of internal resistance, political negotiations and changes in British policy after the Second World War. This period had a profound influence on the formation of India's national identity, the establishment of parliamentary democracy and the implementation of policies to overcome the legacy of colonisation. In China, the challenges of Western imperialism played a crucial role in the rise of the Chinese Communist Party. Faced with the weakening of the Qing dynasty and growing frustration at unequal treaties and foreign penetration, a nationalist movement emerged, culminating in the 1911 Revolution and the creation of the Republic of China. However, it was with the Chinese Communist Party's long struggle against the nationalist forces of the Kuomintang, exacerbated by the Japanese invasion and internal problems, that the People's Republic of China was finally established in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong. This transformation marked a radical turning point in Chinese history, establishing a Communist regime that profoundly reshaped the country's political, economic and social structure. Thus, although both India and China have been influenced by their interaction with Western powers, their responses and the results of these interactions have been vastly different, uniquely shaping their respective paths in the modern world.

Evolution of India (1760 - 1914)

From 1760 to 1914, India underwent major transformations under the British Raj, a period characterised by the expansion and consolidation of British control over the subcontinent. This era brought significant changes that affected every aspect of Indian society.

Initially, British influence in India was primarily commercial, led by the British East India Company. However, after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the Company began to play a more political and administrative role. Over time, British control expanded, with the Company taking power over vast areas of India. This expansion was facilitated by a combination of military superiority, political alliances with certain princely states and the exploitation of local rivalries. The impact of British rule in India was wide-ranging and profound. Economically, India was integrated into the global colonial economy, becoming a source of raw materials for British industry and a market for its finished products. This reorientation of the Indian economy had repercussions on traditional production and trade structures. In addition, the development of infrastructure such as railways and the telegraph system contributed to the modernisation of certain aspects of India, although these developments mainly served colonial interests.

Socially and culturally, the British presence introduced new educational, legal and administrative systems. These changes often provoked tensions, as they challenged traditional practices and structures. The response to these challenges took various forms, ranging from adaptation and acceptance to resistance and nationalism. Indian nationalism, in particular, gained momentum in the early 20th century as a reaction to British rule and policies. This movement fought for India's political autonomy and independence, a struggle that intensified over the decades and finally culminated in India's independence in 1947. The period of the British Raj was an era of radical change for India, having a lasting influence on its journey towards modernity. The impact of this period is reflected in many aspects of contemporary India.

The period of British rule in India was marked by significant economic and social change, largely as a result of the introduction of new technologies and infrastructure by the British. These developments had a profound impact on the structure and dynamics of Indian society. One of the most significant changes was the introduction of new modes of transport. Railways, in particular, revolutionised the way goods and people moved across India's vast territory. The construction of vast rail networks not only facilitated trade and the transport of raw materials needed for the colonial economy, but also allowed greater mobility for the population. Similarly, the introduction of steamships improved connections between India and other regions, particularly in terms of trade and troop movements. In addition, the British introduced modern forms of communication such as the telegraph. This innovation enabled faster and more efficient communication between different parts of the country. The telegraph system not only facilitated colonial administration and control, but also played a role in the dissemination of ideas and the exchange of information across India. These developments, while largely designed to serve Britain's interests in India, also helped transform Indian society. They helped break down geographical barriers and contributed to a sense of unity among diverse parts of the country. However, these changes also came with their share of challenges, including the exploitation of resources and the disruption of local economies. Ultimately, the impact of British rule and its technological innovations in India was complex, shaping the country in lasting ways.

During their rule in India, the British introduced profound changes in the structures of government, justice and education, which had a considerable impact on Indian society. The British government and administration in India were characterised by the introduction of a centralised and efficient system of governance, inspired by the British model. This administration, run mainly by British civil servants, established structured control over the country, although Indians also held subordinate positions. This bureaucratic structure enabled the British to effectively manage and control their vast Indian territories. At the same time, the British introduced a system of law and justice based on British legal principles. This system often replaced or modified traditional Indian legal practices, sometimes creating tensions due to the divergence between British laws and local cultural and social contexts. In education, British influence was marked by the establishment of Western-style schools and universities. These institutions offered a modern education and were designed to produce an elite class of Indians who were both familiar with Western ideals and knowledge and capable of serving in the colonial administration. Although this education opened up new opportunities for some, it also aimed to inculcate British values and ideals among the Indian elite, in line with the policy of 'Anglicisation'. These British reforms in India had lasting consequences, contributing to the modernisation of Indian society while at the same time imposing foreign structures and values. They played a crucial role in shaping the new class of Indian intellectuals and leaders who were at the forefront of the independence movement. Thus, the legacy of British rule in India is a complex one, marked by advances in development and modernisation, but also by challenges and divides that have shaped contemporary India.

The British colonial period in India can be divided into two distinct phases, each characterised by different forms of domination and control.

The first phase, from 1760 to 1858, was dominated by the British East India Company. This trading company, which initially focused on trade between India, South-East Asia and Great Britain, gradually extended its hold over India. During this period, the Company consolidated its power through military and diplomatic methods, establishing a dominant presence in several regions of the Indian subcontinent. This phase of colonisation was characterised by economic exploitation, intervention in local political affairs and growing cultural influence. A major event of this period was the Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny. This uprising, one of the most significant against British rule, was triggered by a variety of factors, including the dissatisfaction of the Company's Indian soldiers (the Sepoys), as well as wider political, social and economic grievances. Although the rebellion was put down, it marked a turning point in India's colonial history. In response to the 1857 rebellion, the British government ended the rule of the East India Company and took direct control of India. From 1858, the second phase of British rule began, known as the British Raj. This period was characterised by efforts to modernise and centralise the administration. The British government introduced reforms in various areas, including administration, law, education and infrastructure, in order to strengthen and rationalise its control over India.

From 1858 to 1947, India lived under the British Raj, a period of direct British rule that followed the dissolution of the British East India Company. This era had a profound effect on India's history, characterised by British influence on the Indian economy, society and politics, as well as by the rise of the independence movement. During the British Raj, the Indian economy was oriented to meet the needs of the British Empire. India's natural resources were exploited for British markets, and agriculture was reorganised to focus on export crops. These changes led to economic imbalances, often with detrimental effects on local development. India also became an important market for British manufactured goods, which limited indigenous industrial development. At the same time, the British introduced a series of social and political reforms. They introduced a modern education system, developed infrastructure such as railways and the postal system, and reformed laws and administration. While these reforms brought some benefits in terms of modernisation, they were also aimed at strengthening colonial control and did not always take account of Indian aspirations. This period also witnessed the growth of a powerful movement for Indian independence. Inspired by a variety of leaders and ideologies, from the non-violence advocated by Gandhi to the more radical approaches of other figures, this movement grew in strength and support over the decades. The struggle against British rule culminated in India's independence in 1947, marking the end of the British Raj and the beginning of a new era for the country.

Changes in Indian Foreign Trade

In the 18th century, India's foreign trade underwent major transformations under the influence of the British East India Company and England's trade policies. During this period, India was mainly known for its exports of high-value products such as spices and cotton fabrics, which were in great demand in Europe for their exceptional quality. However, England, anxious to protect its domestic market and its own fledgling textile industry, adopted protectionist measures. In 1700, legislation was introduced to prohibit the sale of Indian fabrics on the English market. This law was designed to protect British textile producers from competition from Indian products, which were seen as a threat to the growing local textile industry. Control of trade between India and Europe was firmly in the hands of the British East India Company. The company not only imported Indian goods into England, but also re-exported them to other European markets. In this way, the Company exercised rigorous control over trade and prices, enabling it to maximise profits while strengthening its economic hold on India. This period in India's commercial history was therefore characterised by strong British influence and control. British trade policies, designed to protect their own economy and maximise the profits of the East India Company, had a profound effect on the structure and dynamics of India's foreign trade.

BEIC ship in Bombay.

Between 1770 and 1813, India underwent a process of deindustrialisation, mainly as a result of the trade policies and control exercised by the British East India Company. During this period, the Company held a monopoly on trade between India and Great Britain, allowing it to impose conditions that favoured British interests. In particular, it tightly regulated the import of British goods into India, while controlling the export of Indian goods to Europe. In England, protectionist policies were adopted to protect the fledgling textile industry from competition from Indian cotton fabrics, renowned for their superior quality. These policies included restrictions and bans on the import of Indian textiles, effectively preventing these products from competing with British textiles on the domestic market. As a result, the Indian textile industry was severely affected, not only losing an important export market, but also facing competition from cheap manufactured goods imported from Britain. This decline in the textile industry, which was an integral part of the Indian economy, marked the beginning of a phase of deindustrialisation in the country. Deindustrialisation not only reduced India's industrial production capacity, but also increased its economic dependence on British imports. This period was therefore crucial in India's economic transformation, leading to a significant change in its economic structure and increasing its dependence on Great Britain.

The mechanisation of cotton spinning in England, which was an integral part of the Industrial Revolution, led to considerable changes in the world cotton trade, with particular implications for India. This period was characterised by significant technological advances in the British textile industry, leading to mass production and reduced production costs. With the introduction of machines such as the mule-jenny and the power loom, England saw a dramatic increase in productivity in cotton spinning and weaving. These innovations enabled British mills to produce cotton textiles at a much higher rate and cost than the traditional methods used in India. As a result, Britain became a world leader in textile production, strengthening its influence on the global cotton market. To supply its factories with raw materials, England turned to massive imports of cotton, particularly from India, where cotton plantations were abundant. This demand influenced Indian agriculture, directing production more towards cotton for export, to the potential detriment of the food crops needed locally. Increased textile production in England also created a pressing need to find new markets for these textiles. India, under British control, became a major market for these products, disrupting and ultimately devastating the indigenous textile industry. British trade policies were adjusted to facilitate the import of British textiles into India, which had a negative impact on local producers. In addition, the increased production capacity in England raised the problem of possible overproduction. The search for external markets to absorb excess textile production became a major concern for British industry, in order to avoid a crisis of overproduction. This dynamic had a considerable effect on the world economy, particularly on cotton-producing and cotton-consuming countries such as India, redefining trade and economic relations on a global scale.

During the 19th century, India underwent significant economic transformations, characterised in particular by the rise of export crops and the gradual deindustrialisation of the country. These changes were largely influenced by British trade policies and the Industrial Revolution in England. The year 1813 marked a turning point in India's commercial history with the abolition of the monopoly of the British East India Company. This decision opened up the Indian market to other British trading companies, accelerating India's integration into the British-dominated global economy. This openness stimulated trade between India and Britain, but it also made the Indian economy more exposed to British influence and control. Against this backdrop, India saw a significant increase in the production of export crops, particularly cotton. Responding to growing demand from the British textile industries, cotton plantations in India expanded rapidly. Indian cotton was exported in large quantities to England, where it was processed in textile mills before being re-imported to India in the form of finished products. These British manufactured textiles were sold on the Indian market at competitive prices, putting pressure on the local textile industry. India's traditional textile industry, once flourishing and renowned for the quality of its products, found itself in difficulty in the face of competition from textiles mass-produced in England. This led to the gradual de-industrialisation of India, with a significant part of its manufacturing industry declining or disappearing. The 19th century was a period of profound change for the Indian economy. The expansion of export crops and the deindustrialisation resulting from British trade policies and the impact of the Industrial Revolution permanently reshaped India's economic structure, leaving a legacy that has influenced its subsequent economic development.

Following its de-industrialisation in the 19th century, India underwent a major economic transformation, moving towards agricultural crops geared towards international trade. This new orientation was mainly centred on the production of cotton and opium, two key crops in the trade of the time. Cotton production acquired crucial importance in India, due to the growing demand from the textile industries in Europe, particularly Great Britain. Indian cotton, exported in large quantities, became an essential raw material for the booming European textile industry. At the same time, India became a major producer of opium, mainly for export to China. Although lucrative, this commercial practice was a source of controversy and conflict, not least because of the Chinese government's bans on opium, which led to the Opium Wars. The orientation of the Indian economy towards these export crops has placed the country at the heart of global agricultural trade. As a result, India has established extensive trade links with Europe and China, becoming a key player in agricultural exports on the international stage. However, this dependence on export crops has also had internal repercussions, notably by affecting food security and making the Indian economy vulnerable to fluctuations in world markets. The period following deindustrialisation in India was characterised by a significant change in its economic orientation. The country moved from a diversified economy with a strong industrial component to one centred on commercial agriculture for export, with profound and lasting consequences for its economic development and international trade relations.

