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| The period of the Trente Glorieuses, from 1945 to 1973, represented an era of major economic and social transformation for developed countries, particularly those that were members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). This period, marked by exceptional economic growth, was closely linked to post-war reconstruction and the emergence of new economic and social paradigms.
| | 1945 至 1973 年的 "光辉年代 "是发达国家，尤其是经济合作与发展组织（OECD）成员国经济和社会发生重大变革的时代。这一时期的特点是经济超常增长，与战后重建以及新的经济和社会模式的出现密切相关。 |
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| The impact of the Second World War, with its massive destruction and colossal human and economic costs, laid the foundations for a worldwide reconstruction effort. The devastated economies of Europe and Asia enjoyed a remarkable renaissance, supported by initiatives such as the Marshall Plan and the establishment of new international economic institutions. At the same time, Keynesian policies were adopted, favouring state intervention to stimulate demand and support employment.
| | 第二次世界大战造成了大规模破坏，付出了巨大的人员和经济代价，为世界范围的重建工作奠定了基础。在 "马歇尔计划 "和新国际经济机构的建立等举措的支持下，欧洲和亚洲遭受重创的经济实现了显著复兴。与此同时，凯恩斯主义政策被采纳，主张通过国家干预来刺激需求和支持就业。 |
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| The example of the German "miracle" is a perfect illustration of this renaissance. Thanks to international aid, notably the Marshall Plan, and the introduction of the "soziale Marktwirtschaft" (social market economy), Germany underwent a remarkable economic transformation, characterised by an economic policy combining liberalism and interventionism, an emphasis on investment and wage moderation, and an openness to free trade and European integration. Countries such as Switzerland also followed similar economic models, reflecting a common economic and social development in Europe.
| | 德国的 "奇迹 "就是这一复兴的最好例证。得益于国际援助，特别是马歇尔计划，以及 "社会市场经济"（soziale Marktwirtschaft）的引入，德国经历了一次显著的经济转型，其特点是经济政策将自由主义与干预主义相结合，强调投资和工资节制，并对自由贸易和欧洲一体化持开放态度。瑞士等国也采取了类似的经济模式，反映了欧洲经济和社会的共同发展。 |
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| At the same time, the United States underwent its own transformation, with the development of the consumer society. This period saw a revolution in lifestyles, marked by improvements in public services and household appliances, freeing up time for consumption and stimulating a flourishing leisure economy. The consumer society, analysed critically by economists such as John Kenneth Galbraith, called into question the relationship between material well-being and the satisfaction of basic human needs.
| | 与此同时，随着消费社会的发展，美国也经历了自身的转型。在这一时期，以公共服务和家用电器的改善为标志，生活方式发生了革命，人们有了更多的时间进行消费，刺激了休闲经济的蓬勃发展。约翰-肯尼斯-加尔布雷思等经济学家对消费社会进行了批判性分析，对物质福祉与满足人类基本需求之间的关系提出了质疑。 |
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| == Understanding the Glorious Thirty: Definition and Context == | | == 了解 "光荣的三十"： 定义与背景 == |
| The "Glorious Thirty" refers to the period of strong economic growth experienced by most developed countries, many of them members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), between 1945 and 1973. This era is notable for its exceptional economic growth, technological innovations and improved living standards. The period saw the rebuilding of many nations after the devastation of the Second World War, fuelled by factors such as the Marshall Plan, increased world trade and technological advances. It was a time of rapid industrialisation, urbanisation and the expansion of the welfare state in many countries. This era also witnessed the emergence of a consumer culture, with significant increases in household incomes leading to greater consumer spending on goods and services. This period is often contrasted with the economic challenges and stagnation that many of these countries experienced in the following years, underlining the unique and exceptional nature of the 'Trente Glorieuses'.
| | 辉煌 30 年 "指的是 1945 年至 1973 年间大多数发达国家（其中许多是经济合作与发展组织（经合组织）的成员国）经历的经济强劲增长时期。这一时期以其卓越的经济增长、技术创新和生活水平的提高而著称。在马歇尔计划、世界贸易增长和技术进步等因素的推动下，许多国家在经历了第二次世界大战的破坏后开始重建。许多国家在这一时期迅速实现了工业化、城市化和福利国家的扩张。这一时期也见证了消费文化的兴起，家庭收入的大幅增长导致了商品和服务消费支出的增加。这一时期往往与许多国家在随后几年经历的经济挑战和停滞形成鲜明对比，凸显了 "光辉年代 "的独特性和特殊性。 |
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| The expression "Les Trente Glorieuses" was coined by the economist Jean Fourastié. He used it in his book "Les Trente Glorieuses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975", published in 1979. This expression draws a parallel with the "Trois Glorieuses", the revolutionary days of 27, 28 and 29 July 1830 in France, which led to the fall of King Charles X. In his book, Fourastié analyses the period of profound economic and social transformation that France and other developed countries experienced after the Second World War. He highlights how this period, although less visible or dramatic than the political revolutions, had a revolutionary impact on society, the economy and culture. The term 'invisible revolution' therefore reflects the substantial and lasting changes that took place over these thirty years, marking an era of unprecedented prosperity and progress.
| | 让-福拉斯蒂埃（Jean Fourastié）经济学家创造了 "辉煌年代 "一词。他在 1979 年出版的《Les Trente Glorieuses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975》一书中使用了这一说法。这一表述与 1830 年 7 月 27 日、28 日和 29 日在法国发生的 "三光荣"（Trois Glorieuses）革命日相提并论，这三个革命日导致查理十世国王下台。他强调，尽管这一时期不如政治革命那么明显或引人注目，但却对社会、经济和文化产生了革命性的影响。因此，"无形革命 "一词反映了这三十年间发生的巨大而持久的变化，标志着一个前所未有的繁荣和进步的时代。 |
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| = From Destruction to Prosperity: Post-War Economic Growth = | | = 从破坏到繁荣： 战后经济增长 = |
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| == The Economic Repercussions of the Second World War == | | == 第二次世界大战的经济影响 == |
| A comparison of the First and Second World Wars reveals a dramatic increase in violence and social upheaval. During the First World War, the death toll was estimated at between 14 and 16 million people, an already tragic figure that reflects the extent of human loss across the world. However, during the Second World War, this number rose alarmingly to between 37 and 44 million, including a large number of civilians, underlining the unprecedented brutality of the conflict. In terms of population displacement, the First World War saw between 3 and 5 million people displaced, a phenomenon resulting directly from the fighting and changes in borders. But the Second World War saw this number rise considerably, with 28 to 30 million people displaced. This increase can be explained by the intensity of the fighting on several fronts, ethnic and political persecution, and post-war territorial readjustments. These figures illustrate the intensification of violence between the two wars and put into perspective the profound and lasting impact of the Second World War, especially on Europe, which was one of the main theatres of conflict. The consequences of this war shaped the world order in the decades that followed, paving the way for periods such as the Trente Glorieuses, marked by an era of reconstruction and economic and social renewal.
| | 对比第一次和第二次世界大战，可以发现暴力和社会动荡急剧增加。在第一次世界大战期间，死亡人数估计在 1400 万到 1600 万之间，这个数字已经很悲惨，反映了全世界人类损失的程度。然而，在第二次世界大战期间，这一数字令人震惊地上升到 3700 万至 4400 万之间，其中包括大量平民，凸显了冲突的空前残酷性。就人口流离失所而言，第一次世界大战期间有 300 万至 500 万人流离失所，这一现象是战争和边界变化直接造成的。但在第二次世界大战中，这一数字大幅上升，有 2800 万至 3000 万人流离失所。造成这一增长的原因包括多条战线上的激烈战斗、种族和政治迫害以及战后领土的重新调整。这些数字说明了两次大战之间暴力的加剧，也说明了第二次世界大战深远而持久的影响，尤其是对作为主要冲突战场之一的欧洲的影响。这场战争的后果影响了随后几十年的世界秩序，为 "光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）等时期的到来铺平了道路。 |
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| The devastating impact of the Second World War on the global economy is often underestimated, especially when compared with the immense human loss. Estimates by economists suggest that the destruction caused by the war resulted in a decline equivalent to 10 to 12 years of production to reach the economic level of 1939. This perspective highlights not only the scale of the material damage, but also the depth of the resulting economic crisis. The war ravaged essential infrastructure, destroyed industrial capacity and paralysed transport networks. This damage was not limited to the loss of material goods; it also represented a colossal delay in the potential for economic development. Ruined towns, devastated factories and disrupted communication lines are just a few examples of the major obstacles to economic recovery. The task of reconstruction was of unprecedented complexity and scale, requiring concerted efforts on an international scale, as illustrated by the Marshall Plan. Recovery to the 1939 level of production was not simply a matter of physical reconstruction. It involved an overhaul of the economy, social reorganisation and political modernisation. These challenges were met with remarkable resilience, laying the foundations for an unprecedented period of prosperity. The Trente Glorieuses that followed were not just the result of economic recovery, but also a testament to the extraordinary capacity of societies to rebuild, reinvent themselves and move forward after a period of profound adversity. This underlines the importance of resilience and innovation in post-conflict reconstruction.
| | 第二次世界大战对全球经济的破坏性影响往往被低估，尤其是与巨大的人员伤亡相比。经济学家估计，战争造成的破坏导致生产下降，相当于 10 到 12 年才能达到 1939 年的经济水平。这一观点不仅凸显了物质损失的规模，而且也说明了由此引发的经济危机的深度。战争破坏了重要的基础设施，摧毁了工业能力，使运输网络瘫痪。这种破坏不仅限于物质财富的损失，还意味着经济发展潜力的巨大延迟。被毁坏的城镇、满目疮痍的工厂和中断的通信线路只是经济复苏主要障碍中的几个例子。重建任务的复杂性和规模都是空前的，需要国际社会的共同努力，马歇尔计划就是一个很好的例子。恢复到 1939 年的生产水平不仅仅是物质重建的问题。它涉及到经济改革、社会重组和政治现代化。这些挑战都以非凡的韧性得到了应对，为前所未有的繁荣时期奠定了基础。随后的 "光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）不仅是经济复苏的结果，也证明了社会在经历深重逆境后重建、重塑和前进的非凡能力。这凸显了复原力和创新在冲突后重建中的重要性。 |
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| The dramatic situation after the Second World War was part of a political context that was profoundly transformed by the emergence of a bipolar world, dominated by two ideologically opposed superpowers: the United States, representing the liberal world, and the Soviet Union, embodying the Soviet bloc. This new geopolitical structure marked the beginning of an era of tension and rivalry known as the Cold War. The confrontation between these two blocs did not materialise in a direct war between the United States and the Soviet Union, but rather through local wars and proxy conflicts. These proxy confrontations took place in various parts of the world, where the two superpowers supported opposing sides in order to spread their respective influence and ideologies. The end of the Second World War thus marked the beginning of an opposition between the Soviet bloc and the Atlanticist bloc, led by the United States. This opposition shaped international politics for several decades, resulting in the division of the world into two distinct and often antagonistic spheres of influence. The impact of this bipolarity extended far beyond foreign policy, influencing the domestic politics, economies and even cultures of the countries involved. This period of world history was characterised by a series of crises and confrontations, including the arms race, the Cuban missile crisis, the Korean War and the Vietnam War. These events illustrate the complex and often perilous nature of the Cold War, when the world regularly seemed to be on the brink of large-scale nuclear conflict. The bipolar dynamic that emerged after the Second World War profoundly redefined international relations, creating a world divided and often in conflict, the repercussions of which are still felt in contemporary world politics.
| | 第二次世界大战后的戏剧性局势是政治环境的一部分，而两极世界的出现深刻地改变了这一政治环境，它由两个意识形态对立的超级大国主导：代表自由世界的美国和代表苏联集团的苏联。这一新的地缘政治结构标志着被称为冷战的紧张和竞争时代的开始。这两个集团之间的对抗并没有通过美苏之间的直接战争实现，而是通过局部战争和代理冲突实现的。这些代理冲突发生在世界各地，两个超级大国支持对立的一方，以传播各自的影响力和意识形态。因此，第二次世界大战的结束标志着苏联集团和以美国为首的大西洋主义集团之间对立的开始。这种对立影响了数十年的国际政治，导致世界被划分为两个截然不同且往往相互对立的势力范围。这种两极化的影响远远超出了外交政策的范围，影响到相关国家的国内政治、经济甚至文化。这一时期的世界历史充满了一系列危机和对抗，包括军备竞赛、古巴导弹危机、朝鲜战争和越南战争。这些事件说明了冷战的复杂性和危险性，当时世界似乎经常处于大规模核冲突的边缘。第二次世界大战后出现的两极态势深刻地重新定义了国际关系，创造了一个分裂且经常冲突的世界，其影响在当代世界政治中仍可感受到。 |
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| == Post-War Reconstruction: A Global Challenge == | | == 战后重建： 全球挑战 == |
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| [[Image:Europe Plan Marshall. Poster 1947.JPG|200px|thumb]] | | [[Image:Europe Plan Marshall. Poster 1947.JPG|200px|thumb]] |
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| Reconstruction after the Second World War, which took place surprisingly quickly in just 3 to 4 years, contrasts sharply with the period of reconstruction after the First World War, which took between 7 and 9 years. This notable difference in the speed of reconstruction can be attributed to several key factors. Firstly, the scale and nature of the destruction caused by the two wars were different. Although the Second World War was more devastating in terms of loss of life and material destruction, the nature of the destruction often enabled faster reconstruction. For example, bombing destroyed infrastructure, but sometimes left industrial bases intact, allowing production to resume more quickly. Secondly, the experience of the First World War undoubtedly played a role. Nations already had some experience of reconstruction after a major conflict, which may have contributed to better planning and execution of reconstruction efforts after the Second World War. Thirdly, external aid, in particular the Marshall Plan, had a significant impact. This programme, set up by the United States to help rebuild Europe, provided funds, equipment and support, speeding up the reconstruction process. The Marshall Plan not only helped to rebuild physically, but also helped to stabilise European economies and promote political and economic cooperation between European countries. Finally, the rapid reconstruction after the Second World War can also be attributed to a greater sense of urgency and political commitment. Having suffered two major wars in the space of a few decades, there was a strong desire, both nationally and internationally, to rebuild quickly and create more stable structures to prevent future conflict.