Between 1875 and 1900, India faced a series of catastrophic famines, resulting in the deaths of millions of people. This tragic period was marked by the occurrence of 18 major famines, resulting in the loss of around 26 million lives. These famines were not only attributable to natural causes such as climatic accidents, but were also rooted in the profound structural and political changes imposed by British colonisation. During this period, under the influence of British rule, Indian agriculture underwent a major transformation, with a gradual shift from subsistence crops such as rice and wheat to export crops such as cotton and opium. The result of this shift has been to reduce the land available for local food production, making the Indian population particularly vulnerable to famine. Whenever adverse climatic conditions occurred, they were exacerbated by this increased fragility of the food system. Life expectancy in India during this period was extremely low, at between 23 and 25 years. This low life expectancy, combined with the frequency of famines, posed serious challenges for population renewal. A life expectancy of less than 21 years is considered critical for the survival of a population, as it does not allow sufficient renewal of generations. These famines, which are partly the product of the economic and agricultural policies imposed by British colonialism, illustrate the devastating impact of the colonial pact on India. They reflect not only the consequences of changes in land use and agricultural priorities, but also the adverse effects of economic policies that prioritised British commercial interests over the well-being of the Indian population. These tragic events have left a profound mark on India's history, underlining the human costs of colonisation.

From 1860 to 1910, the Indian economy, under the yoke of British colonialism, underwent a period of significant decline, characterised by a fall in per capita income of around 20%. This decline reflects the profound impact of British colonial policies and practices on the economic structure and well-being of the Indian population. During this period, the emphasis on export crops, principally cotton and opium, at the expense of food crops, not only disrupted food security but also reduced the incomes of local farmers. India, once a renowned exporter of textiles, has seen its traditional industry collapse in the face of competition from British manufactured goods, leading to de-industrialisation and a loss of income for workers in these sectors. The tax policies and levies imposed by the British colonial authorities exacerbated this situation, placing an additional financial burden on the Indian population. These measures not only limited the ability of Indians to maintain or increase their incomes, but also hindered investment in sectors essential to economic development. Moreover, the recurrent famines during this period, aggravated by British policies, not only resulted in massive loss of life but also had a negative impact on the productivity and incomes of the survivors. The frequency and severity of these famines reflect India's heightened vulnerability to food crises under colonial rule. The period from 1860 to 1910 in India was marked by a major economic slowdown and a significant reduction in per capita income, illustrating the devastating impact of British rule on the Indian economy. The 20% fall in per capita income during this period is a clear indicator of the adverse effects of colonial policies on the country's prosperity and economic stability.

Industrial Recovery in India: Limits and Achievements

In the 1860s and 1870s, India began a process of industrial renaissance, marking a significant turning point after a long period of deindustrialisation under British colonialism. This renaissance took place mainly in the cotton spinning and, later, iron and steel sectors, illustrating India's efforts to modernise its industry in line with Western processes. The cotton spinning industry in India underwent significant development during this period. By adopting modern spinning methods and integrating Western technologies, India began to revitalise its traditional textile industry. This revival was a direct response to the challenges posed by competition from British textiles and represented an important step towards the country's reindustrialisation. This transformation enabled India to once again become a competitive textile player on the international market.

Towards the end of the 19th century, India also began to develop its iron and steel industry. The emergence of a modern iron and steel industry marked a crucial development, not only in the production of steel for various industries, but also as an indicator of the adoption of more advanced industrial processes. The creation of this industry has played a central role in supporting the wider industrialisation of India. These industrial developments were facilitated in part by the end of the British East India Company's trading monopoly. The gradual withdrawal of this monopoly opened the way for Indian entrepreneurial initiatives and greater autonomy in the country's economic development. In this way, the end of the 19th century saw India embark on a path towards industrial modernisation and greater economic independence, laying the foundations for future economic growth after decades of domination and constraints imposed by British colonisation.

At the end of the 19th century, India began a significant process of industrial renewal characterised by endogenous development, marking a break with the economic models previously dominated by British colonial interests. This endogenous development was supported by predominantly Indian investment, skills and entrepreneurship, reflecting a new era of self-initiated economic growth in India. During this period, India saw the emergence of an industrial sector financed by Indian capital. Local entrepreneurs and investors played a key role in mobilising the financial resources needed to establish and develop new industries. This involvement of Indian capital has been crucial to the success of industrialisation, allowing more autonomous control and direction of the economic development process. In addition to financial investment, India's industrial revival has also relied on local skills and entrepreneurship. Indian industrialists, having acquired technical expertise and an in-depth understanding of modern industrial processes, have been at the heart of this movement. They not only adopted Western technologies, but also adapted them to meet India's specific needs and conditions. This endogenous development of Indian industry marks an important stage in the country's economic history. It represents a transition towards a more autonomous and self-directed model of economic growth, far removed from the constraints of colonisation. By drawing on its own resources and capabilities, India laid the foundations for its rise as a modern economic power, demonstrating its ability to initiate and sustain its own industrial development.

In 1913, India, despite its attempts at industrial development, remained considerably under-industrialised. This was clearly reflected in its relatively modest contribution to certain key industrial sectors in relation to its population. While it accounted for around 18% of the world's population, its share of important global industries was disproportionately small. In the textile sector, a traditionally strong area for India, the country accounted for just 5% of the world's spinning spindles. This figure is particularly revealing when put into perspective with India's massive population and rich history of textile production. Similarly, in the steel sector, a key indicator of industrial modernisation, India contributed barely 0.1% of global steel production. This poor performance in steel production highlights the significant gaps in the country's industrialisation. Several factors have contributed to this under-industrialisation. The legacy of British colonisation had oriented the Indian economy towards the interests of the British Empire, often to the detriment of local industrial development. In addition, the investment required for full industrialisation was insufficient. Competition with imported manufactured goods, particularly from Britain, also limited the growth of indigenous industry. Finally, the infrastructure and industrial capacity needed to support large-scale production were still being developed. Despite considerable demographic and economic potential, India in 1913 had not yet succeeded in establishing itself as a major industrial power. This situation reflected the persistent challenges of under-industrialisation in a context where the legacy of colonisation and structural limitations still held back the country's industrial development.

During the colonial period, the development of the railways in India did not have the expected knock-on effect on the local economy, particularly on the steel industry. This situation reflects the strategic choices and structural constraints imposed by British colonisation, which influenced the nature and function of India's railway infrastructure. The limited development of the Indian railways during this period did not significantly stimulate the country's steel industry. Much of the railway equipment, including rails and locomotives, was imported directly from England. This dependence on imports prevented the emergence of a robust steel industry in India, reducing the potential impact that rail expansion could have had on the local economy. In terms of the structure of the rail networks, they did not follow a 'spider's web' model facilitating extensive interconnectivity across the country. Instead, they were built on a 'funnel' or 'candlestick' model. This configuration was designed primarily to transport resources from inland regions to coastal ports for export. This orientation of railway infrastructure served the colonial objectives of efficiently transporting India's resources for foreign trade, rather than supporting internal economic development and national integration. This approach to railways in India is a clear manifestation of the colonial pact, where infrastructure was developed not to meet the development needs of the colony, but to facilitate the exploitation and export of resources for the benefit of the colonial metropolis. This dynamic had a lasting impact on the Indian economy, limiting its industrial development and reinforcing its position as a supplier of raw materials to the global economy, rather than becoming an autonomous and dynamic industrial player.

India's economic history under British colonisation is a striking example of underdevelopment within a colonial framework. Several key elements helped to shape this underdevelopment. De-industrialisation was one of the most striking aspects of the Indian economy during the colonial period. Once a centre for textiles and other forms of handicrafts, India saw these sectors decline in the face of competition from British manufactured goods. The trade policies imposed by Great Britain not only favoured imports of their own products into India but also hindered local industrial development. This de-industrialisation led to the loss of jobs and traditional know-how, contributing to a general economic decline. At the same time, there has been a boom in export crops. Under colonial pressure, Indian agriculture was reoriented to favour crops such as cotton and opium, intended for export rather than to meet the needs of the local population. This concentration of the economy on exports benefited the British colonisers but had disastrous consequences for food security in India, reducing the availability of land for food crops. This economic reorientation led to a deterioration in living standards in India. The impoverishment of the population has been exacerbated by the loss of traditional industries and the reduction in food self-sufficiency. This increased vulnerability has made the Indian population particularly susceptible to famines, which were frequent and devastating during the colonial period. These famines were not only the result of natural factors but also the direct consequences of colonial policies, providing a striking illustration of the harmful effects of the colonial pact. Thus, the economic underdevelopment of India during British colonial rule reflects a pattern in which economic policies and structures were geared to serve the interests of the colonial metropolis, to the detriment of the colony's economic well-being and development.

China and the West: Resistance and Adaptation

Between 1650 and 1800, China experienced an era of growth and unity under the Qing dynasty, a period marked by relative stability and economic and cultural development. This period was characterised by several key factors that shaped Chinese history. During this era, China experienced significant economic growth. Agriculture, the mainstay of the Chinese economy, benefited from the introduction of new crops from the Americas, such as potatoes and maize. These crops have helped to increase food production, supporting a growing population and strengthening the country's economic stability. At the same time, China experienced a significant cultural boom, with advances in the arts, literature and philosophy.

The Qing dynasty, which ruled China during this period, played a crucial role in maintaining the country's unity and stability. The Qing emperors strengthened centralised control and expanded China's territory, incorporating regions such as Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang. They also implemented effective policies to manage the empire's ethnic and cultural diversity. In terms of international relations, China maintained limited trade with the West during this period. Trade was regulated and concentrated mainly in Guangzhou, one of the few ports where trade with foreigners was permitted. This restriction reflected a world view centred on China, which saw itself as the "Middle Civilisation", and a certain reluctance to open up fully to Western powers. Thus, from 1650 to 1800, China went through a significant period in its history, marked by economic and cultural growth, unity under the Qing dynasty, and a cautious and limited approach to its commercial interactions with the West. This era played a fundamental role in shaping China's future development.

In the centuries leading up to the 19th century, China adopted restrictive trade policies towards the West, with the aim of tightly controlling foreign trade and limiting foreign influence on its territory. These policies were rooted in China's desire to preserve its cultural and political autonomy in the face of Western expansion. Western, mainly European, merchants were restricted to docking at designated ports, Canton being the most notable of these. This restriction was designed to concentrate international trade in specific areas, making it easier for the Chinese government to monitor and regulate interactions with foreigners. Other Chinese ports remained closed to Western traders, part of a wider strategy to protect the country from excessive foreign influence and maintain domestic stability. The opium trade became a central aspect of China's relations with the West, particularly Britain. Opium, imported into China by the British, was exchanged for valuable Chinese products such as silk, spices and porcelain. However, this lucrative trade for the British had devastating consequences for Chinese society, leading to widespread opium addiction and exacerbating social and economic problems. These trade policies and practices played a crucial role in the Sino-Western relationship at the time, reflecting China's desire to preserve its independence while managing the challenges posed by the expanding Western powers. However, the controversial opium trade eventually led to major conflicts, notably the Opium Wars, which marked a turning point in China's history and led to the country being forced to open up to international trade.