| | 第二次世界大战后的重建仅用了 3 至 4 年时间，速度之快令人惊讶，与第一次世界大战后用了 7 至 9 年时间的重建期形成鲜明对比。重建速度的显著差异可归因于几个关键因素。首先，两次战争所造成破坏的规模和性质不同。虽然第二次世界大战在生命损失和物质破坏方面更具毁灭性，但破坏的性质往往使重建速度更快。例如，轰炸摧毁了基础设施，但有时却完整地保留了工业基地，使生产得以更快地恢复。其次，第一次世界大战的经验无疑也发挥了作用。各国已经有了一些重大冲突后重建的经验，这可能有助于更好地规划和执行第二次世界大战后的重建工作。第三，外部援助，特别是马歇尔计划产生了重大影响。该计划由美国制定，旨在帮助重建欧洲，它提供了资金、设备和支持，加快了重建进程。马歇尔计划不仅有助于物质重建，还有助于稳定欧洲经济，促进欧洲国家之间的政治和经济合作。最后，第二次世界大战后的快速重建也可归因于更强的紧迫感和政治承诺。由于在短短几十年间经历了两次大战，国家和国际社会都强烈希望迅速重建并建立更加稳定的结构，以防止未来的冲突。 |
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| The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Programme, was a crucial initiative in the reconstruction of Europe after the Second World War. With a budget of 13.2 billion dollars allocated for the period 1948 to 1952, the plan represented around 2% of the total wealth of the United States at the time, illustrating the scale of the American commitment to European reconstruction. The plan had a significant strategic dimension. In 1947, US Secretary of State George C. Marshall made a strong appeal for the United States to become actively involved in the reconstruction of Western Europe. The main objective was to create a "defensive glacis" against the expansion of the Soviet bloc in Europe. At the time, the Cold War was beginning to take shape, and the Marshall Plan was seen as a way of countering Soviet influence by helping European nations to rebuild themselves economically and socially, making them less likely to fall under Communist influence. The Marshall Plan had a profound and lasting effect on Europe. Not only did it help in the rapid reconstruction of infrastructure, industry and national economies, but it also played a key role in the political stabilisation of Western Europe. In addition, it strengthened economic and political ties between the United States and European nations, laying the foundations for transatlantic cooperation that continues to influence international relations. By providing financial resources, equipment and advice, the Marshall Plan contributed to Europe's rapid post-war recovery, supporting not only material reconstruction but also the strengthening of democratic institutions and European economic integration. This commitment had an undeniable impact on the political and economic landscape of post-Second World War Europe, and was instrumental in preventing the spread of communism in Western Europe.
| | 马歇尔计划 "的正式名称是 "欧洲复兴计划"，是第二次世界大战后欧洲重建的重要举措。该计划在 1948 年至 1952 年期间的预算拨款为 132 亿美元，约占当时美国总财富的 2%，显示了美国对欧洲重建的承诺规模。该计划具有重要的战略意义。1947 年，美国国务卿乔治-马歇尔强烈呼吁美国积极参与西欧重建。其主要目的是建立一个 "防御屏障"，抵御苏联集团在欧洲的扩张。当时，冷战开始形成，马歇尔计划被视为通过帮助欧洲国家进行经济和社会重建来对抗苏联影响的一种方式，使这些国家不太可能受到共产党的影响。马歇尔计划对欧洲产生了深远而持久的影响。它不仅帮助迅速重建基础设施、工业和国民经济，还在西欧政治稳定方面发挥了关键作用。此外，它还加强了美国与欧洲国家之间的经济和政治联系，为跨大西洋合作奠定了基础，这种合作继续影响着国际关系。通过提供财政资源、设备和建议，马歇尔计划促进了欧洲战后的迅速恢复，不仅支持了物质重建，还加强了民主体制和欧洲经济一体化。这一承诺对第二次世界大战后欧洲的政治和经济格局产生了不可否认的影响，并在防止共产主义在西欧蔓延方面发挥了重要作用。 |
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| The post-Second World War era saw the establishment of a new international economic order, largely dominated by the United States. This restructuring was initiated by a number of major agreements and institutions, which laid the foundations for modern economic practices and shaped the global economy in the decades that followed. A key element of this new order was the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, which established the rules for financial and trade relations between the world's most industrialised countries. This conference gave birth to two major institutions: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), which became part of the World Bank. The purpose of these institutions was to stabilise exchange rates, assist reconstruction and economic development, and promote international trade. The Bretton Woods system also instituted fixed exchange rates, with currencies pegged to the US dollar, which was itself convertible into gold. This structure placed the United States at the heart of the world economy, with its dollar becoming the main international reserve currency. The GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) agreements of 1947 also played a crucial role. Their aim was to reduce customs barriers and promote free trade, thereby contributing to an increase in international trade and global economic integration. These initiatives, most of which were supported by the United States, not only helped to rebuild the economies devastated by the war, but also paved the way for the era of economic globalisation. They solidified the position of the United States as the dominant economic superpower, influencing economic and trade policies around the world. The post-war era saw the establishment of a new international economic order, characterised by strong institutions, stabilising rules for financial and trade exchanges, and US economic hegemony, which profoundly shaped the global economy for decades to come.
| | 第二次世界大战后，建立了主要由美国主导的国际经济新秩序。一系列重要协议和机构启动了这一重组，为现代经济实践奠定了基础，并在随后的几十年中塑造了全球经济。这种新秩序的一个关键要素是 1944 年的布雷顿森林会议，它为世界上工业化程度最高的国家之间的金融和贸易关系制定了规则。这次会议催生了两大机构：国际货币基金组织（IMF）和国际复兴开发银行（IBRD），后成为世界银行的一部分。这些机构的宗旨是稳定汇率、协助重建和经济发展，以及促进国际贸易。布雷顿森林体系还制定了固定汇率，货币与美元挂钩，美元本身可兑换成黄金。这一结构使美国成为世界经济的核心，美元成为主要的国际储备货币。1947 年的关贸总协定（GATT）也发挥了至关重要的作用。这些协定旨在减少关税壁垒，促进自由贸易，从而推动国际贸易增长和全球经济一体化。这些举措大多得到了美国的支持，它们不仅有助于重建被战争破坏的经济，还为经济全球化时代的到来铺平了道路。它们巩固了美国作为超级经济大国的主导地位，影响了全世界的经济和贸易政策。战后建立了以强有力的机构、稳定的金融和贸易交流规则以及美国经济霸权为特征的国际经济新秩序，深刻影响了未来几十年的全球经济。 |
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| The Bretton Woods Agreement, signed in July 1944, was a crucial turning point in world economic history. They marked the birth of a "new world" by establishing an institutional framework to regulate the international economy, a framework that remains influential to this day. These agreements led to the creation of two major institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), later integrated into the World Bank Group, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The IBRD's role was to facilitate post-war reconstruction and promote economic development, while the IMF's aim was to oversee the international monetary system, helping to stabilise exchange rates and providing a platform for international economic consultation and cooperation. A key element of the Bretton Woods agreements was the establishment of the US dollar as the reference currency for international trade. The currencies of member countries were pegged to the dollar, which was itself convertible into gold. This decision not only stabilised exchange rates, but also secured the value of international trade, which was crucial to post-war economic reconstruction and growth. The Bretton Woods agreements can be seen as the result of an intellectual and political drive to avoid the mistakes of the past, particularly those that led to the economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War. By establishing mechanisms for economic cooperation and creating stable institutions for the management of global economic affairs, these agreements laid the foundations for a period of unprecedented economic growth and stability. In this way, the Bretton Woods agreements and the institutions they created played a decisive role in shaping the world economic order of the twentieth century, shaping economic policies and practices on a global scale and establishing a framework that continues to influence the management of the international economy.
| | 1944 年 7 月签署的《布雷顿森林协定》是世界经济史上的一个重要转折点。它们通过建立一个规范国际经济的制度框架，标志着一个 "新世界 "的诞生。这些协议促成了两大机构的成立：国际复兴开发银行（IBRD）（后并入世界银行集团）和国际货币基金组织（IMF）。国际复兴开发银行的作用是推动战后重建和促进经济发展，而国际货币基金组织的目标则是监督国际货币体系，帮助稳定汇率，并为国际经济磋商与合作提供一个平台。布雷顿森林协定的一个关键要素是将美元确立为国际贸易的参考货币。成员国的货币与美元挂钩，而美元本身又可兑换成黄金。这一决定不仅稳定了汇率，还确保了国际贸易的价值，这对战后经济重建和增长至关重要。布雷顿森林协定可以被看作是避免过去的错误，特别是避免导致 20 世纪 30 年代经济危机和第二次世界大战的错误的思想和政治动力的结果。这些协定建立了经济合作机制，并创建了管理全球经济事务的稳定机构，从而为一个前所未有的经济增长和稳定时期奠定了基础。因此，布雷顿森林协定及其创建的机构在塑造 20 世纪世界经济秩序方面发挥了决定性作用，影响了全球范围内的经济政策和实践，并建立了一个继续影响国际经济管理的框架。 |
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| The GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), signed in January 1948, marked an important milestone in the establishment of an international trading system based on free trade principles. The main aim of this treaty was to reduce tariff barriers and limit recourse to protectionist policies, thereby encouraging greater openness of international markets. The GATT was conceived in a spirit of international economic cooperation, with the intention of facilitating steady economic growth and promoting job creation in the post-war period. It provided a regulatory framework for international trade negotiations, contributing to the gradual reduction in customs duties and the significant increase in world trade. In 1994, the World Trade Organisation (WTO) was created, succeeding the GATT. The WTO expanded the GATT framework to include not only trade in goods, but also trade in services and intellectual property rights. This transition from the GATT to the WTO represented a move towards a more formal and structured institution to oversee international trade. At the same time, these trade agreements came at a time when economic policies were largely influenced by Keynesian ideas. The economist John Maynard Keynes advocated active state intervention in the economy to regulate aggregate demand, particularly in times of recession. These Keynesian policies, which focused on stimulating employment and demand through public spending and monetary regulation, played a significant role in post-war reconstruction and economic growth. Thus, the GATT, and subsequently the WTO, in tandem with Keynesian economic policies, shaped a new era of international trade and economic management. These initiatives helped to stabilise and energise the world economy in the decades following the Second World War, laying the foundations for the economic interdependence and globalisation we know today.
| | 1948 年 1 月签署的《关贸总协定》（GATT）是建立以自由贸易原则为基础的国际贸易体系的重要里程碑。该条约的主要目的是减少关税壁垒，限制诉诸保护主义政策，从而鼓励国际市场更加开放。关贸总协定是本着国际经济合作的精神制定的，目的是在战后促进经济稳定增长和创造就业机会。它为国际贸易谈判提供了一个监管框架，促进了关税的逐步降低和世界贸易的大幅增长。1994 年，世界贸易组织（WTO）成立，接替了关贸总协定。世贸组织扩大了关贸总协定的框架，不仅包括货物贸易，还包括服务贸易和知识产权。从关贸总协定到世界贸易组织的这一转变，代表着一个更加正式和结构化的国际贸易监督机构的诞生。与此同时，这些贸易协定是在经济政策在很大程度上受到凯恩斯主义思想影响的情况下达成的。经济学家约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯主张国家积极干预经济，以调节总需求，尤其是在经济衰退时期。这些凯恩斯主义政策侧重于通过公共开支和货币调控来刺激就业和需求，在战后重建和经济增长中发挥了重要作用。因此，关贸总协定以及随后的世贸组织与凯恩斯主义经济政策共同塑造了国际贸易和经济管理的新时代。在第二次世界大战后的几十年里，这些举措有助于稳定和振兴世界经济，为我们今天所熟知的经济相互依存和全球化奠定了基础。 |
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| == Stability and Acceleration of Economic Growth == | | == 稳定和加快经济增长 == |
| Economic growth in developed countries has accelerated markedly over the centuries, peaking in the post-war period, particularly between 1950 and 1973. In the initial phase from 1750 to 1830, corresponding to the era of proto-industry, average annual economic growth was around 0.3%. This period marked the beginnings of industrialisation, with the introduction of new technologies and production methods, although these changes were gradual and geographically limited. The period from 1830 to 1913 saw a marked acceleration in growth, averaging 1.3%. This era was characterised by the generalisation and spread of the industrial revolution, particularly on the European continent. The adoption of advanced technologies, the expansion of international trade and rapid urbanisation all contributed to this increase in production and income. Between 1920 and 1939, growth increased further, reaching an average of 2.0%. This period was marked by the introduction and spread of Taylorism, a scientific method of work management, and by the pioneering role of Fordism, which revolutionised mass production techniques and product standardisation, particularly in the car industry. However, it was after the Second World War, between 1950 and 1973, that economic growth reached unprecedented levels, averaging 3.9%. This period, often referred to as the "Trente Glorieuses", was marked by rapid and sustained growth, exceptional economic stability and an absence of major economic crises. Factors contributing to this growth included post-war reconstruction, technological innovation, increased productivity, the expansion of international trade and the adoption of Keynesian economic policies. This historical progression of economic growth illustrates the evolution of technologies, production methods and economic policies, with the post-World War II period representing a peak in this trajectory, characterised by a unique combination of favourable factors that led to historic economic expansion.
| | 几个世纪以来，发达国家的经济增长速度明显加快，在战后时期达到顶峰，特别是在 1950 年至 1973 年期间。在 1750 年至 1830 年的初始阶段，也就是原工业时代，年均经济增长率约为 0.3%。这一时期标志着工业化的开始，引进了新的技术和生产方法，尽管这些变化是渐进的，而且地域范围有限。从 1830 年到 1913 年，经济增长明显加快，平均增长率为 1.3%。这一时期的特点是工业革命的普及和传播，尤其是在欧洲大陆。先进技术的采用、国际贸易的扩大和快速城市化都促进了生产和收入的增长。1920 至 1939 年间，经济增长率进一步提高，平均达到 2.0%。这一时期的特点是泰勒主义（一种科学的工作管理方法）的引入和传播，以及福特主义的先驱作用，它彻底改变了大规模生产技术和产品标准化，尤其是在汽车行业。然而，第二次世界大战之后，即 1950 年至 1973 年期间，经济增长达到了前所未有的水平，平均增长率为 3.9%。这一时期通常被称为 "光辉岁月"，其特点是经济持续快速增长，经济异常稳定，没有发生重大经济危机。促成这一增长的因素包括战后重建、技术创新、生产率提高、国际贸易扩大以及凯恩斯主义经济政策的采用。这一经济增长的历史进程说明了技术、生产方式和经济政策的演变，二战后时期是这一轨迹的顶峰，其特点是各种有利因素的独特组合，导致了历史性的经济扩张。 |
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| The period of strong economic growth between 1950 and 1973, known as the "Trente Glorieuses", was marked by significant geographical disparities in terms of per capita GNP (Gross National Product) growth. Although the developed countries as a whole experienced impressive growth averaging 3.9% a year, growth rates varied considerably from region to region. In Western Europe, GNP per capita growth averaged 3.8%, reflecting the successful reconstruction after the Second World War and the increasing economic integration between European countries. This growth was underpinned by significant investment in infrastructure, technological innovation and the expansion of trade, partly as a result of the Marshall Plan and the establishment of the European Economic Community. In the United States, per capita GNP growth was more modest, at around 2.1%. Despite this slower growth compared to other regions, the US remained a dominant economy, benefiting from a solid industrial base, strong domestic consumption and a leading position in technological and scientific innovation. Japan, on the other hand, saw its per capita GNP grow at a dazzling rate of 7.7%. This spectacular growth is the result of its rapid modernisation process, effective industrial policy and export orientation, making Japan one of the most remarkable examples of post-war economic development. Finally, Eastern Europe also posted high growth rates, fluctuating between 6% and 7%. These economies, although operating under a different economic model due to their alignment with the Soviet bloc, also benefited from a period of industrial growth and improvements in living standards, even if this growth was often accompanied by political and economic constraints. This period therefore showed that, despite a general trend towards economic growth, growth rates in GNP per capita varied considerably from one region to another, reflecting the diversity of economic, political and social contexts in the post-war developed world.
| | 1950 年至 1973 年这段被称为 "光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）的强劲经济增长期，在人均国民生产总值（GNP）增长方面存在着显著的地域差异。虽然发达国家作为一个整体经历了平均每年 3.9% 的可观增长，但各地区的增长率差异很大。在西欧，人均国民生产总值平均增长 3.8%，这反映了第二次世界大战后的成功重建以及欧洲各国之间日益紧密的经济一体化。支撑这一增长的是对基础设施的大量投资、技术创新和贸易扩张，部分原因是马歇尔计划和欧洲经济共同体的建立。在美国，人均国民生产总值的增长较为温和，约为 2.1%。尽管与其他地区相比，美国的增长速度较慢，但得益于坚实的工业基础、强劲的国内消费以及在科技创新方面的领先地位，美国仍然是一个占主导地位的经济体。另一方面，日本的人均国民生产总值以 7.7% 的惊人速度增长。这一惊人的增长得益于其快速的现代化进程、有效的产业政策和出口导向，使日本成为战后经济发展最杰出的典范之一。最后，东欧的增长率也很高，在 6% 到 7% 之间波动。这些经济体虽然由于与苏联集团结盟而在不同的经济模式下运作，但也受益于一段时期的工业增长和生活水平的提高，尽管这种增长往往伴随着政治和经济限制。因此，这一时期的情况表明，尽管经济增长是大势所趋，但不同地区的人均国民生产总值的增长率差别很大，反映了战后发达国家经济、政治和社会环境的多样性。 |
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| The strong economic growth in Eastern Europe during the Trente Glorieuses period can be attributed in part to the initial situation of these countries. Being poorer than their Western European neighbours, these nations benefited from what is known as the economic catch-up effect. The systematic destruction suffered during the Second World War necessitated large-scale reconstruction, providing an opportunity for rapid modernisation and industrialisation. This reconstruction, often directed by centralised economic plans typical of the communist regimes of the time, led to a significant increase in economic activity and high growth rates. As for Japan, its economic rise after the Second World War is remarkable and is often compared to historical attempts at modernisation, such as that of Egypt under Mehmet Ali in the nineteenth century. Unlike Egypt at that time, which experienced difficulties in its efforts to modernise and industrialise, Japan succeeded in transforming itself into a major economic power. This success is due to a combination of factors, including major structural reforms, strong political will, a skilled and disciplined workforce, and an effective strategy focused on exports and technological innovation. The Japanese case is exemplary in that it was able not only to rebuild its war-torn economy, but also to redirect it towards rapid and sustainable growth. Japan benefited from American aid in the immediate post-war period, but it was above all thanks to its own industrial policies and its commitment to education and research and development that it was able to establish a solid base for economic growth. In just a few decades, Japan has gone from a war-torn nation to one of the most advanced and innovative economies in the world.
| | 东欧在 "光辉岁月 "时期经济增长强劲，部分原因在于这些国家最初的状况。由于比西欧邻国贫穷，这些国家受益于所谓的经济赶超效应。第二次世界大战期间遭受的系统性破坏要求进行大规模重建，这为快速现代化和工业化提供了契机。这种重建通常由当时典型的共产主义政权的中央集权经济计划指导，导致经济活动显著增加，增长率很高。至于日本，它在第二次世界大战后的经济崛起令人瞩目，经常被拿来与历史上的现代化尝试相比较，比如 19 世纪穆罕默德-阿里统治下的埃及。当时的埃及在努力实现现代化和工业化的过程中遇到了重重困难，而日本则不同，它成功地将自己转变成了一个经济大国。这一成功是多种因素共同作用的结果，其中包括重大的结构改革、强烈的政治意愿、技术熟练且纪律严明的劳动力，以及以出口和技术创新为重点的有效战略。日本的例子堪称典范，因为它不仅能够重建饱受战争摧残的经济，还能将其重新导向快速和可持续的增长。日本在战后初期曾受益于美国的援助，但最重要的还是得益于其自身的产业政策及其对教育和研发的承诺，从而为经济增长奠定了坚实的基础。在短短几十年间，日本从一个饱受战争蹂躏的国家发展成为世界上最先进、最具创新精神的经济体之一。 |
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| The period of reconstruction after the Second World War played a crucial role in boosting the economy and significantly improving living standards, leading to what might be termed 'life security' for a large proportion of the population in developed countries. This era has seen a significant decline in poverty, thanks to rapid and sustained economic growth and the creation and expansion of the welfare state. The social security systems put in place during this period were essential in providing a safety net for citizens, offering protection against economic and social risks such as sickness, old age, unemployment and poverty. These systems included health insurance, retirement pensions, unemployment benefits and other forms of social assistance. Their development reflected a new approach to governance, in which the state took a more active role in guaranteeing the well-being of its citizens. This development was partly inspired by Keynesian ideas, which advocated greater state intervention in the economy to regulate demand and ensure economic stability. In addition, economic growth led to higher wages and better working conditions, contributing to a general rise in living standards. Increased access to education and healthcare has played an important role in improving quality of life and social mobility. Overall, the post-war reconstruction period marked a transition towards more prosperous and equitable societies in developed countries. The rise of the welfare state, combined with unprecedented economic growth, not only helped to repair the damage of war, but also laid the foundations for an era of prosperity and security for millions of people.
| | 第二次世界大战后的重建时期在促进经济发展和显著提高生活水平方面发挥了至关重要的作用，使发达国家的大部分人口获得了所谓的 "生活保障"。在这一时期，由于经济的持续快速增长以及福利国家的建立和扩大，贫困人口大幅减少。这一时期建立的社会保障体系在为公民提供安全网方面发挥了至关重要的作用，为公民提供了抵御疾病、养老、失业和贫困等经济和社会风险的保护。这些制度包括医疗保险、退休金、失业救济金和其他形式的社会援助。它们的发展反映了一种新的治理方式，即国家在保障公民福祉方面发挥更积极的作用。这种发展在一定程度上受到凯恩斯主义思想的启发，凯恩斯主义主张国家加强对经济的干预，以调节需求并确保经济稳定。此外，经济增长带来了更高的工资和更好的工作条件，促进了生活水平的普遍提高。教育和医疗机会的增加在提高生活质量和社会流动性方面发挥了重要作用。总体而言，战后重建时期标志着发达国家向更加繁荣和公平的社会过渡。福利国家的兴起，加上前所未有的经济增长，不仅帮助修复了战争造成的破坏，还为数百万人进入繁荣和安全的时代奠定了基础。 |
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| The development of the consumer society in the post-war period played a fundamental role in establishing a consumption and production dynamic that contributed significantly to economic growth. This period was marked by a significant increase in demand for, and accessibility to, everyday consumer goods such as household equipment and means of transport. Rising incomes, combined with the mass production made possible by technological advances and efficient production methods such as Fordism, made consumer goods more affordable for a greater number of people. Household items such as fridges, washing machines and televisions became commonplace in homes, symbolising a rise in living standards. Similarly, means of transport, particularly cars, have undergone massive expansion. The car became not only a means of transport but also a symbol of status and independence. The democratisation of the car brought about significant changes in lifestyles, encouraging individual mobility and contributing to the expansion of suburbs. This consumer society has also stimulated production. Growing demand for consumer goods encouraged companies to increase production, which in turn led to economic growth. It also encouraged product innovation and diversification, as companies sought to respond to changing consumer needs and desires. Advertising and marketing played a key role in this era, encouraging consumption and shaping consumer desires. Mass media, such as television, have enabled advertising messages to be disseminated more widely and more effectively, contributing to the growth of consumer culture. The development of the consumer society in the post-war period created a powerful economic dynamic, characterised by increased demand for consumer goods, increased mass production, and overall economic growth. This period laid the foundations for the modern market economy and profoundly influenced lifestyles and cultures in developed countries.
| | 战后消费社会的发展在建立消费和生产动力方面发挥了根本性作用，极大地促进了经济增长。这一时期的特点是，人们对日常消费品（如家用设备和交通工具）的需求大幅增加，而且越来越容易获得。收入的增加，加上技术进步和福特主义等高效生产方式带来的大规模生产，使更多人买得起消费品。冰箱、洗衣机和电视机等家用电器在家庭中变得司空见惯，象征着生活水平的提高。同样，交通工具，尤其是汽车，也经历了大规模的扩张。汽车不仅是一种交通工具，也是地位和独立的象征。汽车的民主化带来了生活方式的重大改变，鼓励了个人流动性，促进了郊区的扩张。消费社会也刺激了生产。对消费品日益增长的需求鼓励公司增加生产，这反过来又促进了经济增长。这也鼓励了产品创新和多样化，因为公司寻求对消费者不断变化的需求和愿望做出回应。广告和营销在这一时代发挥了关键作用，鼓励消费并塑造消费者的欲望。电视等大众传媒使广告信息得以更广泛、更有效地传播，促进了消费文化的发展。战后消费社会的发展创造了强大的经济动力，其特点是对消费品的需求增加、大规模生产增多以及整体经济增长。这一时期奠定了现代市场经济的基础，并深刻影响了发达国家的生活方式和文化。 |
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| In the post-war period, the United States assumed the role of leader of the Atlanticist bloc, but in terms of economic growth, its performance was not as exceptional as that of Western Europe. This may seem surprising, given the dominant position of the United States on the world economic and political stage. One of the main reasons for this difference lies in the catch-up effect enjoyed by Western Europe. Having suffered massive destruction during the Second World War, European countries were in a phase of intense reconstruction and modernisation. This reconstruction dynamic led to rapid growth, especially with the support of the Marshall Plan, which helped to modernise infrastructure and industry. Starting from a weaker economic base, Europe thus had greater growth potential. In contrast, the United States, which had not suffered any destruction at home, already had an advanced economy with its infrastructure largely intact after the war. This limited its growth potential compared with Europe, which was rebuilding and modernising. In addition, the US economy had already expanded significantly during the war, and the transition from a war economy to a peace economy presented its own challenges. Economic integration also played a key role in Europe, notably with the creation of the European Economic Community. This integration has stimulated trade and economic cooperation between European countries, fostering their growth. Europe has also been the scene of major economic innovations and reforms, contributing to an acceleration in its economic growth.
| | 战后，美国成为大西洋主义集团的领导者，但就经济增长而言，其表现却不如西欧出众。鉴于美国在世界经济和政治舞台上的主导地位，这似乎令人惊讶。造成这种差异的主要原因之一在于西欧的赶超效应。第二次世界大战期间，欧洲国家遭受了巨大的破坏，正处于紧张的重建和现代化阶段。这种重建动力带来了快速增长，尤其是在马歇尔计划的支持下，该计划帮助实现了基础设施和工业的现代化。因此，经济基础较弱的欧洲具有更大的增长潜力。相比之下，美国国内没有遭受任何破坏，战后已经拥有发达的经济和基本完好的基础设施。与正在重建和现代化的欧洲相比，这限制了美国的增长潜力。此外，美国经济在战争期间已经大幅扩张，从战争经济向和平经济的过渡也带来了自身的挑战。经济一体化在欧洲也发挥了关键作用，特别是欧洲经济共同体的成立。这种一体化刺激了欧洲国家之间的贸易和经济合作，促进了它们的增长。欧洲还进行了重大的经济创新和改革，促进了经济的加速增长。 |
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| The exceptional economic growth of the post-war period can be attributed to a combination of global economic factors. Firstly, the liberalisation of international trade played a crucial role. The GATT agreements encouraged free trade by reducing tariff barriers and establishing rules for international trade. At the same time, the Bretton Woods system provided essential monetary stability by pegging currencies to the US dollar, which was itself convertible into gold. These elements created an environment conducive to world trade, facilitating economic growth. At the same time, the transport revolution, particularly in the naval and air transport sectors, enabled international trade to expand rapidly. Improvements in the efficiency and capacity of sea and air transport reduced costs and delays, enabling the exchange of goods on an unprecedented scale and speed. The period was also marked by what is known as the Third Industrial Revolution, characterised by the emergence of new technological sectors such as electronics, automation and the harnessing of atomic energy. These advances have not only created new markets and employment opportunities, but have also stimulated innovation and efficiency in many other sectors of the economy. Moreover, the Cold War arms race had a paradoxical effect on the global economy. On the one hand, it supported traditional defence and arms-related industries, preserving older sectors. On the other, it has stimulated the development of cutting-edge technologies, particularly in aerospace and electronics. This dynamic has encouraged both the preservation of existing industries and the emergence of new, innovative sectors. These factors combined to create an era of unprecedented economic growth, characterised by an expansion in international trade, major technological innovations, and a mix of development in traditional and cutting-edge sectors. This synergy helped shape the post-war global economy, laying the foundations for the prosperity and economic development we enjoy today.