In the second half of the 19th century, relations between China and the West, particularly Great Britain, became considerably strained as a result of the opium trade. China, faced with its population's growing addiction to opium and the resulting social and economic damage, sought to ban the trade. This opposition led to direct confrontations with Great Britain, which saw the opium trade as a lucrative source of profit. The First Opium War, which began in 1839, was a key moment in this tension. It broke out as a result of Chinese efforts to ban opium imports and destroy British stocks. Britain, keen to defend its commercial interests, responded with military intervention. The war ended in a humiliating defeat for China, which had to give in to several British demands. The Treaty of Nanking, signed in 1842, marked the end of the war and imposed particularly onerous conditions on China. The treaty obliged China to open five new ports to British trade, considerably increasing British merchants' access to Chinese markets. In addition, it limited import taxes to a maximum of 5%, hampering China's ability to protect its own industries and regulate foreign trade. The treaty also gave the British the right to trade freely in China, including products such as opium, exacerbating addiction problems and social unrest in China. In addition, certain Chinese regions were annexed to the British colonial empire, representing a significant loss of sovereignty for China. These concessions not only weakened China's position on the international stage, but also marked the beginning of a period of humiliation for the country. The Treaty of Nanking became emblematic of Western exploitation and influence in China, paving the way for other unequal treaties and increased interference in Chinese affairs. This period was a turning point in Chinese history, illustrating China's challenges and struggles in the face of Western expansion and forced modernisation.

Signing of the Treaty of Nanking.

The Second Opium War, which began in 1858, was a major conflict that pitted the Chinese Empire against the combined forces of Britain, France and, to a lesser extent, the United States. The war had far-reaching implications and was a key moment in the history of relations between China and the Western powers. The context of the war was marked by ongoing tensions over the opium trade and growing Western demands for greater access to the Chinese market. The Western powers, using their military and technological superiority, exerted considerable pressure on China. The war highlighted the determination of Western states to consolidate their power and extend their influence in China. The victory of the Western forces led to the signing of new treaties that had a lasting impact on China's sovereignty and economy. These treaties opened up several more ports to international trade and granted the Western powers the right to occupy not only coastal areas but also territories inland from China. This period was also marked by the gunboat policy. This strategy consisted of the West demonstrating its military superiority, notably by sailing along Chinese rivers with armed ships bearing visible European symbols. The aim was to intimidate and demonstrate Western power to the local populations, thereby helping to impose their political and commercial will on China. The Second Opium War was a decisive turning point in Chinese history, illustrating the imbalance of power in favour of the West and accelerating China's opening up to international trade. The consequences of this war significantly eroded China's sovereignty, marking a period of national humiliation and loss of autonomy in the face of Western imperialist powers.

From the 1860s onwards, China underwent a drastic transformation in its status on the international stage, finding itself in a position of semi-protectorate under the growing influence of the Western powers. This situation resulted from the consequences of the Opium Wars and the unequal treaties that followed, which considerably reduced China's sovereignty. During this period, China's military power weakened and its political autonomy diminished. The military defeats it suffered at the hands of the Western powers and the agreements that followed limited China's ability to exercise effective control over its foreign policy and defence. As a result, China was no longer able to effectively oppose Western influence and intervention. The Western powers, principally Britain and France, dominated China's maritime trade. This domination translated into foreign control over many Chinese ports opened by the unequal treaties, restricting China's access to autonomous maritime trade and limiting its integration into the growing global economy. However, it is important to note that Western influence in China was geographically limited. Although Western powers exerted considerable influence in coastal regions and along major rivers, the interior of the country remained largely under the control of the Chinese government. Western influence was concentrated around strategic ports and waterways, leaving much of China under the direct authority of its traditional government. As a result, this period of Chinese history was marked by a precarious balance between increasing foreign influence in some areas and the maintenance of a measure of control and autonomy in others. China's situation as a semi-protectorate illustrated the complex challenges the country faced in the face of Western imperialist advance and the pressures of modernisation.

Egypt: Unfinished Industrialisation

Portrait of Mehemet Ali by Louis-Charles-Auguste Couder (1840).

Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt, which began in 1798, was an integral part of his strategic ambitions to extend French influence in the Middle East. This military and political undertaking had several key objectives, reflecting Napoleon's vision for France on the international stage. One of the main motivations for the campaign was to thwart British commercial interests. Napoleon aimed to disrupt British trade routes, particularly those to India, then a key colony of the British Empire. By taking control of Egypt, Napoleon hoped to weaken the British position by cutting off their access to vital trade routes. Establishing a French presence in Egypt was also seen as a means of challenging British power and influence in the region. Napoleon saw Egypt as a strategic foothold for France in the Middle East, allowing it to project its military and political power into the region. However, despite its ambitions, the campaign in Egypt encountered a number of challenges and setbacks. The French forces encountered resistance from the Egyptians and British military intervention, particularly during the Battle of Aboukir. The campaign had far-reaching consequences for both France and Egypt, influencing international relations at the time and leaving a lasting legacy in the region. Ultimately, Napoleon's Egyptian campaign is an example of French expansionism in the late eighteenth century, illustrating Napoleon's strategic ambitions and his desire to strengthen France's position on the world stage, while challenging British supremacy.

The Ottoman Empire, recognising Muhammad Ali Pasha's abilities and skills, appointed him Governor of Egypt in 1805. This decision reflected the Ottoman Empire's confidence in Muhammad Ali's ability to administer this key province effectively. Muhammad Ali Pasha had distinguished himself as a military leader, demonstrating his skill and efficiency in various military confrontations. His experience and expertise in military leadership were invaluable assets to the Ottoman Empire as it sought to ensure order and stability in its provinces. Egypt, in particular, was a strategically and economically important area for the Empire, and its effective management was essential to maintaining Ottoman influence and control in the region. Furthermore, Muhammad Ali was a member of the Ottoman elite, which reinforced the Empire's confidence in his loyalty and ability to implement Ottoman policies and directives in Egypt. Muhammad Ali's appointment as governor therefore reflected a calculated strategy on the part of the Ottoman Empire to maintain its hold on Egypt while delegating day-to-day administration to a competent and proven leader. Under his governance, Muhammad Ali undertook major reforms that transformed not only the Egyptian army and economy but also the social and political structure of the region. Although he was appointed by the Ottoman Empire, his actions often reflected his own ambitions and vision for Egypt, which sometimes led to tensions between his interests and those of the Ottoman Empire. Nevertheless, his appointment marked the beginning of a significant period in Egyptian history, characterised by profound change and modernisation.

Muhammad Ali Pasha, of Albanian-Egyptian origin, played a crucial role in the history of Egypt and Sudan as Wāli (governor) from 1805 to 1849. His rise to power took place against a backdrop of political instability in Egypt, but he managed to consolidate his control over the country through a combination of military strength and skilful political strategies. Under his leadership, Muhammad Ali Pasha undertook a series of reforms that fundamentally modernised the Egyptian economy and army. His efforts to reorganise the army were particularly remarkable, drawing on Western models to transform the Egyptian army into a modern and effective military force. He also initiated major economic reforms aimed at developing agriculture, encouraging industrialisation and stimulating trade. Muhammad Ali is often regarded as one of the pioneers of modern Egypt, having laid the foundations for a more centralised and modernised Egyptian state. His reforms had a lasting impact on Egypt's social, economic and military structure, profoundly influencing the country's subsequent development. He died in 1849 at the age of 82, leaving behind a legacy of modernisation and significant changes that have shaped Egyptian history. His period of rule remains a defining chapter in Egyptian history, marking an important transition to modernity and independence.

Development strategies under Mehemet Ali

Egypt under the reign of Muhammad Ali Pasha presented a notable example of resistance to underdevelopment at a time when many other parts of the world were subject to the influence and control of colonial powers. Muhammad Ali, with a clear vision of modernisation and industrialisation, initiated a series of reforms and policies that transformed Egypt and propelled it onto the path of economic progress and development. One of the most striking aspects of his reign was the massive investment in infrastructure. Muhammad Ali understood the importance of solid infrastructure for economic development and therefore invested in the construction of canals, roads and other infrastructure projects. These investments not only improved internal communications and trade in Egypt, but also laid the foundations for future industrialisation. Muhammad Ali also established a strong, centralised government, which was crucial to the effective implementation of his reforms. This centralisation of power enabled Egypt to be managed in a more coherent and organised way, thereby promoting stability and administrative efficiency. He reformed government administration, making the state apparatus more efficient and better able to support his modernisation ambitions. In addition, while seeking to limit Egypt's dependence on foreign powers, Muhammad Ali recognised the importance of foreign trade and investment for economic development. He therefore encouraged such trade and investment, while ensuring that it served Egypt's economic interests first and foremost. Under his leadership, Egypt saw a significant increase in agricultural production, the development of a fledgling textile industry and an improvement in its military capacity. These advances enabled Egypt to become more self-sufficient and less dependent on foreign influences. Muhammad Ali's approach to governance and economic development enabled Egypt to resist the trends of underdevelopment that were common at the time. His reforms marked a decisive turning point in Egypt's history, laying the foundations for economic and social development for future generations.

Muhammad Ali Pasha, as Governor of Egypt, played a decisive role in modernising the Egyptian economy through a series of ambitious reforms. These reforms affected various aspects of the Egyptian economy and society, making a significant contribution to the country's economic growth. One of his major initiatives was the introduction of new crops and agricultural techniques. Muhammad Ali introduced lucrative crops such as cotton, which became a key export for Egypt. By modernising farming methods, he increased agricultural production, thereby strengthening the country's economy and increasing its export capacity. Muhammad Ali also established state monopolies over several key industries. By controlling the production of tobacco, salt and gunpowder, among others, he succeeded in increasing government revenues. These monopolies provided the government with a stable source of income and enabled it to finance other reform and development projects. In addition to agricultural and industrial reforms, Muhammad Ali placed particular emphasis on infrastructure development. He invested in the construction of roads, canals and ports, improving transport networks and facilitating trade and commerce. This infrastructure not only supported domestic trade but also improved Egypt's ability to trade with the rest of the world. Muhammad Ali Pasha's economic reforms marked a turning point in Egypt's history. They helped modernise the Egyptian economy and lay the foundations for its future growth. His visionary approach to economic development had a lasting impact on Egypt, propelling it onto the path of progress and modernity.

The reign of Mehemet Ali (Muhammad Ali Pasha) in Egypt was characterised by a series of agricultural reforms designed to steer the country towards economic renewal, based on both traditional and innovative values and methods. The main aim of these agricultural reforms was to increase the productivity of the agricultural sector, which formed the backbone of the Egyptian economy. To achieve this, Muhammad Ali introduced new crops and farming techniques. These innovations included the introduction of more profitable and resistant crop varieties, as well as the adoption of modern, more efficient farming methods. In addition to these changes in farming practices, he has focused on the development of agriculture-related infrastructure. The construction of irrigation systems and canals has been a key part of his strategy to increase agricultural productivity. These infrastructures have not only improved the efficiency of water use for agriculture, but have also extended the area of arable land. Muhammad Ali also recognised the importance of education and research in the agricultural sector. He created agricultural schools and research institutes to train farmers in modern techniques and promote innovation in farming practices. This approach has helped to modernise Egyptian agriculture and improve farmers' knowledge and skills. As a result, these reforms have had a significant positive impact on Egypt's rural economy. Not only have they increased food production and made the country more self-sufficient, but they have also created jobs and stimulated economic growth in rural areas. Through these reforms, Muhammad Ali laid the foundations for a more productive and modern Egyptian agriculture, while revitalising rural areas and improving farmers' living standards.

The industrial programme initiated by Muhammad Ali Pasha in Egypt marked a significant turning point in the country's economic history, as part of an ambitious vision of modernisation and economic diversification. This industrial programme involved the construction of factories and manufacturing plants in different parts of Egypt. These industrial establishments were designed to produce a variety of goods, from textiles to armaments. The aim was to reduce Egypt's dependence on foreign imports and develop a strong local industrial base. Muhammad Ali also set out to develop new technologies and industries. He encouraged innovation and the adoption of modern technologies to improve the efficiency and productivity of Egyptian industries. This approach has helped to modernise Egyptian industry and make it more competitive. A crucial element of Muhammad Ali's industrial programme was the creation of a modern transport system. The development of transport infrastructure, including roads and canals, was essential to facilitate the movement of goods and people. These infrastructures have played a key role in integrating the Egyptian economy and supporting industrial and commercial activity. These industrial initiatives have helped to stimulate economic growth in Egypt. They have created many jobs, particularly in urban areas, thereby contributing to urbanisation and economic development. In addition, these measures enabled Egypt to become more self-sufficient and reduce its dependence on foreign powers. Muhammad Ali's industrial programme played a central role in the modernisation of Egypt. It transformed the Egyptian economic landscape, laying the foundations for a more diversified, modern and self-sufficient economy and marking an important step in the process of transforming and modernising Egypt.