| | 战后时期的超常经济增长可归因于全球经济因素的综合作用。首先，国际贸易自由化发挥了至关重要的作用。关贸总协定》通过减少关税壁垒和制定国际贸易规则鼓励自由贸易。同时，布雷顿森林体系通过将货币与美元挂钩（美元本身可兑换成黄金），提供了基本的货币稳定性。这些因素为世界贸易创造了有利环境，促进了经济增长。与此同时，运输革命，特别是海运和空运部门的革命，使国际贸易迅速扩大。海运和空运效率和能力的提高降低了成本，减少了延误，使货物交换的规模和速度达到了前所未有的水平。这一时期还发生了所谓的第三次工业革命，其特点是电子、自动化和原子能利用等新技术领域的出现。这些进步不仅创造了新的市场和就业机会，也刺激了许多其他经济部门的创新和效率。此外，冷战时期的军备竞赛对全球经济产生了矛盾的影响。一方面，它支持了传统的国防和武器相关产业，保护了老的部门。另一方面，它刺激了尖端技术的发展，特别是航空航天和电子技术。这种态势既促进了现有产业的保留，也推动了新的创新部门的出现。这些因素结合在一起，创造了一个前所未有的经济增长时代，其特点是国际贸易扩张、重大技术创新以及传统和尖端行业的混合发展。这种协同作用帮助塑造了战后的全球经济，为我们今天所享有的繁荣和经济发展奠定了基础。 |
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| = The German "Miracle": Recovery and Success for Defeated Countries = | | = 德国的 "奇迹"： 战败国的复兴与成功 = |
| The "Wirtschaftswunder" or German economic miracle, which took place between 1951 and 1960, is a remarkable phenomenon in German economic history. During this decade, the country experienced impressive growth of 9% per annum, a rate that far exceeded expectations and marked a rapid and robust recovery from the massive destruction of the Second World War. The key to this success has been the adoption of a unique economic model, known as the social market economy. This innovative model effectively merged the principles of free enterprise with a strong social policy component. By putting this model into practice, Germany has succeeded in stimulating private initiative and market competitiveness while ensuring social justice and security for its citizens. This balanced approach not only fostered rapid economic growth, but also ensured a fairer distribution of wealth, thereby contributing to lasting political and social stability.
| | 1951 年至 1960 年间发生的 "经济奇迹 "或德国经济奇迹是德国经济史上的一个非凡现象。在这十年间，德国经济以每年 9% 的惊人速度增长，远远超出人们的预期，标志着德国从第二次世界大战的巨大破坏中迅速而稳健地复苏。成功的关键在于采用了一种独特的经济模式，即社会市场经济。这一创新模式将自由企业原则与强有力的社会政策有效地结合在一起。通过将这一模式付诸实践，德国成功地激发了私营部门的积极性和市场竞争力，同时确保了公民的社会公正和安全。这种平衡兼顾的方法不仅促进了经济的快速增长，还确保了财富的公平分配，从而促进了政治和社会的持久稳定。 |
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| The currency reform of 1948, which saw the introduction of the Deutsche Mark, played a crucial role in stabilising the German economy. This reform not only helped to keep inflation under control, but also restored confidence in the country's financial system, creating an environment conducive to investment and economic growth. Germany has also benefited from significant investment in its reconstruction, thanks in particular to the Marshall Plan. This investment was crucial in rebuilding the destroyed infrastructure and revitalising German industry, laying the foundations for a rapid and sustainable economic recovery. Germany's integration into the European economy, notably through its membership of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and later the European Economic Community (EEC), also played an important role. The opening up of new markets and the facilitation of trade across these economic blocs stimulated economic growth in Germany. Finally, the implementation of social policies has ensured a degree of equality and security, playing an important role in stabilising German society. These policies, including benefits such as retirement pensions and health insurance, have not only improved the quality of life of citizens, but have also contributed to the country's political and social stability. The German economic miracle demonstrates the effectiveness of an economic approach that effectively combines free market principles with a solid social policy. This model not only enabled Germany to rebuild rapidly after the war, but also transformed it into one of the most powerful and stable economies in the world.
| | 1948 年的货币改革引入了德国马克，对稳定德国经济起到了至关重要的作用。这一改革不仅有助于控制通货膨胀，还恢复了人们对国家金融体系的信心，创造了有利于投资和经济增长的环境。德国还得益于重建方面的大量投资，特别是马歇尔计划。这些投资对于重建被摧毁的基础设施和振兴德国工业至关重要，为德国经济的快速和可持续复苏奠定了基础。德国融入欧洲经济，特别是加入欧洲煤钢共同体（ECSC）和后来的欧洲经济共同体（EEC），也发挥了重要作用。新市场的开放和这些经济集团间贸易的便利化刺激了德国的经济增长。最后，社会政策的实施确保了一定程度的平等和安全，在稳定德国社会方面发挥了重要作用。这些政策，包括退休金和医疗保险等福利，不仅提高了公民的生活质量，也促进了国家的政治和社会稳定。德国的经济奇迹表明，将自由市场原则与稳固的社会政策有效结合的经济方法是行之有效的。这种模式不仅使德国能够在战后迅速重建，还将其转变为世界上最强大、最稳定的经济体之一。 |
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| == The Impact of International Aid == | | == 国际援助的影响 == |
| From 1947, in the context of the emerging Cold War, Allied policy towards West Germany underwent a significant change. The penalties imposed on Germany after the Second World War began to be suspended. This decision was largely motivated by the desire to counter Soviet influence and domination in Eastern Europe and to integrate West Germany into the Western liberal camp. This strategy was part of a wider policy of containing Communism, aimed at limiting the expansion of Soviet influence in Europe and the rest of the world. Against this backdrop, the Marshall Plan, officially named the European Recovery Programme, was introduced in 1948. The aim of this programme was to support the reconstruction of European countries ravaged by war, including Germany. A significant sum of 1.5 billion dollars was allocated to the German economy as part of this plan. Investment in the reconstruction of Germany was intended not only to re-establish the country as an economic power, but also to solidify it as an important strategic partner in the Western bloc against the USSR. The Marshall Plan played a crucial role in revitalising the German economy. By providing the funds needed to rebuild infrastructure, revitalise industry and stimulate economic growth, the plan helped Germany recover quickly from the ravages of war. In addition, West Germany's integration into the Western economy strengthened its position as a key member of the Western bloc, contributing to the political and economic stabilisation of the region in the face of the Communist bloc.
| | 从 1947 年开始，在冷战兴起的背景下，盟国对西德的政策发生了重大变化。第二次世界大战后对德国实施的惩罚开始中止。这一决定的主要动机是为了对抗苏联在东欧的影响和统治，并将西德纳入西方自由阵营。这一战略是更广泛的遏制共产主义政策的一部分，旨在限制苏联在欧洲和世界其他地区的影响力扩张。在此背景下，马歇尔计划（正式名称为欧洲复兴计划）于 1948 年出台。该计划旨在支持包括德国在内的饱受战争蹂躏的欧洲国家的重建。作为该计划的一部分，德国经济获得了 15 亿美元的巨额拨款。对德国重建的投资不仅是为了重建德国的经济实力，也是为了巩固德国作为西方集团对抗苏联的重要战略伙伴的地位。马歇尔计划在振兴德国经济方面发挥了至关重要的作用。通过提供重建基础设施、振兴工业和刺激经济增长所需的资金，该计划帮助德国迅速从战争的破坏中恢复过来。此外，西德融入西方经济也加强了其作为西方集团重要成员的地位，在共产主义集团面前为该地区的政治和经济稳定做出了贡献。 |
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| == The emergence of "Soziale Marktwirtschaft" in Germany == | | == 德国 "社会市场经济 "的兴起 == |
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| The economic and political thinking that guided Germany's reconstruction after the Second World War had its roots in the ideas of liberal German intellectuals, in particular in a school of thought known as 'ordo-liberalism'. This movement, which emerged in the 1930s and 1940s, represented a response to the economic and political challenges of the time, in particular the rise of Nazism and totalitarianism. Ordo-liberalism differed from traditional forms of liberalism mainly in that it was constructed in opposition to Nazism. Whereas classical liberalism often developed in reaction to left-wing policies and state expansion, post-war German ordo-liberalism sought to establish a third way, distinct from both totalitarianism and state socialism.
| | 二战后指导德国重建的经济和政治思想源于德国自由派知识分子的思想，特别是被称为 "圣职自由主义 "的思想流派。这一运动兴起于 20 世纪 30 年代和 40 年代，是对当时的经济和政治挑战，尤其是纳粹主义和极权主义兴起的回应。奥多-自由主义与传统形式的自由主义不同，主要在于它是为反对纳粹主义而构建的。古典自由主义通常是针对左翼政策和国家扩张而发展起来的，而战后德国的秩序自由主义则试图建立一种有别于极权主义和国家社会主义的第三条道路。 |
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| <gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="200"> | | <gallery mode="packed" widths="200" heights="200"> |
| Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R70674, Köln, Hohenzollernbrücke, Wiederaufbau.jpg|Reconstruction of the cathedral bridge in war-torn Cologne. After the work was completed, 360 trains once again used the bridge every day. | | Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-R70674, Köln, Hohenzollernbrücke, Wiederaufbau.jpg|在饱受战争蹂躏的科隆重建大教堂桥。工程竣工后，每天有 360 辆火车再次通过这座桥。 |
| Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25292, Plakate zum Ankauf von Wertsachen.jpg|Advertising designers work on new posters. West Germany's economy prepares for the day of monetary reform. | | Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-H25292, Plakate zum Ankauf von Wertsachen.jpg|广告设计师制作新海报。西德经济为货币改革日做准备。 |
| </gallery> | | </gallery> |
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| This school of thought recognised a legitimate and active role for the state, not as a centralised agent of control, but as a regulator and guarantor of market order. Ordo-liberals argued that the state should create a legal and institutional framework that allowed the market economy to function efficiently and fairly. This approach implied careful regulation of markets to prevent monopolies and abuses of economic power, while preserving competition and private initiative. Ordo-liberalism also incorporated a significant social dimension, emphasising the importance of social policy in ensuring stability and justice within a market economy. This vision led to the creation of a social security system and the adoption of policies designed to guarantee a degree of equality of opportunity and to protect citizens against economic risks.
| | 这一学派承认国家的合法和积极作用，但不是作为中央控制机构，而是作为市场秩序的监管者和保障者。自由主义者认为，国家应建立一个法律和制度框架，使市场经济能够高效、公平地运行。这种方法意味着对市场进行谨慎监管，以防止垄断和滥用经济权力，同时保护竞争和私人积极性。奥多-自由主义还包含一个重要的社会维度，强调社会政策在确保市场经济稳定和公正方面的重要性。这一愿景促成了社会保障体系的建立，以及旨在保障一定程度的机会平等和保护公民免受经济风险影响的政策的通过。 |
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| Founded on a broad anti-communist consensus, ordo-liberalism played a crucial role in the post-war reconstruction of Germany, strongly influencing the economic policy of the Wirtschaftswunder era. This new form of liberalism helped shape a German economy that was not only prosperous and internationally competitive, but also socially responsible and stable.
| | 在广泛的反共共识基础上，圣职自由主义在战后德国的重建中发挥了至关重要的作用，对经济战争时期的经济政策产生了重大影响。这种新形式的自由主义有助于塑造一个不仅繁荣、具有国际竞争力，而且对社会负责、稳定的德国经济。 |
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| === Distinguishing between the Legal Framework and the Economic Process === | | === 区分法律框架和经济进程 === |
| The economic approach adopted by Germany in the post-war period, strongly influenced by ordo-liberalism, emphasised the regulatory role of the state while preserving the principles of the market economy. This strategy focused on a number of key areas, demonstrating a balance between state intervention and free competition. Firstly, the State played a crucial role in imposing and enforcing economic rules. This included putting in place policies to ensure competition in markets to avoid the formation of monopolies, which could distort the market economy. By ensuring that the rules of competition were respected, the State helped to create a healthy and fair economic environment. At the same time, the State ensured that contracts were respected, thereby reinforcing confidence in commercial transactions and business relationships. This state guarantee was essential to maintaining order and predictability in the economy. In terms of monetary policy, the State guaranteed the stability of the currency. A stable currency is crucial to a healthy economy, as it reduces uncertainty for investors and consumers, and helps to control inflation. Investment in education and scientific research has also been a central pillar of German economic strategy. The government has encouraged the development of technical universities and the training of high-quality technicians. This focus on education and research has made it possible to develop a pool of highly skilled and innovative workers, crucial to the competitiveness of the German economy on the global market. These policies have enabled the German economy to build on solid foundations, with a balance between effective state regulation and the maintenance of a free and competitive market. This combination was essential to Germany's rapid recovery and sustained growth in the post-war period, making the country a model of economic success.
| | 德国在战后采取的经济方针深受圣职自由主义的影响，强调国家的调控作用，同时保留市场经济的原则。这一战略集中在几个关键领域，体现了国家干预与自由竞争之间的平衡。首先，国家在实施和执行经济规则方面发挥着至关重要的作用。这包括制定政策确保市场竞争，避免形成垄断，因为垄断会扭曲市场经济。通过确保竞争规则得到遵守，国家帮助创造了一个健康和公平的经济环境。同时，国家还确保合同得到遵守，从而增强人们对商业交易和商业关系的信心。这种国家保障对于维持经济秩序和可预测性至关重要。在货币政策方面，国家保证货币的稳定。稳定的货币对健康的经济至关重要，因为它可以减少投资者和消费者的不确定性，并有助于控制通货膨胀。教育和科研投资也是德国经济战略的核心支柱。政府鼓励发展技术大学，培养高素质的技术人员。对教育和科研的重视使德国得以培养一批高技能和创新型人才，这对德国经济在全球市场上的竞争力至关重要。这些政策使德国经济建立在坚实的基础之上，在有效的国家监管与维护自由竞争的市场之间取得了平衡。战后德国经济的快速复苏和持续增长离不开这种结合，这也使德国成为经济成功的典范。 |
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| Germany's post-war economic approach was characterised by the protection of economic freedom while avoiding a direct takeover of the economic process by the state. This strategy represented a subtle balance between regulation and freedom, embodying the principles of ordo-liberalism. In this model, the state did not position itself as a direct player in the economy, i.e. it did not intervene in the production or distribution of goods in any significant way. Instead, its role was to create and maintain a regulatory framework that ensured the proper functioning of the market economy. The aim was to preserve the free market dynamic, while ensuring that this freedom did not drift into abuses or monopolies that could harm the overall economy and society. The State was therefore involved in key areas to support the economy, such as guaranteeing monetary stability, implementing anti-trust legislation to safeguard competition, enforcing contracts, and investing in education and research. These interventions were designed to support and strengthen the market economy, rather than replace it with state control. This model of a committed but non-intrusive state in the economy made it possible to reconcile economic freedom with effective regulation and responsible social policy. It has contributed to the creation of a robust and dynamic economy in Germany, capable of competing internationally while ensuring a degree of social justice and economic stability.
| | 德国战后经济方针的特点是保护经济自由，同时避免国家直接接管经济进程。这一战略代表了监管与自由之间的微妙平衡，体现了圣旨自由主义的原则。在这一模式中，国家并不直接参与经济，即不对商品的生产或分配进行任何重大干预。相反，国家的作用是建立和维持一个监管框架，确保市场经济的正常运行。其目的是维护自由市场的活力，同时确保这种自由不会演变成可能损害整体经济和社会的滥用或垄断。因此，国家参与了支持经济的关键领域，如保障货币稳定、实施反垄断法以保护竞争、执行合同以及投资教育和研究。这些干预措施旨在支持和加强市场经济，而不是用国家控制取代市场经济。这种国家对经济的承诺但不干预的模式使经济自由与有效监管和负责任的社会政策相协调成为可能。这种模式有助于在德国建立一个稳健而充满活力的经济，既能参与国际竞争，又能确保一定程度的社会公正和经济稳定。 |
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| === Policies to encourage investment and consumption === | | === 鼓励投资和消费的政策 === |
| The post-war period in Germany was also marked by a process of coming to terms with the legacy of Nazism, a crucial aspect of the country's economic and social reconstruction. An important part of this legacy was the economic and monetary collapse that Germany had suffered before and during the Nazi period, a situation that had contributed to Hitler's rise to power. In the years leading up to Hitler's rise to power, Germany experienced severe economic and monetary instability, exacerbated by the war reparations imposed after the First World War and the global economic crisis of the 1930s. Hyperinflation, particularly in the early 1920s, had eroded the value of the German currency and severely affected the German economy and society. This economic instability created fertile ground for social and political discontent, which Hitler and the Nazi party capitalised on to win voter support. The resulting economic collapse and social distress were key factors in the rise of Nazism. Hitler promised a restoration of pride and economic stability, promises that resonated with many Germans suffering from the economic crisis. In the post-war period, Germany's economic reconstruction had to take account of these historical lessons. The currency reform of 1948, which introduced the Deutsche Mark, was a crucial step in overcoming the legacy of currency instability. This reform, along with the ordo-liberal economic policies adopted, aimed to restore economic stability and prevent a return to the conditions that had contributed to the rise of Nazism. By establishing a stable and prosperous economy, post-war Germany sought to turn the page on the economic mistakes of the past and build a more secure and just future for its citizens.
| | 战后德国也经历了一个接受纳粹主义遗产的过程，这是德国经济和社会重建的一个重要方面。纳粹主义遗留问题的一个重要部分是德国在纳粹时期之前和期间所遭受的经济和货币崩溃，这种情况促成了希特勒的上台。在希特勒上台之前的几年里，德国经历了严重的经济和货币不稳定，一战后强加的战争赔款和 20 世纪 30 年代的全球经济危机加剧了这种不稳定。恶性通货膨胀，尤其是在 20 世纪 20 年代初，侵蚀了德国货币的价值，严重影响了德国的经济和社会。这种经济不稳定为社会和政治不满情绪创造了肥沃的土壤，希特勒和纳粹党正是利用这一点赢得了选民的支持。由此导致的经济崩溃和社会困境是纳粹主义崛起的关键因素。希特勒承诺恢复自豪感和经济稳定，这些承诺引起了许多饱受经济危机之苦的德国人的共鸣。战后，德国的经济重建必须考虑到这些历史教训。1948 年的货币改革引入了德国马克，这是克服货币不稳定遗留问题的关键一步。这一改革以及所采取的自由主义经济政策旨在恢复经济稳定，防止重新回到导致纳粹主义崛起的条件下。通过建立稳定繁荣的经济，战后德国力图翻过过去经济失误的一页，为其公民建设一个更加安全和公正的未来。 |
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| At the end of the Second World War, Germany was faced with major economic difficulties, including a dramatically devalued currency, the Reichsmark. To meet these challenges and restore economic stability, a significant monetary reform was introduced in 1948, marking the introduction of the Deutsche Mark (DM) to replace the Reichsmark. This monetary reform involved a major revaluation of the currency. Under this revaluation, ten Reichsmarks were exchanged for one Deutsche Mark. This decision had several important economic and political implications. On the one hand, the reform favoured employees and investment. By reducing the amount of money in circulation and stabilising the value of the new currency, the reform helped to control inflation, a major problem in post-war Germany. This created a more favourable environment for investment and contributed to a healthier economic recovery. For employees, the stabilisation of the currency meant that their incomes were less likely to be eroded by inflation, thus preserving their purchasing power. On the other hand, this reform had an unfavourable impact on savings. Savers who held Reichsmarks saw the value of their savings fall considerably following the exchange at a rate of 10 to 1. This represented a substantial loss for those who had accumulated savings in Reichsmarks. In addition, monetary reform indirectly encouraged consumption. With a stable currency and a reduced incentive to save, people were more inclined to spend their money, thereby stimulating economic activity and domestic demand. The 1948 monetary reform in Germany was a crucial political arbitrage that laid the foundations for economic stabilisation and recovery. Although it had negative consequences for savers, it was essential in turning around the German economy, encouraging investment, supporting wages and stimulating consumption, thereby making a significant contribution to the post-war German 'economic miracle'.
| | 第二次世界大战结束时，德国面临着重大的经济困难，包括货币帝国马克大幅贬值。为了应对这些挑战并恢复经济稳定，德国于 1948 年进行了重大货币改革，引入德国马克（DM）取代帝国马克。这次货币改革涉及货币的重大重估。在这次重估中，10 个帝国马克兑换 1 个德国马克。这一决定产生了若干重要的经济和政治影响。一方面，改革有利于雇员和投资。通过减少流通中的货币量和稳定新货币的价值，改革有助于控制通货膨胀，这是战后德国的一个主要问题。这为投资创造了更有利的环境，促进了更健康的经济复苏。对雇员来说，货币的稳定意味着他们的收入不太可能被通货膨胀侵蚀，从而保持了他们的购买力。另一方面，这一改革对储蓄产生了不利影响。持有帝国马克的储蓄者的储蓄价值在以 10 比 1 的汇率兑换后大幅下降。此外，货币改革还间接鼓励了消费。由于货币稳定，储蓄动机降低，人们更愿意花钱，从而刺激了经济活动和国内需求。1948 年德国的货币改革是一次至关重要的政治套利，为经济稳定和复苏奠定了基础。虽然改革对储蓄者产生了负面影响，但它对扭转德国经济、鼓励投资、支持工资和刺激消费至关重要，从而为战后德国的 "经济奇迹 "做出了重大贡献。 |
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| === Consistent investment strategies === | | === 始终如一的投资战略 === |
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| Germany's post-war economic policy was strongly focused on investment promotion, a strategy that played a crucial role in the country's economic recovery and growth. This policy was based on a combination of fiscal and budgetary measures aimed at creating a business-friendly environment and stimulating economic activity. A central aspect of this approach was the maintenance of a relatively low rate of corporation tax. The aim of this policy was to allow companies to retain a greater proportion of their profits, thereby encouraging reinvestment in areas such as expansion, research and development, and infrastructure improvements. By increasing the ability of companies to reinvest their profits, the government has encouraged growth and innovation in the private sector. At the same time, the government has worked to keep social charges low. This has reduced the overall cost of employment for companies, making it more attractive to hire new staff. This reduction in charges has had a dual beneficial effect: it has helped to reduce the unemployment rate and stimulated consumption by increasing workers' purchasing power. Germany has also adopted a policy of budgetary orthodoxy, characterised by prudent and balanced management of public finances. By avoiding excessive budget deficits and limiting borrowing, the government has helped to keep inflation low. This monetary stability was essential to ensure a stable economic environment conducive to investment. Low inflation guaranteed the value of corporate profits and predictability for investors, key elements in fostering healthy economic growth. The combination of these policies created a framework conducive to investment and economic growth in Germany. By fostering a stable and attractive economic environment for business, Germany was able to rebuild rapidly after the war and lay the foundations for a strong and dynamic economy for decades to come.
| | 德国战后的经济政策非常注重促进投资，这一战略在国家经济复苏和增长中发挥了至关重要的作用。这一政策以财政和预算措施相结合为基础，旨在创造一个有利于商业的环境并刺激经济活动。这一方法的核心是维持相对较低的公司税率。这一政策的目的是允许公司保留更大比例的利润，从而鼓励在扩张、研发和基础设施改善等领域进行再投资。通过提高公司对利润进行再投资的能力，政府鼓励了私营部门的增长和创新。与此同时，政府还努力降低社会收费。这降低了公司的总体雇佣成本，使其更有吸引力雇佣新员工。降低收费产生了双重效益：既有助于降低失业率，又通过提高工人的购买力刺激了消费。德国还采取了正统的预算政策，对公共财政进行审慎和平衡的管理。通过避免过度的预算赤字和限制借贷，政府帮助保持了低通胀。这种货币稳定对于确保有利于投资的稳定经济环境至关重要。低通胀保证了企业利润的价值和投资者的可预测性，这是促进经济健康增长的关键因素。这些政策的结合为德国创造了一个有利于投资和经济增长的框架。通过为企业营造一个稳定而有吸引力的经济环境，德国得以在战后迅速重建，并为未来几十年强劲而充满活力的经济奠定了基础。 |
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| Germany's post-war economic policy not only helped to create a favourable environment for local businesses, but also strengthened their competitiveness on international markets. Between 1950 and 1970, this strategy bore fruit, as demonstrated by the impressive annual growth in investment, which reached 9.5%. This substantial increase in investment reflects the effectiveness of the measures adopted to stimulate the economy. The combination of favourable taxation, moderate social charges and a stable fiscal policy has made German companies particularly competitive. These conditions have enabled companies to effectively reinvest their profits in key areas such as research and development, equipment modernisation and production capacity expansion. As a result, German companies have been able to improve their productivity, innovate and expand their presence on international markets. During this period, the German economy not only grew rapidly, it also improved continuously. The focus on innovation and efficiency has led to technological advances and an increase in the quality of products and services, further strengthening Germany's position as a major economic power. In addition, this impressive economic growth and Germany's political and monetary stability have attracted foreign capital. International investors, attracted by the strength of the German economy and its growth potential, contributed to an influx of capital, which further stimulated the economy. The period from 1950 to 1970 witnessed a booming German economy, stimulated by sound economic policies and a focus on innovation and competitiveness. This success not only benefited local businesses, but also enhanced Germany's attractiveness as a destination for international investment.
| | 德国战后的经济政策不仅为当地企业创造了有利环境，还增强了它们在国际市场上的竞争力。1950 年至 1970 年间，这一战略取得了丰硕成果，投资年增长率高达 9.5%，令人印象深刻。投资的大幅增长反映了刺激经济措施的有效性。优惠的税收、适度的社会收费和稳定的财政政策相结合，使德国企业特别具有竞争力。这些条件使企业能够有效地将利润再投资于研发、设备现代化和产能扩张等关键领域。因此，德国企业得以提高生产率、进行创新并拓展国际市场。在此期间，德国经济不仅快速增长，而且持续改善。对创新和效率的重视带来了技术进步以及产品和服务质量的提高，进一步巩固了德国作为经济大国的地位。此外，令人瞩目的经济增长以及德国稳定的政治和货币政策也吸引了外国资本。国际投资者被德国的经济实力及其增长潜力所吸引，促进了资本的大量涌入，从而进一步刺激了经济的发展。1950 年至 1970 年期间，在稳健的经济政策以及对创新和竞争力的重视刺激下，德国经济蓬勃发展。这一成功不仅使当地企业受益，也增强了德国作为国际投资目的地的吸引力。 |
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| === Salary Restraint Policy === | | === 工资限制政策 === |
| Wage moderation was a key element of Germany's economic policy during the Thirty Glorious Years. This approach involved slower wage growth than in other developed countries, a strategy that had a number of important implications for the German economy. Inflation control played a central role in this strategy of wage moderation. By keeping inflation low, the cost of living has remained stable, making long-term investments more secure and predictable. This stability was crucial to investor confidence and economic planning.
| | 在 "光辉三十年 "期间，工资节制是德国经济政策的一个关键要素。与其他发达国家相比，德国的工资增长速度较慢，这一策略对德国经济产生了一系列重要影响。控制通货膨胀在这一工资调控战略中发挥了核心作用。通过保持低通胀率，生活成本得以保持稳定，从而使长期投资更有保障、更可预测。这种稳定性对投资者的信心和经济规划至关重要。 |
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| A notable aspect of this period was the social consensus between business and labour in Germany. The unions, aware that they were participating in a virtuous circle of economic growth and stability, often moderated their wage demands. This cooperation contributed to a stable working environment and sustained economic growth, without the frequent disruption caused by industrial disputes. The situation of full employment in West Germany was also an influential factor. The abundance of labour, partly due to the influx of German refugees - around 10 million - who settled in West Germany after the war, created a labour market where unemployment was virtually non-existent. These refugees, often willing to accept less demanding and less well-paid jobs, formed an abundant and inexpensive workforce for the rebuilding economy.
| | 这一时期的一个显著特点是德国企业与劳工之间达成了社会共识。工会意识到他们正在参与经济增长和稳定的良性循环，往往会放宽对工资的要求。这种合作促成了稳定的工作环境和持续的经济增长，避免了频繁的劳资纠纷造成的混乱。西德的充分就业状况也是一个影响因素。战后约有 1 000 万德国难民涌入西德定居，这在一定程度上造成了劳动力的充裕，从而创造了一个几乎不存在失业的劳动力市场。这些难民通常愿意接受要求不高、收入较低的工作，为重建经济提供了大量廉价劳动力。 |
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| As West Germans rose up the social ladder, foreign labour was called upon to replace German workers in less skilled jobs. This period of the "Trente Glorieuses" coincided with major migratory flows, with foreign workers coming to Germany to meet the growing demand for labour. This helped to maintain a differentiated wage structure and sustain economic growth. Wage moderation, combined with an abundant workforce and social consensus, played an important role in Germany's economic success during the Trente Glorieuses. These factors helped to create a stable economic environment conducive to investment, growth and innovation.
| | 随着西德人的社会地位不断提高，外国劳动力被要求取代德国工人从事技术含量较低的工作。在 "光辉岁月 "的这一时期，恰逢大量移民涌入，外国工人来到德国，以满足日益增长的劳动力需求。这有助于维持差异化的工资结构，维持经济增长。在 "光辉岁月 "时期，适度的工资、充足的劳动力和社会共识在德国的经济成就中发挥了重要作用。这些因素有助于创造一个有利于投资、增长和创新的稳定的经济环境。 |
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| === Free trade and European integration === | | === 自由贸易和欧洲一体化 === |
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| ==== Remarkable expansion of German trade ==== | | ==== 德国贸易显著扩张 ==== |
| During the Trente Glorieuses period, Germany underwent a major transformation in its trade, characterised by impressive expansion on international markets and a strong sense of economic patriotism within its domestic market. The spectacular expansion of German foreign trade was one of the pillars of its economic success. Germany has established itself as a leading exporting power, thanks to the exceptional quality and innovation of its products. The automotive, machinery and chemicals sectors, among others, have enjoyed particular success on international markets. This export orientation has been supported by a favourable economic policy, which has not only stimulated the country's economic growth, but has also strengthened its position in the global economy. In parallel with this international expansion, the German domestic market has shown a strong tendency towards economic patriotism. German consumers have shown a marked preference for local products and services, which has greatly benefited domestic companies. This support from local consumers has enabled German companies to strengthen and grow solidly in the domestic market, providing a stable base for their export activities. This preference for domestic products has also played an important role in creating and maintaining jobs in Germany, contributing to the overall robustness of the economy. By combining a strong presence in international markets with solid domestic support, Germany has succeeded in building a dynamic and resilient economy. This two-pronged strategy was crucial to Germany's economic success during this period, affirming its status as a major economic power in Europe and beyond.