During the reign of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, Egypt was a relatively small and underdeveloped country compared to European powers such as Russia and Spain. The latter, with their vast territories, robust economies, advanced infrastructures and rich cultural and political heritage, represented well-established nations on the world stage. Egypt, on the other hand, although rich in its own cultural and historical heritage, faced considerable economic and technological challenges. However, Muhammad Ali's efforts to modernise and industrialise marked a significant change for the country. The reforms he introduced transformed many aspects of Egyptian society and the economy. Under his leadership, Egypt saw a marked improvement in its infrastructure, agriculture, industry and military. These changes helped to increase economic productivity, stimulate growth and improve the population's standard of living. By the end of his reign, Egypt had begun to catch up with European countries in terms of industrial and economic development. However, it is important to note that Egypt's rise did not last indefinitely. Despite the significant progress made under Muhammad Ali, Egypt continued to face challenges, particularly in terms of international competition and external pressures. The advances made by Egypt, while significant, did not allow the country to maintain a position of sustainable superiority over established European powers such as Russia and Spain. Despite this, Muhammad Ali's legacy of modernisation had a lasting impact on Egypt's future development.

From 1840 onwards, Egypt, under the governance of Muhammad Ali and his successors, began to face a series of crises that marked the beginning of a gradual decline. These challenges had a profound impact on the country, both economically and politically. One of the main problems facing Egypt was the slowdown in its economy. Muhammad Ali's ambitions for modernisation and industrialisation, while initially successful, began to face obstacles. The high costs associated with these programmes, combined with less effective management, led to increasing economic difficulties. In addition, massive investment in infrastructure and the army weighed heavily on the country's finances. At the same time, Egypt was under increasing pressure from foreign powers, particularly Britain and France. These nations sought to extend their influence in Egypt for strategic and economic reasons. This foreign interference limited Egypt's autonomy and hampered its ability to pursue an independent policy. Muhammad Ali's successors found it difficult to maintain the same level of control and power as their predecessor. Faced with internal and external challenges, they were unable to effectively continue the work of modernisation begun by Muhammad Ali. This situation was exacerbated by internal power struggles and less competent management. By the end of the nineteenth century, the cumulative result was a weakened and less prosperous Egypt than it had been at the height of Muhammad Ali's era. The country was more vulnerable to foreign influences and had lost some of the economic momentum and prestige it had built up at the turn of the century. This weakening of Egypt paved the way for new phases in its history, marked by increased colonial influence and significant political changes.

The 1839 trade agreement, known as the Treaty of London, between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire had a significant impact on Egypt. This agreement symbolised a key stage in the expansion of British influence in Egypt, a territory then under the nominal sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire. As part of the agreement, Britain was granted a number of privileges and concessions in Egypt by the Ottoman Empire. These included the right to protect British interests in Egypt, which gave Britain considerable influence over Egyptian political and economic affairs. In addition, the treaty allowed Britain to establish consulates and other diplomatic missions, strengthening its presence and role in the country. The military assistance and economic support provided by Britain to Egypt under the agreement also helped to increase its influence in the region. These measures enabled the United Kingdom to exercise greater control over Egypt, which was increasingly becoming a strategic issue in the rivalry between the great European powers, not least because of its key position on the route to India. The Treaty of London therefore played an important role in consolidating Britain's position as the dominant power in Egypt. It marked a step towards greater British interference in Egyptian affairs, paving the way for even more direct influence in subsequent decades. As a result, Egypt's autonomy was increasingly compromised, and the country gradually came under the growing influence of British interests.

Despite efforts at modernisation and attempts to achieve greater independence under Muhammad Ali and his successors, Egypt eventually found itself in confrontation with Britain, a rising colonial power. This opposition led to direct conflict, which ended in defeat for Egypt. As a result of this defeat, Egypt suffered severe consequences. One of the most significant impacts was the dismantling of its navy and army. This measure not only reduced the country's military capacity, but also diminished its regional power and influence. The loss of these armed forces meant that Egypt lost a crucial instrument of sovereignty and defence, limiting its ability to protect itself against further foreign interference. At the same time, the Egyptian economy faced increased competition from British products. Britain's industrial superiority and unequal trade agreements placed British products in an advantageous position on the Egyptian market, competing with local industries and exacerbating the country's economic difficulties. This competition hampered Egypt's industrial development and increased its economic dependence on foreign powers. These events marked a turning point in Egypt's history, symbolising the end of its aspirations for complete independence and the acceleration of its integration into the global economic and political order dominated by the European powers. The defeat at the hands of the British and the ensuing consequences considerably weakened Egypt, both militarily and economically, placing it under increasing foreign influence.

The Treaty of London of 1839 marked a turning point in relations between Egypt and the United Kingdom, significantly transforming their dynamic. Prior to the Treaty, interaction between the two countries was relatively limited, with few direct exchanges or substantial commitments. With the adoption of the Treaty of London, the UK began to play a much more active and influential role in Egypt. The Treaty enabled the UK to extend its influence in the country through the provision of military assistance and economic support. This British intervention not only strengthened the UK's presence and impact in Egypt, but also created closer ties between the two nations. The increased relationship between Egypt and the UK has led to a more complex interdependence. On the one hand, Britain gained greater access to Egyptian resources and markets, and on the other, Egypt benefited from British support for its modernisation and defence programmes. However, the relationship was not balanced, with Britain exerting considerable influence over Egypt's political and economic affairs. After 1839, Egypt gradually became a key player in the British sphere of influence, not least because of its strategic position on the trade routes to India. This period saw Egypt move from relative autonomy to a role as a junior partner in British imperial policy. In short, the Treaty of London profoundly altered relations between Egypt and the United Kingdom, making them more closely linked but also more asymmetrical in favour of British interests.

The 1839 Treaty of London had significant implications for Egypt's autonomy, marking a stage in the growth of foreign, and particularly British, influence in the country. By granting privileges and concessions to Great Britain, the treaty reduced Egypt's room for manoeuvre in domestic and foreign policy. The granting of these privileges to Britain enabled the latter to exert considerable influence over Egypt's political and economic affairs. This included aspects such as the right to protect British interests, the establishment of diplomatic missions, and increased influence over trade and investment in Egypt. This placed Egypt in a position of increasing dependence on Britain, limiting its ability to make independent decisions and maintain a sovereign policy. For Muhammad Ali, these developments presented a significant challenge. Although he set about modernising and strengthening Egypt, the growth of foreign influence, embodied by Britain, threatened his ability to govern on his own terms. The concessions made to Britain, and the growing influence of foreign powers in general, could be seen as a threat to his rule and his ambitions for reform. The Treaty of London contributed to a significant change in Egypt's international status, moving it from a degree of autonomy to a position increasingly subordinate to British interests and influences. This change had a lasting impact on Egypt's political and economic trajectory in the nineteenth century.

After 1839, the Muhammad Ali regime in Egypt faced a series of significant challenges that hindered its trajectory of modernisation and industrialisation. These difficulties marked a change in the country's fortunes and had a significant impact on its subsequent development. The Egyptian economy, which had enjoyed a period of growth and modernisation under Muhammad Ali, began to show signs of slowing down. The high costs associated with the ambitious modernisation and industrialisation programmes weighed heavily on the country's finances. In addition, Egypt's ability to sustain these programmes was hampered by less effective management and internal challenges. At the same time, Egypt faced increasing pressure from foreign powers, particularly Britain and France. These powers sought to extend their influence in Egypt for strategic and economic reasons, thereby limiting the country's autonomy. The growing influence of these powers also had the effect of limiting the ability of Muhammad Ali's successors to exercise the same level of control and power. By the end of the nineteenth century, Egypt was in a weakened position. The progress made during Muhammad Ali's reign in terms of economic modernisation and military build-up had not been sufficient to maintain Egypt as an independent regional power. The country had become more vulnerable to foreign influences and had lost some of the prosperity and power it had gained at the height of Muhammad Ali's era. The period after 1839 was a turning point for Egypt, marked by economic hardship, increased external political pressure, and a decline in the autonomy and power that had characterised the early nineteenth century under Muhammad Ali.

Integrating the Egyptian economy into the global context

The integration of the Egyptian economy into the global economic system, particularly in the 19th century, was propelled by several key factors. These levers played a crucial role in accelerating this integration and aligning the Egyptian economy with global dynamics.

The American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, had significant global repercussions, notably influencing the Egyptian economy through the cotton market. During this period, the United States was one of the world's largest cotton producers and exporters. However, the American Civil War led to major disruptions in the production and export of American cotton. In particular, the maritime blockades imposed by the Union on the Confederate States reduced the availability of American cotton on world markets, creating a significant gap in world supply. This situation presented an economic opportunity for Egypt. As a cotton producer, Egypt was able to increase production to meet growing demand, particularly in Europe where the industrial revolution was in full swing. This rise in demand led to a period of prosperity for the Egyptian economy, characterised by increased income from cotton exports. The effect of the American Civil War on the cotton market thus played a key role in Egypt's economic integration into the global economic system. This encouraged the continued modernisation of Egyptian agriculture and strengthened the country's position as a major supplier of cotton on the international stage. Although the American Civil War was primarily an American event, its economic implications extended far beyond the borders of the United States, impacting countries such as Egypt in significant ways. It enabled Egypt to capitalise on changes in the world cotton market, strengthening its role in the global economy and contributing to its economic development during this period.

Inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1869.

The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 represented a decisive moment for Egypt, having a considerable impact on its economy and international relations. The canal, linking the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, quickly became a strategic crossing point for international maritime trade. The construction of the canal was a colossal project, financed in part by the sale of shares to international investors, including several European countries. Once open, the canal became a major source of revenue for Egypt thanks to the tolls collected from ships transiting the waterway. This revenue was vital for the Egyptian economy, as it represented a new source of government funds. However, this period was also marked by the accumulation of large debts by Egypt. These debts were due to a variety of factors, including the costs associated with the construction of the canal, military expenditure and investment in the modernisation of the country. The scale of Egypt's indebtedness created growing tensions with its creditors, particularly the European countries which held a large proportion of this debt. These financial tensions were a key factor that led to the occupation of Egypt by the United Kingdom in 1882. The Egyptian debt gave the British a pretext to intervene in Egyptian affairs, justifying their occupation as a means of protecting their financial interests. This intervention marked the beginning of a period of British domination in Egypt, putting an end to the relative autonomy the country had previously enjoyed. The opening of the Suez Canal played a dual role for Egypt: it boosted its economy by making the country a key player in international maritime trade, but it also contributed to financial difficulties that eventually led to a loss of political independence from the European powers, particularly the United Kingdom.

The British occupation of Egypt, which began in 1882, was a significant period in Egyptian history, marked by major political and economic changes. The occupation began following the Urabi revolt, a nationalist and anti-colonial movement led by Ahmed 'Urabi. The Urabi revolt was a response to increasing foreign intervention and the degradation of Egyptian sovereignty. Egyptians, led by Ahmed 'Urabi, sought to resist foreign influence, particularly from Britain and France, and to reassert their country's independence. The revolt underlined the growing tensions in Egypt in the face of foreign interference and economic pressure. In response to the revolt, the UK sent military forces to occupy Egypt, asserting its control over the country. Officially, the British justified their intervention by the need to protect their financial interests in Egypt, particularly in view of the country's heavy indebtedness to the European powers. In addition, the United Kingdom emphasised the strategic importance of the Suez Canal, which was vital for the British Empire, particularly for maintaining its trade route to India. During the occupation, which lasted until 1936, the UK exercised effective control over the Egyptian government and economy, while maintaining a nominal degree of Egyptian autonomy. This period was marked by a dominant British influence in Egyptian affairs, affecting the country's political and economic development. The British occupation ended in 1936 with the signing of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty. This treaty granted Egypt formal independence, although certain limitations were maintained. This treaty was a step towards the recognition of Egyptian independence, although British influence continued to be felt in certain areas. The British occupation of Egypt was a complex period, characterised by strategic, economic and political issues. It profoundly influenced the course of Egyptian history, shaping relations between Egypt and the European powers, and had a lasting impact on the country's political and economic structure.