| | 在 "光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）时期，德国的贸易经历了一场重大变革，其特点是国际市场的扩张令人印象深刻，而国内市场则表现出强烈的经济爱国主义。德国对外贸易的惊人扩张是其经济成功的支柱之一。凭借卓越的产品质量和创新能力，德国已成为领先的出口大国。汽车、机械和化工等行业在国际市场上取得了巨大成功。这种出口导向得到了有利的经济政策的支持，不仅刺激了德国的经济增长，还巩固了其在全球经济中的地位。在国际扩张的同时，德国国内市场也表现出强烈的经济爱国主义倾向。德国消费者对本地产品和服务表现出明显的偏好，这使国内企业受益匪浅。本地消费者的支持使德国企业得以在国内市场巩固和发展，为其出口活动提供了稳定的基础。对本国产品的青睐也为德国创造和维持就业岗位发挥了重要作用，促进了整体经济的稳健发展。通过将在国际市场上的强大影响力与坚实的国内支持相结合，德国成功地建立了一个充满活力和韧性的经济体。这一双管齐下的战略是德国在这一时期取得经济成就的关键，巩固了其在欧洲和其他地区的经济大国地位。 |
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| Between 1950 and 1970, the German economy experienced significant growth in foreign trade, which had a major impact on the structure of its economy. The share of exports in Germany's Gross National Product (GNP) more than doubled from 8.5% to 21%, a clear indicator of the increasingly outward-looking orientation of the German economy. At the same time, Germany's share of world exports rose remarkably, increasing by eight points to 11%. These figures testify not only to the success of German economic policies, but also to the growing competitiveness of German products and services on the world market. The spectacular increase in trade between Germany and France also illustrates this dynamism. Exports between the two countries have increased 25-fold over this period, underlining the growing economic integration within Europe. This expansion was not limited to bilateral relations with France, but also included other European countries, indicating greater economic collaboration and integration within the continent. This period saw Germany not only rebuild after the devastation of the Second World War, but also establish itself as a central economic power in Europe. Germany's commercial success with its European partners was a key factor in this development. It contributed to the creation of a more integrated single European market and laid the foundations for subsequent European economic cooperation, including the formation of the European Economic Community, the forerunner of today's European Union. The period from 1950 to 1970 witnessed a remarkable transformation of the German economy, characterised by an impressive expansion of its foreign trade and increasing integration with European economies. These developments played a crucial role in establishing Germany as an economic leader in Europe.
| | 1950 至 1970 年间，德国经济的对外贸易大幅增长，对其经济结构产生了重大影响。出口占德国国民生产总值（GNP）的比重翻了一番多，从 8.5%上升到 21%，这充分说明德国经济的外向型特征日益明显。与此同时，德国在世界出口中所占的份额也显著上升，增加了 8 个百分点，达到 11%。这些数字不仅证明了德国经济政策的成功，也证明了德国产品和服务在世界市场上的竞争力不断增强。德国与法国之间贸易的显著增长也说明了这种活力。在此期间，两国之间的出口额增长了 25 倍，凸显了欧洲经济一体化的不断发展。这种扩展不仅限于与法国的双边关系，还包括其他欧洲国家，表明欧洲大陆内部的经济合作和一体化在不断加强。在这一时期，德国不仅在第二次世界大战的破坏后进行了重建，而且还确立了自己作为欧洲中心经济大国的地位。德国与其欧洲伙伴在商业上的成功是这一发展的关键因素。它促进了更加一体化的欧洲单一市场的建立，并为随后的欧洲经济合作奠定了基础，包括欧洲经济共同体的形成，即今天欧洲联盟的前身。1950 年至 1970 年期间，德国经济发生了显著的转变，其特点是对外贸易大幅增长，与欧洲经济体的一体化程度不断提高。这些发展对德国成为欧洲经济领导者起到了至关重要的作用。 |
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| ==== Strengthening trade within the EEC ==== | | ==== 加强欧共体内部的贸易 ==== |
| The intensification of trade within the European Economic Community (EEC) in the post-war period marks a major turning point in European economic history, in marked contrast to the mercantilist theories and practices of the 16th century. Mercantilism, which prevailed in Europe from the 16th century onwards, was an economic theory associated with the era of absolute monarchy. This economic doctrine was based on the idea that the wealth and power of a state were intrinsically linked to the accumulation of material wealth, particularly precious metals such as gold and silver. From this perspective, international trade was seen as a zero-sum game in which exports had to be maximised and imports minimised. Mercantilism therefore favoured protectionist policies, state monopolies and strict regulation of foreign trade.
| | 战后欧洲经济共同体（欧共体）内部贸易的加强标志着欧洲经济史上的一个重大转折点，与 16 世纪的重商主义理论和实践形成了鲜明对比。重商主义从 16 世纪起在欧洲盛行，是与绝对君主制时代相关的一种经济理论。这种经济理论的基础是，一个国家的财富和权力与物质财富的积累，尤其是金银等贵金属的积累有着内在联系。从这一观点出发，国际贸易被视为一种零和游戏，出口必须最大化，进口必须最小化。因此，重商主义倾向于保护主义政策、国家垄断和对外贸易的严格监管。 |
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| Under mercantilism, population was often seen as a means of achieving national greatness. Mercantilist policies aimed to enrich the royal treasury and strengthen the state, often to the detriment of economic freedoms and the well-being of the people. This approach was closely linked to the notion of the greatness of the king and the state, where the accumulation of wealth was a key indicator of power and prestige. In contrast, the intensification of trade within the EEC in the post-war years reflects a move towards greater economic integration and cooperation between European nations. This development marks a move away from mercantilist principles towards principles of free trade and economic interdependence. The EEC encouraged the abolition of trade barriers between Member States, fostering a common market where goods, services, capital and labour could move more freely. This economic integration was a key driver of growth and stability in Europe, contributing to the collective prosperity of the member nations and the emergence of a common European identity.
| | 重商主义通常将人口视为实现国家强大的手段。重商主义政策旨在充实王室国库和加强国家实力，但往往会损害经济自由和人民福祉。这种做法与国王和国家的伟大观念密切相关，在这种观念中，财富的积累是权力和威望的关键指标。与此形成鲜明对比的是，战后欧共体内部贸易的加强反映出欧洲各国正朝着更大程度的经济一体化和合作方向发展。这一发展标志着从重商主义原则转向自由贸易和经济相互依存的原则。欧共体鼓励废除成员国之间的贸易壁垒，促进共同市场的发展，使商品、服务、资本和劳动力能够更加自由地流动。这种经济一体化是欧洲经济增长和稳定的主要推动力，促进了成员国的集体繁荣和欧洲共同身份的形成。 |
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| Mercantilists played a central role in the theorisation and implementation of colonisation and the colonial pact, reflecting the fundamental principles of mercantilism. This economic approach, which prevailed from the 16th to the 18th century, had a profound influence on the way in which European nations approached colonial expansion. The colonial pact, a typically mercantilist concept, was based on the idea that the colonies should trade exclusively with the metropolis. This system aimed to maximise the metropolis' profits by limiting the colonies' commercial interactions with other nations. The colonies were seen primarily as sources of raw materials and markets for the metropolis' finished products, creating an economic dependence that benefited the colonising power. This dynamic was perfectly in line with the mercantilist doctrine, which sought to increase national wealth by promoting a positive balance of trade. There are also ideological links between mercantilism and fascist thought, particularly in the way the nation is conceptualised and glorified. Fascism, which emerged in the twentieth century, shared with mercantilism a certain vision of national greatness and central authority. In both cases, the state was seen as the central pillar of society, with a strong emphasis on nationalism and state control. Fascism, like mercantilism, glorified the nation as the supreme place of sacrifice and greatness, and often favoured protectionist and interventionist economic policies. However, it is important to note that, although they shared certain ideological principles, mercantilism and fascism were distinct in their historical context and specific applications. Mercantilism was primarily an economic theory, while fascism was a totalitarian political movement with a broader and more ideological vision of society and the state.
| | 重商主义者在殖民化和殖民协定的理论化和实施过程中发挥了核心作用，反映了重商主义的基本原则。这种在 16 世纪至 18 世纪盛行的经济方法对欧洲国家进行殖民扩张的方式产生了深远影响。殖民协定是一个典型的重商主义概念，其基础是殖民地应只与大都市进行贸易。这种制度旨在通过限制殖民地与其他国家的商业交往，使大都市的利润最大化。殖民地主要被视为大都市的原材料来源和制成品市场，形成了一种有利于殖民国的经济依赖关系。这种动态完全符合重商主义理论，即通过促进贸易的积极平衡来增加国家财富。重商主义与法西斯主义思想在意识形态上也有联系，特别是在国家的概念化和美化方式上。20 世纪兴起的法西斯主义与重商主义一样，都对国家的伟大和中央权威抱有某种憧憬。在这两种情况下，国家都被视为社会的核心支柱，非常强调民族主义和国家控制。法西斯主义与重商主义一样，将国家美化为牺牲和伟大的至高无上的地方，并经常赞成保护主义和干预主义的经济政策。然而，重要的是要注意到，尽管重商主义和法西斯主义共享某些意识形态原则，但它们在历史背景和具体应用上是不同的。重商主义主要是一种经济理论，而法西斯主义则是一种极权主义政治运动，对社会和国家有着更广泛、更意识形态化的看法。 |
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| At the same time as mercantilism was predominating in Europe, a new current of economic thought began to emerge: physiocratism. This movement, which originated in France in the 18th century, opposed many of the fundamental principles of mercantilism and laid the foundations for economic liberalism, including English liberalism. The physiocrats also influenced the thinking of the leaders of the American War of Independence. The Physiocrats believed that a nation's wealth derived from the value of its agricultural production and was therefore intrinsically linked to the land. They criticised mercantilist policies, in particular their emphasis on the accumulation of precious metals and their protectionist approach to trade. Instead, the physiocrats advocated an economy based on the natural laws of supply and demand, and supported the idea of laissez-faire economics, where state intervention in the economy should be minimised. In addition to their contributions to economic theory, the physiocrats also had important thoughts on peace and war. They believed that war was not a natural state of humanity and that peace had to be established through fair agreements. This view of peace as preferable to war influenced their approach to international trade. The physiocrats saw international trade as a way out of autarky and a means of promoting the mutual interests of nations. They saw trade as a factor for peace, arguing that trade between nations created beneficial interdependencies that could help prevent conflict. This perspective marked an important break with mercantilism and influenced the subsequent development of economic liberalism and theories of international trade. In this way, the physiocrats played a crucial role in the evolution of economic thought, promoting ideas that encouraged the development of free trade and laying the theoretical foundations for more peaceful international relations based on economic cooperation.
| | 在重商主义在欧洲占据主导地位的同时，一股新的经济思潮开始出现：重农学派。这一运动起源于 18 世纪的法国，它反对重商主义的许多基本原则，并为经济自由主义（包括英国自由主义）奠定了基础。重农学派还影响了美国独立战争领导人的思想。重农学派认为，一个国家的财富来自其农业生产的价值，因此与土地有着内在的联系。他们批评重商主义政策，尤其是强调贵金属积累和贸易保护主义的做法。相反，重农学派主张建立在供求自然法则基础上的经济，并支持自由放任经济学的思想，即应尽量减少国家对经济的干预。除了对经济理论的贡献，重农学派对和平与战争也有重要的思考。他们认为，战争不是人类的自然状态，和平必须通过公平的协议来建立。这种和平胜于战争的观点影响了他们对待国际贸易的态度。重农学派认为国际贸易是摆脱自给自足的途径，也是促进各国共同利益的手段。他们认为贸易是促进和平的因素，认为国家间的贸易创造了有益的相互依存关系，有助于防止冲突。这一观点标志着与重商主义的重要决裂，并影响了后来经济自由主义和国际贸易理论的发展。因此，重农学派在经济思想的演变中发挥了至关重要的作用，他们倡导鼓励发展自由贸易的思想，并为基于经济合作的更和平的国际关系奠定了理论基础。 |
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| The end of the Second World War marked a decisive turning point in economic policies and international relations, particularly in Europe. Faced with the need to rebuild devastated nations and prevent future conflict, leaders and economists adopted a proactive, pro-active approach to economic cooperation. This strategy was in line with the principles of cooperation and free trade promoted by liberal economic theories, and a far cry from the mercantilist and protectionist policies of the past. An emblematic example of this new approach is the increase in trade between France and Germany in the post-war period. These two countries, historically rivals and deeply marked by conflict, chose to transform their relationship through increased economic cooperation. This decision was a key element in the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union. The establishment of Franco-German exchanges was a strategic choice to strengthen economic and political ties, in the hope of creating an interdependence that would guarantee peace and stability. The emphasis on economic integration and trade between these two nations has served as a model for other regional cooperation initiatives in Europe. This focus on free trade and economic cooperation was also supported by the implementation of the Marshall Plan, which provided substantial financial assistance for the reconstruction of Europe. The Marshall Plan not only helped to rebuild devastated economies and infrastructure, but also encouraged recipient countries to work together for a common economic recovery. The post-war period saw a marked shift in economic policies in Europe, from isolationism and protectionism to economic openness and cooperation. This transformation was fundamental to the reconstruction of countries devastated by war, and laid the foundations for European integration and long-term peace on the continent.