History and Consequences of Colonisation in Black Africa

The Transatlantic Slave Trade: Origins and Development

The Atlantic slave trade, which took place between the 16th and 19th centuries, represents a dark and tragic chapter in human history. It involved the systematic trade of enslaved people, mainly from Africa to the Americas, and constitutes the largest forced migration in history. During this period, millions of Africans were captured, often by raids or through trade networks established in African kingdoms, and transported across the Atlantic Ocean in extremely inhumane conditions. This transatlantic journey, known as the "Middle Passage", was characterised by appalling living conditions, disease, abuse and a high mortality rate. On arrival in the Americas, these enslaved Africans were sold into slavery and forced to work on sugar, tobacco and cotton plantations, as well as in mines and other enterprises requiring abundant, cheap labour. Forced labour, inhumane treatment and harsh living conditions were commonplace in these environments. The Atlantic slave trade had a profound and lasting impact not only on the individuals directly involved, but also on African, American and European societies. It contributed to the economic development of the Americas at the cost of millions of human lives and left a legacy of suffering, social and economic imbalances, and racial discrimination that persists to this day.

The Atlantic slave trade, although an extension of the trans-Saharan slave trade, had distinct characteristics and a profoundly different historical impact. The Trans-Saharan trade, which predated the Atlantic trade by centuries, involved the transport of slaves from West Africa to North Africa and the Middle East. Although this slave trade also involved suffering and exploitation, it differed from the Atlantic slave trade in several important ways. Firstly, the Atlantic trade involved much longer distances. Slaves were transported from West and Central Africa to the Americas, a transoceanic journey that spanned thousands of kilometres. This distance contributed to making the journey particularly brutal and dangerous, with high mortality rates during the crossing. Secondly, the Atlantic slave trade was on an unprecedented scale. Millions of slaves were transported across the Atlantic Ocean, making the trade a massive and central phenomenon in the global economy of the time. This unprecedented scale had a profound and lasting impact on African, European and American societies. Finally, the Atlantic slave trade was characterised by extreme violence and exploitation. Living conditions on the slave ships were inhumane, with slaves crammed into confined spaces and subjected to systematic brutality and abuse. Once in the Americas, they were forced to work in brutal conditions, particularly on plantations and in mines.

The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on the history of the Americas and its enduring legacy is a crucial and often painful aspect of world history. This chapter of history profoundly shaped the societies, economies and cultures of the entire American continent, as well as many other regions of the world. The abolition of the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century was the result of a convergence of legal, political and social changes. A growing movement for the abolition of slavery, driven by moral considerations, economic pressures and political struggles, led to the gradual adoption of laws and international treaties putting an end to the practice. However, the legacy of the Atlantic slave trade is far from being a closed chapter in history. Its repercussions continue to be felt in many parts of the world, notably through racial, economic and social inequalities. Descendants of Africans deported during the slave trade still face challenges today related to discrimination, cultural identity and historical injustice. The subject of the Atlantic slave trade remains an important point of discussion and study, not only for understanding the past but also for addressing contemporary issues of social justice, reparation and reconciliation. Acknowledging this legacy and understanding its long-term impacts are essential to building a more just and inclusive future.

The transatlantic slave trade, which extended from the early 16th century to the mid-19th century, represents one of the largest forced movements of people in human history. It is estimated that, during this period, between 10 and 12 million Africans were captured and forcibly shipped to the Americas. This vast undertaking involved the mass displacement of African men, women and children, uprooted from their homes and communities. They were transported under extremely difficult and inhumane conditions across the Atlantic, in a journey often referred to as the "Middle Crossing". Many did not survive the journey due to deplorable living conditions, disease and violence. Those who did survive were sold into slavery on plantations, in mines and other labour-intensive industries in the Americas. Forced labour and brutal living conditions were the daily lot of these slaves, with a devastating impact on their physical and mental health. The scale of the transatlantic slave trade and the millions of lives it affected have left a deep and lasting legacy. It had a devastating impact on African societies and played a central role in the economic and social history of the Americas. The consequences of the slave trade continue to be felt today, affecting discourses on race, identity and social justice around the world.

The origins of the Atlantic slave trade can be traced back to the early sixteenth century, when the Portuguese explored and established trading posts along the West African coast. This period marked the beginning of one of the darkest and most tragic undertakings in human history. In their quest for new trade routes and wealth, the Portuguese began by trading products such as gold, ivory and spices with the local African populations. However, they soon recognised the lucrative potential of the slave trade. The growing demand for slave labour in the Americas, where the emerging European colonies needed an abundant workforce to work on sugar, tobacco and cotton plantations, as well as in the mines, provided a market for the slave trade. The Portuguese, with their trading posts and established maritime network, were in a position to become the first and one of the most important players in this transatlantic slave trade. They facilitated the transport of millions of Africans to the Americas, laying the foundations for an enterprise that would spread and involve other European nations, such as Spain, France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. This beginning of the Atlantic slave trade had a profound impact not only on the millions of Africans torn from their homeland, but also on the economic, social and cultural development of the Americas. It also left lasting scars on the African continent, disrupting its social and political structures and having repercussions that continue to this day.

As it expanded in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Atlantic slave trade became an enterprise involving several European powers. Spain, England and France, among others, actively participated in the trade, attracted by the substantial profits it generated. Most of the enslaved people were captured in various regions of West and Central Africa. They were then transported across the Atlantic Ocean in extremely difficult conditions. Slave ships were designed to maximise the number of captives transported, with no regard for their well-being or health. The slaves were crammed into the holds of the ships, often chained, in conditions of extreme promiscuity, insalubrity and inhumanity. The "Middle Passage", the name given to the transatlantic voyage of the slave ships, was notoriously long and perilous. Conditions on board were so appalling that many slaves did not survive the journey. They succumbed to disease, malnutrition and ill-treatment, or found themselves in such a state of despair that they took their own lives. The transatlantic slave trade had devastating consequences, not only for the millions of Africans who fell victim to it, but also for their societies as a whole. The forced and massive displacement of populations, the trauma and social disruption have profoundly affected the African continent. Similarly, the arrival of these slaves in the Americas played a central role in the economic, social and cultural history of that continent, with repercussions that are still being felt today.

In the 16th century, the beginnings of the Atlantic slave trade marked the start of a dark and painful period in human history. Although the number of slaves transported across the Atlantic during this initial period was relatively small compared with what would become of them in the 17th and 18th centuries, the foundations of this devastating enterprise had already been laid. During these early decades, the European powers, principally Portugal and Spain, began to establish the routes and methods that were to characterise the slave trade. Captured slaves were mainly destined for the emerging colonies of the Americas, where their forced labour would be used to develop plantations and mining industries. Even in those early days, the trade was a source of immense suffering and exploitation. Captured Africans were torn from their families and communities, subjected to an inhumane transatlantic voyage, and forced to live and work in brutal conditions in the Americas. Over the centuries, this practice not only intensified, but also became a central pillar of the global economy of the time, fuelling the economies of the European colonial empires and playing a crucial role in the economic development of the Americas. The scale and duration of the Atlantic slave trade make it one of the most significant and controversial events in world history, whose consequences are still felt today in terms of racial, economic and social inequalities.

In the 18th century, the Atlantic slave trade reached its apogee, becoming a central part of the transatlantic economy. This period saw millions of enslaved Africans transported to the Americas, where they were sold to work mainly on plantations. The growing demand for slave labour in the Americas was mainly driven by the expansion of plantation economies. Sugar, tobacco and cotton plantations, among others, required abundant and cheap labour to remain profitable. Slavery provided this labour, enabling plantation economies to prosper and expand. European powers and merchants, recognising the profit potential of this trade, actively participated in it. The slave trade had become an extremely lucrative business, involving not only the transport and sale of slaves, but also the production and trade of goods produced by forced labour. The trade enriched many players in Europe and played a key role in financing the economic development of several European nations. However, the scale of the Atlantic slave trade and its impact on African populations were devastating. Entire societies were disrupted, millions of lives were lost or irreparably changed, and the social fabric of many African countries was damaged.

In the 18th century, Britain emerged as the main power in the Atlantic slave trade, controlling a vast and powerful slave empire. This period saw the consolidation and expansion of their dominant role in the trade. The British established a complex network of trading posts and forts along the West African coast. These settlements served as centres for the slave trade, where captured Africans were exchanged for various goods and commodities brought from Europe, such as weapons, alcohol and textiles. These trading posts were often fortified to protect goods and captives, and to establish a British presence in the region. The massive British investment in the construction of slave ships was also a key factor in their dominance of the trade. These ships were specially designed to transport large numbers of slaves, maximising the efficiency and profits of the transatlantic trade. The efficiency and capacity of these ships enabled Britain to transport millions of Africans across the Atlantic. The slave trade became an essential part of the British economy, fuelling not only the growth of the American colonies, but also contributing to the accumulation of wealth in Britain. The profits from this trade played an important role in financing the industrialisation and economic development of the country.

In the 18th century, the transatlantic slave trade reached its peak in terms of volume. This period saw millions of Africans transported to the Americas to meet the growing demand for slave labour on sugar, tobacco and cotton plantations, particularly in the Caribbean and North America. The 18th century was characterised by a massive intensification of the slave trade, making it the most active period of the slave trade. The European powers, in particular Great Britain, played a central role in the expansion of this trade, with the establishment of vast commercial networks and maritime routes for the transport of slaves. However, the 19th century marked a turning point, with the beginning of the decline of the transatlantic slave trade. The early years of this century saw the enactment of laws abolishing the slave trade by nations such as Great Britain in 1807 and the United States in 1808. These legislative measures, supported by abolitionist movements and slave revolts, gradually reduced the volume of the trade. Thus, although the demand for slave labour remained high in some parts of the Americas during the nineteenth century, the transatlantic slave trade, as an international trade, declined significantly. This period marked the beginning of the end of the slave trade and laid the foundations for the subsequent abolition of slavery itself in many parts of the world.

The process of the Atlantic slave trade, often referred to as the "Atlantic Triangle", involved a well-defined route marked by the forced transport of millions of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. This triangular trade linked Europe, Africa and the Americas, and was driven by the demand for labour on American plantations and the lucrative profits for European powers and traders. The cycle began in Europe, where ships were loaded with goods such as weapons, alcohol and textiles, to be exchanged for slaves in Africa. The ships then travelled to the West African coast, where these goods were exchanged with local chiefs or slave traders for African captives. After loading the slaves, the ships set off across the Atlantic, a journey known as the Middle Passage. Conditions on this voyage were extremely difficult and inhumane, with slaves crammed into overcrowded and unsanitary holds. The death rate during this crossing was high due to disease, ill-treatment and deplorable living conditions. On arrival in the Americas, the survivors were sold into slavery to plantations, mines and other labour-intensive businesses. These slaves were forced to work in brutal conditions and were deprived of their freedom. Finally, the ships returned to Europe, carrying products such as sugar, tobacco and cotton, produced by the forced labour of the slaves. These goods were sold in Europe, generating considerable profits for the merchants and investors involved in the trade. This system had a profound and lasting impact on the societies and economies involved, leaving a complex legacy that continues to influence the world today. The Atlantic slave trade was therefore an integral triangular trade, tragically connecting three continents and fuelled by profoundly unequal economic and human dynamics.

The process of the Atlantic slave trade was a complex and tragic system involving several stages, beginning with the capture and transport of Africans in West and Central Africa. These people were usually captured during wars, raids or kidnapping and then taken to coastal slave markets. At these markets, they were sold to European traders. The capture of slaves was often the result of operations orchestrated by local African groups or African intermediaries who captured or bought slaves to sell to Europeans. These transactions took place in regions such as Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone and the Senegambia region, which accounted for between 60% and 65% of the trade. Central West Africa, notably Angola, Gabon and Congo, was also a major source, accounting for around 35% of departures. Once sold, the slaves were transported on slave ships to the Americas. This crossing, known as the Middle Passage, was notorious for its appalling conditions. Slaves were crammed into unsanitary and inhumane ship holds, with a high mortality rate during the journey. The destinations of these slaves were mainly linked to the plantation system. Brazil was a major destination, receiving around 40% of the slaves transported, while the Caribbean received between 40% and 45%. North America, on the other hand, received a smaller proportion, estimated at around 5% of the total number of slaves transported. This distribution reflected the labour needs of the different colonial economies. Brazil and the Caribbean had vast plantations of sugar, coffee and other crops that required considerable labour, while the economies of the North American colonies were less dependent on large-scale slavery.

The "Middle Passage", the transatlantic voyage of slave ships carrying African slaves to the Americas, represents one of the darkest and most brutal periods in human history. The voyage was characterised by extreme length and danger, with many slaves dying en route. Conditions on board the slave ships were appalling. Slaves were crammed into cramped, unsanitary holds, often chained together, with minimal space to move around. Overcrowding, poor hygiene, malnutrition and disease combined to create a lethal environment. Mortality was high as a result of these conditions, as well as the violence and ill-treatment inflicted by the ships' crews. Those who survived the voyage faced a life of forced labour and oppression in the Americas. On arrival, slaves were sold at slave markets and dispersed to various labour-intensive enterprises, mainly sugar, cotton and tobacco plantations, as well as mines. They were subjected to brutal working conditions, forced to work long hours with little rest or adequate food. Slaves were often physically and psychologically abused, and their lives and well-being were entirely at the whim of their owners. Inhumane treatment, lack of basic rights and lack of legal protection were the hallmarks of life for slaves in the Americas. This period left a legacy of suffering and trauma that continues to affect contemporary societies, underlining the importance of recognising and understanding these dark aspects of human history.

Abolition of the Slave Trade and Slavery: International Perspectives

The abolition of the slave trade represents the legal and formal prohibition of the slave trade, i.e. the end of the practice of capturing, transporting and selling human beings as property. This milestone in world history was the result of a long process of social, political and moral struggle. The abolition of the slave trade was gradually adopted by various nations during the 19th century. The abolitionist movement gained strength in the eighteenth century, led by activists, intellectuals and, crucially, enslaved people themselves who resisted and fought for their freedom. The arguments against the slave trade were both moral and economic, highlighting the inhumanity of the trade and questioning its economic necessity. Countries such as Great Britain played a major role in the abolition of the slave trade. Britain banned the slave trade in 1807 with the passage of the Slave Trade Act, followed by the United States in 1808. These bans marked a decisive turning point, although the application of these laws was difficult and the slave trade continued illegally for several years. The abolition of the slave trade was an essential step towards the subsequent abolition of slavery itself, although the two processes were distinct and slavery persisted after the ban on the slave trade. The impact of these abolition measures was profound, marking the end of an era of large-scale human trade and paving the way for subsequent social and political change.

The abolition of the slave trade by Denmark in 1792 marked a significant event in the history of abolitionism. Denmark became the first European country to legislate against the transatlantic slave trade. This decision was influenced by a growing movement for the abolition of slavery, which was gaining momentum in both Europe and the Americas. The Danish law of 1792 on the abolition of the slave trade was an important step, signalling a change in perception and policy regarding the slave trade. Although this law did not take effect immediately - it provided for a transitional period until 1803 - it nevertheless laid the foundations for future action against the slave trade and slavery. Denmark's decision was influenced by a number of factors, including the moral and ethical arguments put forward by abolitionists, as well as changes in the economic and social understanding of slavery. It was also stimulated by the struggles and resistance of the enslaved themselves. Denmark's abolition of the slave trade marked the beginning of a progressive movement in Europe and elsewhere to end the practice. It paved the way for similar legislation in other European countries and played a role in the gradual rise of the abolitionist movement worldwide.

Denmark: Pioneer in the Abolition of Slavery

Denmark's abolition of slavery was part of a wider political and social movement to end this inhumane institution. The Danish government's decision in 1792 to outlaw the slave trade was an important step in this process. The law passed in 1792 did not immediately abolish the slave trade, but it did provide for a transitional period, with the ban on the trade becoming fully effective in 1803. This was a crucial first step towards the eradication of slavery in the Danish colonies. In the years that followed, the Danish government took gradual steps to transform the economy of its colonies from one based on slavery to one based on free labour. This transition was complex and involved not only changing economic structures, but also changing social attitudes and established practices. Part of this transition included offering financial compensation to slave owners for the loss of what they considered to be their property. This approach reflected an attempt to reconcile economic interests with social pressures, although the idea of compensating slave owners rather than the enslaved people themselves is now widely criticised. Denmark's abolition of slavery was part of a wider historical context of political, economic and social change that eventually led to the abolition of slavery in many parts of the world. These efforts reflected a growing awareness of the injustices of slavery and a commitment to more egalitarian humanitarian principles.

Denmark's 1792 law banning the slave trade did not lead to the immediate abolition of slavery in its colonies. Although this law was a crucial step, the process of transition towards the complete abolition of slavery in the Danish colonies was gradual and took several years. The abolition of the slave trade in 1792 was a declaration of intent and a significant first step, but the economic and social infrastructure of the Danish colonies was still largely based on slavery. The transition from a slave-based economy to a system of free labour required significant economic and social changes, which were implemented gradually. Slavery in the Danish colonies was not completely abolished until the following decades. This transitional period was marked by debates, negotiations and adjustments both in Denmark and in its colonies. Despite its gradual nature, the 1792 Act is widely celebrated as a major breakthrough in the abolitionist movement. It put Denmark at the forefront of European nations fighting the transatlantic slave trade and paved the way for later changes leading to the abolition of slavery in its colonies and elsewhere in the world. The Act symbolised an important shift in attitudes towards slavery and was a key moment in the history of the struggle for human rights and social justice.

British Anti-Slavery Initiative

The United Kingdom played a leading role in the international abolitionist movement. As one of the first European powers to legislate against the slave trade and slavery, the UK marked a decisive turning point in the fight against these inhumane practices. The abolition of the slave trade in the UK was greatly influenced by a growing movement for the abolition of slavery in Europe and the Americas. This movement was driven by abolitionists, intellectuals, clerics and political activists, as well as by the voices and actions of enslaved people themselves. In 1807, the British Parliament passed the Slave Trade Act, which banned the slave trade in the British Empire. The Act did not end slavery itself, but banned the transportation of enslaved people to and from the British colonies. The passage of this Act was a crucial moment in the abolitionist movement, and the UK subsequently played an active role in international pressure for the abolition of the slave trade. The process towards the complete abolition of slavery took longer. It was not until 1833 that the Slavery Abolition Act was passed, abolishing slavery in most of the British colonies. This move towards abolition reflected a profound change in social and political attitudes at the time, as well as a growing recognition of the fundamental injustice of slavery.

The adoption of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act by the British government in 1807 represented a crucial step in the worldwide abolitionist movement. This legislation outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire, marking a significant change in British policy and legislation regarding the slave trade. However, it is important to note that the Act did not immediately end the institution of slavery itself in the British colonies. Rather, it prohibited the slave trade, i.e. the capture, transportation and sale of enslaved persons, but did not immediately free those already enslaved in the colonies. Those enslaved before 1807 remained so until later reforms. The complete abolition of slavery in the British colonies only came about with the adoption of the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833, which began a process of gradual liberation of slaves. This abolition process was complex and often included periods of transition, such as the "apprenticeship" system which temporarily replaced slavery and which has itself been criticised for perpetuating many of the injustices of slavery. The abolition of the slave trade in 1807 and the subsequent abolition of slavery in 1833 reflect a gradual change in legislation and social attitudes, influenced by abolitionist campaigns, the struggles of the slaves themselves and the economic and political developments of the time. These measures marked important milestones in the fight against slavery and had a considerable impact on the global history of human rights and social justice.

In 1833, the British government passed the landmark Slavery Abolition Act, which outlawed slavery in most of the British Empire. The Act was a landmark in the history of abolitionism and an important milestone in the global fight against slavery. The Slavery Abolition Act stipulated that, from 1 August 1834, all enslaved persons in the British colonies would become free. However, not everyone was freed immediately, as the Act provided for an "apprenticeship" system that kept many enslaved people in a state of semi-freedom for several more years. This system was intended to allow a gradual transition of plantation economies from slavery to free labour. The passage of this law was the result of decades of abolitionist campaigning by activists, politicians, intellectuals and, crucially, by the enslaved themselves. The efforts of these groups helped raise public awareness of the horrors of slavery and put pressure on policymakers to end the practice. Although the abolition of slavery in the UK was a major achievement, the process of abolition and adaptation was complex and faced a number of challenges, including compensation for slave owners and how to implement freedom for formerly enslaved people. The abolition of slavery in the British Empire had a profound impact and inspired similar movements in other parts of the world, contributing to the gradual eradication of slavery worldwide.

The abolition of slavery by the United Kingdom was influenced by a complex set of factors, among which economic considerations played an important role. In the 19th century, as the UK moved towards the abolition of slavery, a number of significant economic changes contributed to this decision. On the one hand, the British economy was undergoing a major transformation as a result of the Industrial Revolution. This era of industrialisation created new economic demands and patterns of work that differed greatly from those of slavery-dependent plantation economies. The emergence of industry and urban growth changed the dynamics of labour and economic production, making the slave system less essential, if not obsolete, to British economic prosperity. Moreover, in some British colonies, slavery was becoming less economically viable. This decline in profitability was due to a variety of factors, including fluctuating prices for the goods produced by slave labour and the rising costs of managing and maintaining slavery. These economic factors, combined with international pressure to end the slave trade, influenced the UK's decision. It is also important to consider the impact of the American Civil War, which highlighted the issue of slavery and influenced public and political opinion in Europe, including the UK. The war drew international attention to the injustices of slavery and encouraged a more critical examination of the practice. However, it should be emphasised that, although economic considerations were a key element, the abolition of slavery in the UK was also strongly motivated by ethical and moral concerns. The abolitionist movement comprised a broad coalition of activists, including enslaved people, who fought for justice and freedom. Their commitment to human equality and rights played a crucial role in the fight against slavery, emphasising that abolition was a movement motivated not only by economic interests, but also by humanitarian principles.

In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the United Kingdom played a predominant role in the Atlantic slave trade, and the economies of its colonies in the Americas depended heavily on enslaved labour. However, in the early nineteenth century, the institution of slavery began to be increasingly challenged, largely due to the growing movement for the abolition of slavery. This abolitionist movement was fuelled by a combination of factors. On the one hand, there was a shift in moral and ethical consciousness, with a growing awareness of the injustice and inhumanity of slavery. Abolitionists, both in the UK and in the colonies, were pressing for an end to the practice, using moral and ethical arguments as well as evidence of the horrors of slavery. There were also economic considerations. At the time, the UK was undergoing significant economic change as a result of the Industrial Revolution. These changes led some to question the economic viability of slavery. It was increasingly perceived that slavery was no longer necessary, or even beneficial, to the British economy. Moreover, as the economic power of the industrial and commercial middle classes grew, with interests that differed from those of the slave plantation owners, political support for slavery began to erode. As a result, the British government took steps to end the slave trade with the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807, followed by the complete abolition of slavery in most British colonies with the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. These decisions were driven by a mixture of moral and economic pressures, reflecting a profound change in social and political attitudes towards slavery.

When the British government took the historic decision to abolish the slave trade and, later, slavery itself, a number of motivations played a key role, going beyond purely moral considerations. From an economic point of view, abolition was seen as an opportunity to stimulate the British economy by opening up new markets for the UK's industrial products. By turning the former slave colonies into consumers of manufactured goods, Britain hoped to strengthen its trading links and facilitate greater economic integration of the Empire. It was also widely recognised that ending slavery would contribute to the long-term stability and prosperity of the British Empire. By eliminating social tensions and the risk of revolt in the colonies, the UK sought to create a more stable political environment conducive to investment and economic development. This stability was seen as essential to maintaining and extending British influence on a global scale. Internationally, the abolition of slavery was also seen as a means of enhancing Britain's reputation and status. By taking the lead in the abolitionist movement, the United Kingdom positioned itself as a moral and ethical leader, gaining in prestige and diplomatic influence. This advanced position enabled it to exert pressure on other nations to adopt similar policies, thereby strengthening its role in international affairs and in setting global human rights standards.