| | 第二次世界大战的结束标志着经济政策和国际关系的决定性转折点，尤其是在欧洲。面对重建满目疮痍的国家和防止未来冲突的需要，各国领导人和经济学家采取了一种积极主动的经济合作方式。这一战略符合自由经济理论所倡导的合作与自由贸易原则，与过去的重商主义和保护主义政策大相径庭。这种新方法的一个典型例子是战后法国和德国之间贸易的增长。这两个在历史上互为对手、冲突不断的国家，选择通过加强经济合作来改变两国关系。这一决定是欧洲经济共同体（欧共体）成立的关键因素，欧共体后来发展成为欧盟。建立法德交流是加强经济和政治联系的战略选择，希望通过建立相互依存关系来保障和平与稳定。这两个国家对经济一体化和贸易的重视为欧洲其他地区的合作倡议树立了典范。对自由贸易和经济合作的重视也得到了马歇尔计划实施的支持，该计划为欧洲重建提供了大量财政援助。马歇尔计划不仅帮助重建遭到破坏的经济和基础设施，还鼓励受援国共同努力，实现共同的经济复苏。战后欧洲的经济政策发生了显著转变，从孤立主义和保护主义转向经济开放与合作。这一转变对于遭受战争破坏的国家的重建至关重要，并为欧洲一体化和欧洲大陆的长期和平奠定了基础。 |
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| === Focus on Industrial Specialisation === | | === 关注工业专业化 === |
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| [[image:1000000th beatle.jpg|thumb|150px|The one millionth VW Beetle on 5 August 1955: an export hit of the German post-war economy and a symbol of the so-called economic miracle.]] | | [[image:1000000th beatle.jpg|thumb|150px|1955 年 8 月 5 日，第 100 万辆大众甲壳虫汽车诞生：这是德国战后经济的出口创汇，也是所谓经济奇迹的象征。]] |
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| The notion of industrial specialisation in post-war Germany is closely linked to an idea put forward by the economist Alexander Gerschenkron. Gerschenkron challenged the idea that Germany lagged behind other industrialised nations in terms of industrial development. Instead, he argued that, as a result of the massive destruction suffered during the Second World War, Germany had a unique opportunity to 'start afresh' and rebuild its industry. This perspective paved the way for an approach based on industrial specialisation. Rather than simply restoring pre-war industrial structures and capabilities, Germany was able to reassess and reorientate its industrial sector. This reorientation involved the adoption of new and more advanced technologies, innovation in production processes, and a concentration on industrial sectors in which Germany could become or remain a world leader.
| | 战后德国的工业专业化概念与经济学家亚历山大-格申克隆（Alexander Gerschenkron）提出的一个观点密切相关。格申克隆对德国工业发展落后于其他工业化国家的观点提出了质疑。相反，他认为，由于在第二次世界大战期间遭受了大规模破坏，德国拥有一个 "重新开始 "和重建工业的独特机会。这一观点为基于工业专业化的方法铺平了道路。德国并没有简单地恢复战前的工业结构和能力，而是对其工业部门进行了重新评估和定位。这种重新定位包括采用更先进的新技术、创新生产工艺，以及集中精力发展德国能够成为或保持世界领先地位的工业部门。 |
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| The reconstruction process also enabled Germany to modernise its industrial infrastructure. By building new factories and adopting efficient production methods, German industry became more competitive on the world market. This modernisation led to rapid economic growth and helped establish Germany as a major economic power. In addition, this strategy of industrial specialisation has been underpinned by government policies favouring investment in research and development, as well as strong support for education and vocational training. These policies have strengthened Germany's ability to innovate and excel in key industrial areas.
| | 重建进程还使德国得以实现工业基础设施的现代化。通过建设新工厂和采用高效的生产方法，德国工业在世界市场上更具竞争力。这种现代化带来了快速的经济增长，帮助德国确立了经济大国的地位。此外，这一工业专业化战略还得到了政府政策的支持，这些政策支持研发投资，大力支持教育和职业培训。这些政策增强了德国在关键工业领域的创新和卓越能力。 |
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| Gerschenkron's vision steered Germany's post-war industrial reconstruction towards a strategy focused on the future and innovation. This approach not only enabled Germany to recover from the devastation of war, but also laid the foundations for its future economic success, focusing on the development of state-of-the-art economic infrastructures and a specific industrial strategy. A central aspect of this strategy has been a focus on the production of high value-added goods, particularly in the industrial and domestic equipment sectors. This focus on high-quality products has enabled German industry to distinguish itself on the world market. A key element in this differentiation has been the establishment of the "German quality" label. This label means not only that the products are solid and durable, but also that they are accompanied by an efficient and reliable after-sales service. This marketing and branding strategy has helped to establish an international reputation for German products, associating 'Made in Germany' with quality and reliability. The German automotive industry is a particularly striking example of this specialisation. Focusing on the production of high-quality vehicles, the German automotive industry has become synonymous with high value-added products. These vehicles, which are often more expensive, enjoy a reputation for high quality, justifying their price by superior longevity and performance.
| | 格申克隆的远见卓识将德国战后工业重建引向了注重未来和创新的战略。这种方法不仅使德国从战争的破坏中恢复过来，还为其未来的经济成功奠定了基础，重点是发展最先进的经济基础设施和特定的工业战略。这一战略的一个核心内容是注重高附加值产品的生产，尤其是在工业和家用设备领域。对高质量产品的重视使德国工业在世界市场上脱颖而出。这种差异化的一个关键因素是建立了 "德国质量 "标签。这一标签不仅意味着产品坚固耐用，还意味着高效可靠的售后服务。这种营销和品牌战略有助于为德国产品树立国际声誉，将 "德国制造 "与质量和可靠性联系起来。德国汽车工业是这种专业化的一个特别突出的例子。德国汽车工业专注于生产高品质汽车，已成为高附加值产品的代名词。这些汽车通常价格较高，但享有高质量的声誉，以其卓越的使用寿命和性能证明其价格合理。 |
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| This strategy has required a highly skilled workforce capable of producing complex, high-tech goods. As a result, Germany invested heavily in vocational training, ensuring that its workers had the skills needed to support this industrial strategy. These investments in education and vocational training were crucial to the development of a skilled workforce, capable of meeting the demands of modern industrial production. Germany's post-war industrial strategy, with its focus on high value-added, high-quality products, combined with investment in vocational training, has been a key factor in the country's economic transformation. This approach has not only strengthened the competitiveness of German industry on world markets, but has also helped to build a solid and sustainable economy.
| | 这一战略需要一支能够生产复杂、高科技产品的高技能劳动力队伍。因此，德国在职业培训方面投入巨资，确保工人掌握支持这一工业战略所需的技能。这些对教育和职业培训的投资对于培养一支能够满足现代工业生产需求的熟练劳动力队伍至关重要。德国战后的工业战略以高附加值、高质量的产品为重点，结合对职业培训的投资，成为国家经济转型的关键因素。这种做法不仅增强了德国工业在世界市场上的竞争力，而且有助于建立一个稳固和可持续的经济。 |
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| === Limited but Innovative Social Policy === | | === 有限但创新的社会政策 === |
| The post-war reconstruction period in Germany was marked by major economic and social reforms. One notable aspect of these reforms was the privatisation of companies nationalised by the Nazi regime. This was part of a wider movement to promote "people's capitalism" in the country. The promotion of popular capitalism in Germany involved broadening share ownership to include ordinary citizens, thereby encouraging greater popular participation in the economy. This strategy aimed to democratise economic ownership and spread the benefits of economic growth throughout society. By allowing more people to invest in companies and benefit from market gains, the state sought to build consensus around a more inclusive and socially responsible model of capitalism. In addition, the German state took steps to compensate savers affected by the currency revaluation of 1948. This revaluation resulted in a significant loss for those who had saved in Reichsmarks, particularly the elderly. To mitigate the impact of this loss and to maintain confidence in the economic system, the government introduced compensation for savers, demonstrating its desire to protect citizens from the negative consequences of the necessary economic reforms. To complement these measures, Germany developed an original welfare state system. This system combined elements of social protection with a commitment to the market economy. It included various forms of social insurance, pensions, healthcare and other social support measures. This welfare state model sought to balance economic growth with social justice, guaranteeing a safety net for citizens while promoting innovation and economic efficiency. These policies were essential in shaping post-war Germany, creating a strong and resilient economy that was at the same time socially responsible. The German model demonstrated that it was possible to combine economic success with social progress, a balance that contributed to the country's stability and prosperity in the decades that followed.
| | 德国战后重建时期进行了重大的经济和社会改革。这些改革中值得注意的一个方面是纳粹政权国有化公司的私有化。这是德国推行 "人民资本主义 "运动的一部分。在德国推广人民资本主义涉及扩大普通公民的股份所有权，从而鼓励民众更多地参与经济。这一战略旨在实现经济所有权的民主化，并将经济增长的好处传播到整个社会。通过让更多的人投资于公司并从市场收益中获益，国家试图围绕更具包容性和社会责任感的资本主义模式达成共识。此外，德国政府还采取措施，对受 1948 年货币重估影响的储蓄者进行补偿。这次货币重估给以帝国马克进行储蓄的人造成了巨大损失，尤其是老年人。为了减轻这种损失的影响并维持人们对经济体系的信心，政府对储蓄者进行了补偿，这表明政府希望保护公民免受必要的经济改革所带来的负面影响。为配合这些措施，德国制定了独创的福利国家制度。这一制度将社会保护元素与对市场经济的承诺相结合。它包括各种形式的社会保险、养老金、医疗保健和其他社会支持措施。这种福利国家模式力求在经济增长与社会公正之间取得平衡，在保障公民安全网的同时促进创新和提高经济效率。这些政策对战后德国的塑造至关重要，它们创造了一个强大而有韧性的经济，同时又对社会负责。德国模式表明，经济成就与社会进步是可以兼得的，这种平衡促进了德国在随后几十年中的稳定与繁荣。 |
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| The 'German consensus' in the post-war period represents a unique model of industrial relations, characterised by the search for a balance between co-determination (Mitbestimmung) and the regulation of the right to strike. This model played a crucial role in Germany's economic and social stability during this period. A central element of this consensus was the introduction of the right of co-determination in companies. Under this principle, union representatives were given seats on company boards, enabling them to play an active part in decision-making. This gave employees a direct voice in the running of the company, a significant departure from traditional industrial relations models. In addition, the fact that union representatives were provided with balance sheets gave them access to essential information, enabling them to tailor their negotiations in an informed manner and to bargain more effectively. However, this right to co-determination was accompanied by compromises, particularly with regard to the right to strike. For a strike to be declared, 75% of the workers had to agree in a secret ballot. This requirement represented a significant restriction on the right to strike, according to some critics. By requiring this level of consensus among workers to call a strike, the German model sought to maintain stability and avoid disruption to the economy and production. For some, this approach represented a severe restriction on the right to strike, but for others it was seen as a means of ensuring constructive dialogue between employers and employees and preventing destabilising industrial disputes. The German consensus, by combining co-determination with regulation of the right to strike, helped to create a collaborative and stable working environment, promoting both economic efficiency and workers' rights. This model of industrial relations was an important component of Germany's economic success in the decades following the Second World War, illustrating how a balanced approach can lead to shared prosperity and social stability.
| | 战后时期的 "德国共识 "代表了一种独特的劳资关系模式，其特点是在共同决策（Mitbestimmung）和罢工权监管之间寻求平衡。这种模式在这一时期对德国的经济和社会稳定起到了至关重要的作用。这一共识的核心内容是在企业中引入共同决策权。根据这一原则，工会代表在公司董事会中拥有席位，使他们能够积极参与决策。这让员工对公司的经营有了直接的发言权，与传统的劳资关系模式大相径庭。此外，向工会代表提供资产负债表的事实使他们获得了重要信息，使他们能够在知情的情况下进行有针对性的谈判，并更有效地进行谈判。然而，这种共同决定权也伴随着妥协，尤其是在罢工权方面。要宣布罢工，必须有 75% 的工人通过无记名投票表示同意。一些批评者认为，这一要求是对罢工权的重大限制。德国模式要求工人之间达成这种程度的共识才能举行罢工，目的是保持稳定，避免经济和生产受到干扰。在一些人看来，这种做法是对罢工权的严重限制，但在另一些人看来，这种做法是确保劳资双方进行建设性对话、防止发生破坏稳定的劳资纠纷的一种手段。德国的共识将共同决策与规范罢工权结合起来，有助于创造一个协作和稳定的工作环境，促进经济效率和工人权利。这种劳资关系模式是德国在第二次世界大战后几十年取得经济成就的重要组成部分，说明了平衡的方法如何能够带来共同繁荣和社会稳定。 |
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| == Switzerland: A Model Close to Germany == | | == 瑞士： 接近德国模式 == |
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| Switzerland, like Germany, exhibited a number of similar economic characteristics in the post-war period, particularly with regard to labour. A key element of the Swiss economic strategy was the abundance of labour, partly due to international agreements, notably with Italy. The agreement with Italy, signed against the backdrop of a booming economy, has enabled Switzerland to attract a large Italian workforce. Italian workers, attracted by the employment opportunities in Switzerland, have played a key role in various sectors of the Swiss economy, particularly in areas such as construction, industry and services. This immigration of workers helped to meet Switzerland's labour needs, a country that was experiencing an economic boom but had a relatively small labour market. The influx of Italian labour not only helped to fill Switzerland's labour shortage, but also contributed to the country's cultural and economic diversity. Immigrant workers have brought new skills and perspectives, contributing to the Swiss economy in a variety of ways. At the same time, as in Germany, Switzerland has focused on training and skills development. Vocational training and education have been key components of Switzerland's economic strategy, ensuring that both local workers and immigrants have the necessary skills to contribute effectively to the economy. Switzerland's approach to labour and immigration, combined with a commitment to training and skills development, has been an important factor in its economic success. It has enabled Switzerland to maintain a highly skilled and adaptable workforce capable of meeting the needs of a constantly evolving economy.
| | 与德国一样，瑞士在战后也表现出一些类似的经济特征，尤其是在劳动力方面。瑞士经济战略的一个关键因素是劳动力充足，这部分归功于国际协议，特别是与意大利签订的协议。在经济蓬勃发展的背景下与意大利签署的协议使瑞士吸引了大量意大利劳动力。意大利工人被瑞士的就业机会所吸引，在瑞士经济的各个领域，特别是建筑、工业和服务业发挥了重要作用。瑞士经济繁荣，但劳动力市场相对较小，意大利工人的移民有助于满足瑞士的劳动力需求。意大利劳动力的涌入不仅帮助填补了瑞士的劳动力短缺，还促进了瑞士文化和经济的多样性。移民工人带来了新的技能和视角，以各种方式为瑞士经济做出了贡献。同时，与德国一样，瑞士也注重培训和技能发展。职业培训和教育一直是瑞士经济战略的关键组成部分，确保本地工人和移民都具备必要的技能，为经济做出有效贡献。瑞士对劳动力和移民的态度，加上对培训和技能发展的承诺，一直是其经济成功的重要因素。它使瑞士能够保持一支高技能、适应性强的劳动力队伍，能够满足不断发展的经济需求。 |
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| Despite some outdated infrastructure, Switzerland has been able to compensate for these weaknesses and take advantage of a number of key economic assets, including an immigrant workforce and a strong currency. Immigration, particularly of workers willing to accept relatively low wages, has played an important role in the Swiss economy. These immigrant workers have provided essential labour in sectors where the infrastructure may be less modern or in need of renovation. Although this situation has presented challenges, the supply of cheap labour has enabled Switzerland to maintain its competitiveness in certain sectors. Another key factor for the Swiss economy was the strength of the Swiss franc. Combined with low inflation, the Swiss franc has become a safe haven on international markets. This reputation has encouraged investment in Switzerland, from both domestic and international investors, attracted by the stability and reliability of the Swiss economy. These investments have been crucial to the country's economic development, enabling it to modernise its infrastructure and support innovation.