The End of Slavery in France: Context and Process

In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, France was one of the world's leading slave-owning powers, with many colonies in the Americas where slavery was a central pillar of the economy. The French colonies, particularly in the Caribbean, relied heavily on slave labour for the production of sugar, coffee and other plantation crops. However, in the early nineteenth century, slavery in France and its colonies began to be challenged. This change was largely due to a growing movement for the abolition of slavery, influenced by the ideals of freedom and equality that had emerged from the French Revolution and by the struggles and revolts of the slaves themselves. The first abolition of slavery in France took place in 1794, following the French Revolution, but this measure was revoked under Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802. It was not until 1848, under the Second Republic, that France finally abolished slavery once and for all. The Abolition Act was a major turning point, declaring slavery illegal in all French colonies. The decision was influenced by various factors, including international pressure, abolitionist movements in France and slave revolts in the colonies. France's abolition of slavery in 1848 marked the beginning of a transition to free labour systems in its colonies. This transition was not without its difficulties, as it required major economic and social adjustments. Former slaves often continued to face major challenges, particularly in terms of civil rights, access to land and economic opportunities. The abolition of slavery by France in 1848 was a significant step in the worldwide movement against slavery, reflecting a profound change in attitudes and policies towards this inhumane practice. This decision had important implications for the former French colonies and helped shape the evolution of post-colonial societies and economies.

The abolition of slavery in France in 1848 did not mean an immediate end to slavery in all its colonies. Although the law declared slavery illegal, the implementation of this abolition and the transition to a system of free labour were gradual and complex processes. In the French colonies, particularly in the Caribbean, the official end of slavery marked the beginning of a period of economic and social transition. Former slaves often found themselves facing new challenges, particularly in terms of access to land, employment and their civil rights. In many cases, former slaves were forced to continue working in conditions that were little better than those of slavery, due to various laws and policies that limited their freedom and economic options. This transition was also complicated by social tensions and resistance from former slave owners and other groups who benefited economically from the slave system. Efforts to compensate former slave owners and integrate former slaves into the market economy were controversial aspects of this period. The abolition of slavery in 1848 was therefore a crucial step in the history of France and its colonies, but it did not mark an immediate and total end to slavery or its consequences. The abolition process was a long and complex one, with lasting impacts on colonial and post-colonial societies.

Abolition of Slavery by the Netherlands: Evolution and Consequences

The abolition of slavery by the Netherlands in 1863 is an important event in the history of abolitionism, although the Netherlands was not among the first European countries to abolish the slave trade or slavery. In fact, the Netherlands abolished the slave trade later than other European countries such as Great Britain (1807) and France (1848 for the second and final abolition). In 1863, the Netherlands officially abolished slavery in its colonies, notably in the Netherlands Antilles and Suriname. This decision was influenced by a number of factors, including the growing worldwide movement for the abolition of slavery, as well as economic and moral pressures. The abolitionist movement in the Netherlands was influenced by debates and struggles for abolition elsewhere in Europe and the Americas. Arguments against slavery included not only moral and ethical considerations, but also questions of economic efficiency and modernisation. However, as in other countries, the abolition of slavery in the Netherlands was not a simple or immediate process. After 1863, there was a period of transition where former slaves were often obliged to continue working under a system of 'contract labour' that severely restricted their freedom and rights. These policies were designed to maintain economic and social stability in the colonies, but they prolonged the period of transition to true freedom for former slaves.

In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the Netherlands was significantly involved in the Atlantic slave trade and relied on enslaved labour to run its colonies in the Americas, particularly in the Netherlands Antilles and Suriname. The Dutch colonies were key players in the production of sugar, coffee and other plantation crops, all of which depended heavily on slavery. However, in the early 19th century, slavery in the Dutch colonies, as in other colonial empires, came under increasing pressure from the growing abolitionist movement. This movement, influenced by humanitarian values, ethical considerations and changing economic and political dynamics, was gaining influence in Europe and the Americas. In 1863, in response to these pressures and changing attitudes, the Dutch government finally passed a law abolishing slavery in its colonies. This law marked the official end of slavery and began a transition to a system of free labour. However, this transition was not immediate. A system of "indentured labour" was introduced, obliging former slaves to continue working under contract for a defined period after their formal liberation. This measure was intended to prevent sudden economic upheaval and to facilitate a more gradual transition. The abolition of slavery by the Netherlands in 1863 was an important milestone, but it came with challenges and complexities, both for former slaves and for the economies of the colonies. It marked a significant turning point in the history of the Netherlands and its colonies, reflecting a change in global attitudes towards slavery and contributing to the wider abolitionist movement.

The abolition of slavery in the Netherlands in 1863 represented a crucial development that was part of a wider abolitionist movement underway in Europe and the Americas. This movement was driven by a convergence of various factors. From an economic perspective, the structural changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution had altered labour requirements, making slavery less central, if not obsolete, to many national economies. These economic transformations helped to call into question the effectiveness and sustainability of slavery as a system of production. Politically, the pressures were also palpable. Abolitionist movements grew in strength and influence, and calls for an end to slavery were heard both in political circles and among the general public. Slave revolts in the colonies, combined with international diplomatic efforts, put additional pressure on governments to take action. At the same time, moral and ethical concerns played a significant role. Influenced by Enlightenment ideals such as equality and human rights, many individuals and groups questioned the moral legitimacy of slavery. The poignant testimonies of former slaves and the passionate campaigns of abolitionists raised public awareness of the atrocities and injustice inherent in slavery. So when the Dutch government took the decision to abolish slavery, it reflected not only a response to international trends but also a desire to protect and promote Dutch economic and political interests. This step marked an important change in the history of human rights and symbolised the Netherlands' commitment to a fairer and more ethical international order.

United States: End of slavery and its repercussions

The abolition of slavery in the United States in 1865 marked a crucial moment in the country's history, and took place in an international context in which many countries had already put an end to the practice. The United States was one of the last countries to abolish slavery, and its abolition followed the American Civil War and the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The American Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865, was a devastating conflict centred largely on the issue of slavery. The Southern states, whose economies depended heavily on slave labour on the plantations, were pitted against the Northern states, where slavery was either limited or abolished. The war was one of the bloodiest periods in American history and deeply divided the nation. The Thirteenth Amendment, adopted in 1865, was a historic milestone in the fight against slavery in the United States. This amendment officially abolished slavery in all states, declaring that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction." The abolition of slavery in the United States was the result of a long struggle led by abolitionists, enslaved people and their allies. Although abolition was a significant step forward, the end of slavery did not immediately lead to equal rights for former slaves, who continued to face segregation and discrimination for many years. The post-abolition period, known as Reconstruction, was marked by efforts to integrate former slaves into American society and to rebuild the war-torn South.

Slavery was a deeply rooted institution in the United States, playing a crucial role in the economy and society, particularly in the southern states where plantation agriculture depended heavily on slave labour. However, in the 19th century, slavery began to be increasingly challenged, sparking intense debate and conflict across the country. This growing movement for the abolition of slavery was motivated by a variety of factors. Moral and ethical arguments against slavery were made by abolitionists, both white and black, who emphasised the injustice and inhumanity of the practice. These arguments were reinforced by personal accounts of fugitive slaves and militant activities in the Northern states. At the same time, there were economic and political tensions between the more industrialised northern states and the agricultural southern states, which exacerbated divisions over the issue of slavery. The American Civil War, which broke out in 1861, was a major turning point in the history of the United States, largely centred on the issue of slavery. Although the war was motivated by a number of factors, including issues of sovereignty and states' rights, slavery was a central issue. The victory of the Northern Union forces finally paved the way for the abolition of slavery. The formal abolition of slavery came with the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865, which legally ended slavery throughout the United States. This decision marked the end of one of the darkest periods in American history, but it also gave rise to a new set of challenges to integrate former slaves into American society as free and equal citizens.

The adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the US Constitution in 1865 was a historic moment, not only for the country, but for the world. This amendment abolished slavery in the United States, establishing that "neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to the jurisdiction thereof". The importance of this amendment cannot be underestimated. It marked the legal end of an institution that had been deeply entrenched in American society for centuries, and which was a major source of division and conflict within the country. Not only was slavery an inhumane and oppressive practice, it was also at the heart of the economic, social and political tensions that ultimately led to the American Civil War. The Thirteenth Amendment represented a significant victory for the abolitionist movement, which had fought for decades to end slavery. It also marked an important step towards realising the ideals of freedom and equality enshrined in the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution. However, the abolition of slavery did not immediately lead to complete equality for former slaves. The Reconstruction period following the Civil War was marked by civil rights struggles and significant resistance to the full integration of African Americans into American society. Despite these challenges, the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment remains a pivotal moment in the history of human rights and an important step towards a fairer and more egalitarian society.

Brazil and Cuba: The Last Bastions of Slavery

The abolition of slavery in Brazil and Cuba in the 1880s marked a significant turning point in the history of these two countries, reflecting a series of political and social changes that took place over the course of the 19th century. In Brazil, which was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, this decision was the result of a long period of pressure and struggle. Slavery was a fundamental part of the Brazilian economy, particularly on coffee and sugar cane plantations. However, as the 19th century progressed, international pressure for abolition, as well as abolitionist movements within the country, began to challenge this institution. The abolition of slavery in Brazil was officially achieved with the signing of the "Golden Law" ("Lei Áurea") by Princess Isabel in 1888. In Cuba, the end of slavery was also influenced by a combination of internal and external factors. Cuba, then a Spanish colony, relied heavily on slavery for its sugar and tobacco plantations. However, national liberation movements in Cuba, together with changes in Spanish policy and international pressure, contributed to the gradual abolition of slavery, which was officially completed in 1886. In both countries, the abolition of slavery was a major step towards modernisation and marked a fundamental change in their social and economic systems. However, abolition did not immediately lead to equality or the full integration of former slaves into society. In Brazil and Cuba, the end of slavery was followed by complex periods of transition, with ongoing struggles for civil rights and the social inclusion of Afro-descendant populations.

Slavery in Brazil, which was a central and deeply rooted institution, played a crucial role in the country's economic and social development. Coffee and sugar cane plantations, in particular, relied heavily on slave labour. However, in the 19th century, the institution of slavery began to be called into question, under the influence of various factors. The growing movement to abolish slavery in Brazil was influenced by international pressure, the liberal and humanitarian ideals of the American and French revolutions, and abolitionist movements within the country. Slave revolts and resistance, such as the Malê revolt in Bahia in 1835, also played a crucial role in challenging slavery. The transition to abolition was marked by several legislative steps, including the Free Belly Law (Lei do Ventre Livre) of 1871, which declared that all children born to female slaves would be free, and the Sexagenarians Law (Lei dos Sexagenários) of 1885, which granted freedom to slaves over the age of 60. Finally, in 1888, Princess Isabel of Brazil signed the Lei Áurea, or Golden Law, which abolished slavery throughout the country. This law marked the end of slavery in Brazil, the last country in the Americas to abolish the practice. Although this law was a crucial step, it was not accompanied by sufficient measures to integrate former slaves into Brazilian society as free and equal citizens, leaving major challenges in its wake in terms of social justice and equality.

In Cuba, as in Brazil, slavery was a fundamental part of the economy and society for many years. Cuba's sugar and tobacco plantations relied heavily on slave labour, and the practice was deeply integrated into the country's culture and social structure. In the 19th century, slavery in Cuba began to be challenged, influenced by the global abolitionist movement as well as internal and external dynamics. The struggles for independence in Cuba, which included efforts to end Spanish colonial rule, were also linked to the issue of slavery. Slaves and Afro-Cubans played an active role in these struggles, seeking to win both national independence and their own freedom. International pressure for the abolition of slavery, including the abolition of slavery in other countries in the Americas, also influenced the situation in Cuba. In addition, changing moral and ethical attitudes towards slavery contributed to this pressure. In 1880, the Spanish government passed the Moret Law, which marked the beginning of the end of slavery in Cuba. This law provided for a gradual transition to a system of free labour. However, the Moret Law did not put an immediate end to slavery; rather, it established conditions for a gradual abolition and freed certain slaves under certain conditions. The definitive abolition of slavery in Cuba did not take place until 1886. This marked a significant moment in Cuban history, but as in other regions, the end of slavery did not immediately resolve the many inequalities and social problems faced by former slaves. The post-abolition period was marked by ongoing challenges in terms of the social, economic and political integration of Afro-Cubans into Cuban society.

Prolonged impact of the slave trade

The impact of the Atlantic slave trade on Africa and African populations is immense and complex, although it is difficult to quantify precisely. This period of human history was characterised by extreme suffering and exploitation, and its consequences are still felt today. The slave trade involved the forced deportation of millions of Africans to the Americas. The conditions of the journey, known as the 'Middle Passage', were atrocious, with extreme overcrowding, disease, malnutrition and inhumane treatment. Indeed, only the hardiest individuals survived this brutal journey; many captives died en route.

In terms of its impact on Africa, the slave trade had devastating long-term effects. It deprived the continent of some of its youngest and most vigorous populations, with repercussions for demographic, social and economic structures. Communities were torn apart, and social and political structures were often disrupted. The effect of the slave trade on Africa's economic development was also profound. By depriving the continent of a large part of its potential workforce, the trade stunted economic development and contributed to patterns of dependence and exploitation that continued long after the end of the trade itself. The slave trade also had a lasting cultural and psychological impact on African societies. The loss of millions of individuals, and the effects of colonisation that often followed, led to the loss and modification of many cultural traditions and social identities. It is therefore clear that the slave trade has had a devastating impact on Africa, although the specific aspects and extent of this impact are complex and vary according to region and time. The slave trade remains one of the darkest chapters in human history, with repercussions that continue to influence societies and economies around the world.

European Colonisation of Africa: Late Context and Motivations

The Atlantic slave trade had a profound impact on Africa, considerably weakening the continent as the European powers began their colonisation process. This painful period of history considerably altered the social, political and economic fabric of Africa, leaving it vulnerable to exploitation and foreign domination. The massive depopulation caused by the slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies. Millions of people were uprooted from their communities, leaving behind a demographic vacuum and a disruption of social structures. This loss of population not only weakened societies socially, but also made it difficult to resist European colonial aggression and expansion. Politically, the slave trade led to the weakening of states and power structures in Africa. Internal conflicts exacerbated by the trade, as well as rivalries stimulated by European demand for slaves, weakened African kingdoms and societies. This weakening of political structures made African territories more susceptible to European colonial domination. The economic impact of the slave trade was also considerable. The massive extraction of labour disrupted economic development, leaving many regions unable to maintain or develop autonomous economies. This economic vulnerability facilitated the incursion of European powers seeking to establish control over African resources. In addition, the slave trade provided Europeans with an ideological justification for colonisation. They presented themselves as bringing civilisation and progress to a continent they considered backward, ignoring or minimising the destructive role the slave trade had played in creating these conditions. Thus, the weakening of Africa due to the slave trade was a key factor that enabled the European powers to impose their political and military domination through colonisation, leaving lasting scars on the African continent.

The colonisation of Africa by the European powers, which took place relatively late compared to the colonisation of other regions, can be explained by a number of historical and strategic factors. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the focus of colonisation by European nations was primarily on the Americas and Asia. The Americas, in particular, offered tempting opportunities in terms of extensive agricultural land and valuable resources such as gold and silver. In addition, the search for new trade routes to Asia for spices and other luxury goods also directed European attention away from Africa. Africa, with its geographical and climatic challenges such as vast deserts and dense jungles, as well as the prevalence of diseases such as malaria, represented more difficult terrain for colonisation. In addition, the continent's complex political and social structures made exploration and domination more difficult than in other colonised regions. During this period, Europeans' main interest in Africa was focused on trade, particularly the slave trade, rather than on large-scale colonisation of the continent's interior. Trading posts along Africa's coasts were the main European anchor points, allowing the trade in slaves and other goods without the need for an extensive colonial presence in the interior of the continent. It was only in the 19th century, with changes such as the end of the slave trade and the advent of the Industrial Revolution, that European interest in Africa intensified. The growing demand for natural resources to fuel European industry, as well as the search for new markets for industrial products, led to a period of intense colonisation and imperialist rivalry known as the 'Scramble for Africa'. This phase saw European nations vying for control of vast swathes of African territory, marking a new era in the continent's history.

Another important reason why European colonisation of Africa came relatively late was the continent's geography and climate. Indeed, these factors played a crucial role in the way Europeans perceived and interacted with Africa before the 19th century. African geography presented considerable challenges for European explorers and colonisers. The continent is characterised by a great diversity of terrain, including vast deserts such as the Sahara, dense jungles, large rivers and complex mountain systems. This diversity made navigation and exploration difficult, limiting European access to the interior of the continent. Africa's climate also posed significant challenges. Many parts of Africa are characterised by arid conditions or a tropical climate, favouring the development of diseases such as malaria. Europeans at the time had neither immunity nor effective medical treatment against such diseases, which made expeditions to Africa particularly risky. Indeed, being sent to Africa was often perceived as extremely dangerous, even tantamount to a death sentence because of the high health risks involved. This "new stage of microbial unification" referred to the exposure of Europeans to an entirely new set of pathogens, to which they were not accustomed and against which they had no immunity. These health problems were a major obstacle to European colonisation and exploration of Africa, until medical advances such as quinine against malaria made these ventures less perilous. Thus, geography, climate and associated health challenges played a determining role in how and when European colonisation of Africa took place, delaying the establishment of a significant colonial presence until the nineteenth century, when these obstacles began to be overcome.

The colonisation of Africa by the European powers was motivated by economic interests, mainly focused on exploiting the continent's natural resources. However, until the 19th century, the perception of Africa as a territory for economic investment was limited due to various factors. At the beginning of the colonisation process, one of the only African products exported in large quantities was palm oil. Used mainly to make soap and as a lubricant for the machines of the Industrial Revolution, palm oil had fairly limited applications. Consequently, compared with other colonised regions rich in spices, gold, silver or other precious resources, Africa was perceived as a less attractive territory for European capital investment. In addition, Africa's agricultural potential was not fully exploited due to the emphasis on exploiting products such as palm oil. Vast tracts of land remained uncultivated or underutilised, limiting the continent's economic appeal to European investors. It was not until the second half of the 19th century that the situation began to change. The discovery of precious minerals such as diamonds and gold, particularly in regions such as South Africa, considerably increased European economic interest in Africa. These discoveries transformed the perceived economic potential of the continent, leading to a scramble for African resources and intensifying the process of colonisation. The exploitation of Africa in the twentieth century accelerated with the discovery and extraction of additional resources, particularly minerals and hydrocarbons, which justified greater investment by the colonial powers. This period was also marked by increased exploitation of agricultural land and more intensive extraction of natural resources.

The colonisation of Africa by European powers in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries can largely be attributed to a mixture of nationalist and geostrategic motivations. This period, known as the "Scramble for Africa", was marked by intense competition between European nations to establish dominance over the continent. One of the main driving forces behind this race for colonisation was a spirit of competitive nationalism. At a time when nationalist sentiment was growing in Europe, owning colonies was seen as a sign of national prestige and power. European countries competed to extend their influence and territory, seeing the possession of colonies in Africa as a means of establishing their status and power on the world stage. This competition was fuelled by a desire for national glory and the pressure to assert their nation's superiority over European rivals. Alongside these nationalistic motivations, geostrategic considerations also played a key role. African territories offered significant strategic advantages, particularly in terms of natural resources, military positions and trade routes. Control of these territories enabled the European powers to extend their political and economic influence, while limiting that of their rivals. This struggle for supremacy in Africa was in part an extension of the political and military rivalries taking place in Europe. Finally, the tensions and conflicts that developed in Africa during this period of colonisation can be seen as a prelude to the First World War. The rivalries between the European powers in Africa exacerbated existing tensions and helped to create a climate of mistrust and competition that would eventually lead to the outbreak of war. Africa thus became a theatre where wider issues were played out, reflecting the complex dynamics of international politics at the time.

The colonisation of Africa by the European powers represents a complex and multifaceted period in history, which goes beyond a simple logic of economic exploitation. This historical phase can be better understood by considering the importance of geostrategic confrontations and struggles for domination and influence within the wider framework of international relations. The European powers, motivated by a desire to extend their geopolitical influence, saw the colonisation of Africa as an opportunity to secure strategic territories, gain access to valuable resources and enhance their status on the world stage. These inter-power rivalries have often turned Africa into a battleground for wider issues, going beyond immediate economic interests. Although the colonial period was relatively brief in the overall history of African countries, its impact was profound and long-lasting. Colonisation redefined borders, reshaped political and social structures, and left a legacy of economic challenges and conflicts that continue to affect these nations. One of the hallmarks of colonisation was the implementation of colonial pacts by the colonising powers. These agreements imposed severe trade and economic restrictions on African colonies, often forcing them to direct their trade exclusively towards the colonial metropolis. The colonisation of Africa cannot be reduced to a purely economic dimension; it was also a key element in the strategies of power and influence in international relations at the time. Its legacy continues to influence African countries in their internal development and international relations.

The notion of "third worlds" and their creation is closely linked to the historical dynamics of colonisation and the political power relations that ensued. The concept of "Third World" emerged during the Cold War to designate countries that were aligned neither with the Soviet bloc nor with Western countries. However, it became synonymous with developing or underdeveloped countries, many of which were former colonies. The "colonial pact" is an essential key to understanding the creation and current situation of Third World countries. This term refers to the economic policies and practices imposed by the colonial powers with the aim of making the colonies economically dependent. These policies often included obliging the colonies to trade exclusively with the metropolis, exploiting natural resources for the benefit of the colonising power, and controlling economic and industrial development in the colonies to avoid competition with metropolitan industries. This dynamic had the effect of slowing down the economic and industrial development of the colonies, leaving them in a position of economic dependence and underdevelopment following decolonisation. The economic structures imposed during the colonial period often persisted after independence, hampering development efforts and contributing to the creation of what is now known as the "Third World". The 'colonial pact' approach helps us to understand how the political and economic power relations established during colonisation shaped the development trajectories of many formerly colonised countries. This perspective sheds light on the historical and structural challenges facing these countries in their efforts to achieve sustainable economic and social development.

The Legacy of Colonisation: Trajectories and Reflections on an Interconnected World

In examining the history of colonisation and its impacts across different regions of the world, we are confronted with a complex and nuanced legacy. From the Americas to Africa and Asia, the footprints of colonisation have profoundly influenced the economic, social and political development of these regions, revealing stories of resilience, adaptation and, often, persistent struggle.

In Latin America, the colonial and post-colonial eras charted a course of economic transition and struggles for political autonomy, highlighting the importance of local dynamics in the context of global influence. In Asia, India's experience under the British Raj and China's resistance to the Western onslaught demonstrate the complexity of responses to external challenges and the quest for a balance between tradition and modernity.

The experience of Egypt under Mehemet Ali offers a perspective on attempts at industrialisation and the obstacles encountered in a competitive international environment. While the history of Black Africa, marked by the slave trade and late colonisation, highlights the deep scars left by these practices and their continuing influence on the continent's political and economic structures.

These historical accounts remind us that colonisation, although a closed chapter in history, continues to influence the present. The lessons learned from that era are crucial to understanding the current dynamics of our globalised world, and to envisioning more equitable and sustainable paths of development and cooperation. Thus, by recognising and learning from these complex histories, we can better grasp current and future challenges, while working towards a future where the lessons of the past illuminate paths towards shared justice and prosperity.

Annexes

• Foreign Affairs,. (2015). How Europe Conquered the World. Retrieved 8 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/europe/2015-10-07/how-europe-conquered-world