| | 尽管存在一些落后的基础设施，但瑞士仍能弥补这些不足，并利用一些重要的经济资产，包括移民劳动力和坚挺的货币。移民，尤其是愿意接受相对较低工资的工人，在瑞士经济中发挥了重要作用。这些移民工人为基础设施不够现代化或需要翻新的行业提供了必要的劳动力。尽管这种情况带来了挑战，但廉价劳动力的供应使瑞士得以在某些行业保持竞争力。瑞士经济的另一个关键因素是瑞士法郎的坚挺。加上通货膨胀率低，瑞士法郎已成为国际市场上的避风港。瑞士经济的稳定性和可靠性吸引了国内外投资者前来投资。这些投资对瑞士的经济发展至关重要，使其能够实现基础设施现代化并支持创新。 |
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| The "Swiss Quality" label is another pillar of the country's economic success. This label is the result of specialisation in the production of products with high added value. Switzerland has distinguished itself in sectors such as watchmaking, pharmaceuticals, technology and finance, where quality, precision and innovation are paramount. This specialisation has reinforced Switzerland's international reputation for quality and excellence, a significant commercial asset. The Swiss economy has been able to leverage its unique strengths - a diverse workforce, a strong currency and a specialisation in high-quality products - to overcome its infrastructural challenges and maintain a strong position on the global economic stage. These factors have combined to make Switzerland a prosperous and respected economic centre.
| | 瑞士质量 "标签是瑞士经济成功的另一个支柱。这一标签是专业化生产高附加值产品的结果。瑞士在制表、制药、技术和金融等行业中脱颖而出，在这些行业中，质量、精度和创新至关重要。这种专业化加强了瑞士在质量和卓越方面的国际声誉，这是一项重要的商业资产。瑞士经济能够利用其独特的优势--多样化的劳动力、坚挺的货币和高质量产品的专业化--克服基础设施方面的挑战，并在全球经济舞台上保持稳固的地位。这些因素使瑞士成为一个繁荣和受人尊敬的经济中心。 |
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| Social consensus in Switzerland has played a fundamental role in the country's stability and economic development. This approach has helped to maintain a peaceful working climate and has helped to minimise social tensions, particularly in the world of work. One of the key elements of this social consensus in Switzerland has been the concept of "labour peace". This principle is based on the idea that labour disputes should be resolved through dialogue and negotiation, rather than through strikes or confrontation. Social policy in Switzerland, although considered moderate, has played a role in promoting this consensus. In 1937, an important milestone was reached with the signing of the first "labour peace" agreement by the Metal and Mechanical Engineering Federation. This agreement aimed to avoid conflicts in the workplace by adhering to the rule of good faith and favouring negotiation and arbitration to resolve disputes. This agreement marked the beginning of a prolonged period of industrial stability in Switzerland, which lasted until the 1980s. Discipline in behaviour and demands, as well as organisation and order in the management of labour relations, played an essential role in the pacification of social tensions in Switzerland. By appointing arbitrators with binding powers to settle disputes, Switzerland has succeeded in maintaining a harmonious working environment. In addition to these conflict resolution mechanisms, Switzerland has also set up social protection systems. In 1948, Old Age and Survivors' Insurance (AVS) was introduced, providing basic cover for retirement and the risks associated with age. Later, in 1976, full unemployment insurance was introduced, offering additional protection to workers in the event of job loss. These social protection measures, combined with a consensus-based approach to industrial relations, have contributed to Switzerland's stability and prosperity. They have helped to create a balance between economic needs and worker protection, contributing to a balanced social climate conducive to economic development.
| | 瑞士的社会共识在国家稳定和经济发展中发挥了重要作用。这种做法有助于维持和平的工作氛围，并有助于最大限度地减少社会紧张局势，尤其是在工作领域。瑞士社会共识的关键要素之一是 "劳动和平 "的概念。这一原则所依据的理念是，劳资纠纷应通过对话和谈判解决，而不是通过罢工或对抗。瑞士的社会政策虽然被认为是温和的，但在促进这一共识方面发挥了作用。1937 年，金属和机械工程联合会签署了第一份 "劳动和平 "协议，这是一个重要的里程碑。该协议旨在通过遵守诚信规则，支持通过谈判和仲裁来解决争端，从而避免工作场所的冲突。这一协议标志着瑞士工业长期稳定的开始，并一直持续到 20 世纪 80 年代。行为和要求方面的纪律以及劳资关系管理方面的组织和秩序，在平息瑞士的社会紧张局势方面发挥了至关重要的作用。通过任命具有约束力的仲裁员来解决争端，瑞士成功地维护了和谐的工作环境。除了这些冲突解决机制，瑞士还建立了社会保障体系。1948年，瑞士开始实行老年和遗属保险（AVS），为退休和与年龄相关的风险提供基本保障。后来，1976 年又引入了全面失业保险，为失业工人提供额外保障。这些社会保护措施与基于共识的劳资关系方法相结合，为瑞士的稳定与繁荣做出了贡献。这些措施有助于在经济需求和工人保护之间建立平衡，有助于形成有利于经济发展的平衡的社会氛围。 |
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| == Post-war geopolitical restructuring == | | == 战后地缘政治重组 == |
| Before 1945, there was a coherence between economic and political hegemonies in the world. During this period, the United Kingdom was seen as the dominant power internationally, not only because of its extensive colonial empire, but also because of its leading position in the industrial revolution and world trade. At the same time, the United States was becoming a rising power, both economically and politically. In Europe, France and Germany were engaged in an intense rivalry, which culminated in the First World War. This rivalry was both economic, with competition for resources and markets, and political, linked to national ambitions and territorial tensions.
| | 1945 年以前，世界上的经济霸权和政治霸权是一致的。在此期间，英国被视为国际上的霸主，这不仅是因为它拥有庞大的殖民帝国，还因为它在工业革命和世界贸易中的领先地位。与此同时，美国在经济和政治上都在崛起。在欧洲，法国和德国展开了激烈的竞争，并在第一次世界大战中达到高潮。这种竞争既有经济方面的，如对资源和市场的争夺，也有政治方面的，如国家野心和领土紧张。 |
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| After 1945, the end of the Second World War marked a significant break in this model of hegemonic coherence. The creation of the United Nations (UN) symbolised this break, establishing a new structure for global governance. The permanent members of the UN Security Council - the United States, the United Kingdom, France, China and the Soviet Union (now Russia) - were the main victors of the Second World War. This composition reflected the political reality of the time, giving a central role to those countries that had played a decisive role in defeating the Axis powers. However, in the current geopolitical context, this structure of the UN Security Council raises questions about its legitimacy and effectiveness. With the global political and economic changes that have occurred since 1945, the permanent composition of the Security Council is often seen as no longer adequately reflecting the current distribution of power and influence in the world. Many analysts and politicians have called for a reform of the UN to better represent contemporary geopolitical reality and to respond more effectively to global challenges. The post-war period was marked by a significant shift in global power dynamics, with the creation of the UN as an effort to establish a more balanced and peaceful world order. However, subsequent geopolitical developments have raised questions about the continued relevance of the structure inherited from the post-war era.
| | 1945 年后，第二次世界大战的结束标志着这种霸权一致性模式的重大突破。联合国（UN）的成立标志着这一突破，为全球治理建立了新的结构。联合国安理会常任理事国--美国、英国、法国、中国和苏联（现俄罗斯）--是第二次世界大战的主要战胜国。这一构成反映了当时的政治现实，使那些在打败轴心国的过程中发挥了决定性作用的国家发挥了核心作用。然而，在当前的地缘政治背景下，联合国安理会的这种结构引发了对其合法性和有效性的质疑。随着 1945 年以来全球政治和经济的变化，安理会常任理事国的组成往往被认为不再能充分反映当前世界权力和影响力的分配情况。许多分析家和政治家呼吁改革联合国，以更好地代表当代地缘政治现实，更有效地应对全球挑战。战后全球权力格局发生了重大变化，联合国的成立旨在建立一个更加平衡与和平的世界秩序。然而，随后的地缘政治发展使人们对战后时代遗留下来的结构是否继续具有现实意义产生了疑问。 |
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| In the period following the Second World War, an interesting phenomenon occurred on the global economic scene. While certain economic players have become increasingly powerful, their influence on the international scene, in terms of politics or geopolitical power, has remained relatively limited. This discrepancy between economic power and political influence has been a notable feature of the post-war world. One of the major transformations of this era was the emergence of affluent, mass-consumption societies. The new economic policies introduced in many developed countries encouraged rapid economic growth, rising household incomes and an expanding middle class. This led to a significant increase in household consumption and greater availability of consumer goods. Post-war societies, particularly in the United States and Europe, saw a proliferation of products such as cars, household appliances and consumer electronics. At the same time, these societies systematically sought to pacify social relations. Welfare state policies, improved working conditions, the introduction of social security systems, and social dialogue between unions and employers have all helped to ease social tensions and foster a degree of harmony in society. These measures were designed to spread the benefits of economic growth more widely and to prevent the social conflicts that had marked previous periods. The post-war period was characterised by significant economic and social change, with the emergence of mass consumer societies and a concerted effort to create more stable and equitable societies. Although some players acquired considerable economic power, their political influence on the international scene was not always proportional to their economic weight, reflecting the complexity and multiplicity of factors that define power in the post-1945 world order.
| | 第二次世界大战后，全球经济舞台上出现了一个有趣的现象。虽然某些经济参与者变得越来越强大，但就政治或地缘政治力量而言，它们在国际舞台上的影响力仍然相对有限。经济实力与政治影响力之间的这种差异是战后世界的一个显著特点。这个时代的主要变革之一是富裕的大众消费社会的出现。许多发达国家推行的新经济政策鼓励经济快速增长、家庭收入增加和中产阶级扩大。这导致了家庭消费的大幅增长和消费品供应的增加。战后社会，尤其是美国和欧洲，汽车、家用电器和消费电子产品等产品激增。与此同时，这些社会系统地寻求缓和社会关系。福利国家政策、工作条件的改善、社会保障制度的引入以及工会与雇主之间的社会对话，都有助于缓解社会紧张局势，促进社会和谐。这些措施旨在更广泛地传播经济增长带来的好处，防止出现以往时期的社会冲突。战后时期的特点是经济和社会发生了重大变化，出现了大众消费社会，人们齐心协力创建更加稳定和公平的社会。虽然一些国家获得了相当大的经济实力，但它们在国际舞台上的政治影响力并不总是与其经济实力成正比，这反映出在1945年后的世界秩序中，界定权力的因素复杂而多元。 |
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| = From the Welfare State to the Consumer Society: from Ford to Beveridge and Keynes = | | = 从福利国家到消费社会：从福特到贝弗里奇和凯恩斯 = |
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| == The Beveridge Architecture of the Welfare State == | | == 福利国家的贝弗里奇架构 == |
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| [[Fichier:Sir W.H. Beveridge, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing left.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Lord William Beveridge.]] | | [[Fichier:Sir W.H. Beveridge, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing left.jpg|thumb|150px|right|威廉-贝弗里奇勋爵]] |
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| The Beveridge Report, drawn up in 1942 by Lord William Beveridge at the request of the British government, played a fundamental role in the conception of the modern welfare state. This report was the result of an intellectual dynamic stimulated by the exceptional circumstances of the Second World War, and represented an in-depth reflection on the construction of a new model of society for the post-war period. In his report, Lord Beveridge identified five "Giants" to be brought down: want, disease, ignorance, squalidity (lack of housing) and idleness (unemployment). To combat these scourges, Beveridge proposed the introduction of a comprehensive social security system designed to offer universal protection against the risks and hazards of life. This system was to include unemployment insurance, sickness insurance, retirement pensions, child benefit and other forms of social assistance.
| | 1942 年，威廉-贝弗里奇勋爵应英国政府的要求起草了《贝弗里奇报告》，该报告在现代福利国家的构想中发挥了根本性的作用。这份报告是第二次世界大战的特殊环境激发思想活力的结果，是对战后社会新模式构建的深入思考。贝弗里奇勋爵在报告中指出了五个需要消除的 "巨人"：匮乏、疾病、愚昧、肮脏（缺乏住房）和无所事事（失业）。为了消除这些祸患，贝弗里奇建议引入一个全面的社会保障体系，旨在为人们提供普遍保护，使其免受生活中的风险和危险。这一制度包括失业保险、疾病保险、退休金、儿童福利和其他形式的社会援助。 |
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| Beveridge's approach was revolutionary at the time and was based on the principle of universal coverage, regardless of income or social status. The aim was to guarantee a minimum standard of living for all citizens, in order to build a fairer and more egalitarian society. The impact of the Beveridge Report was considerable, not only in the UK, where it laid the foundations for the post-war social security system, but also in other developed countries. His ideas inspired many social and economic reforms around the world, helping to shape the welfare state models that emerged in Europe and elsewhere after the Second World War. This period therefore witnessed a significant change in the way societies perceived and approached social responsibility, with a move towards greater state intervention in guaranteeing social welfare. The Beveridge Report is an eloquent example of how the war stimulated an intellectual dynamic leading to profound and lasting social reforms.
| | 贝弗里奇的方法在当时是革命性的，其基础是不分收入或社会地位的全民覆盖原则。其目的是保障所有公民的最低生活水平，以建立一个更加公平和平等的社会。贝弗里奇报告》不仅在英国产生了巨大影响，为战后的社会保障体系奠定了基础，而且在其他发达国家也产生了巨大影响。他的思想启发了世界各地的许多社会和经济改革，帮助塑造了第二次世界大战后在欧洲和其他地方出现的福利国家模式。因此，在这一时期，社会对社会责任的认识和处理方式发生了重大变化，国家在保障社会福利方面开始加大干预力度。贝弗里奇报告》是一个雄辩的例子，说明了战争如何激发了思想活力，导致了深刻而持久的社会改革。 |
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| Lord William Beveridge played a crucial role in shaping the model of the modern welfare state in Britain. His 1942 report, often referred to as the "Cradle-to-Grave" model, proposed a revolutionary vision for social protection. The report envisaged a system in which every individual would be supported by the state at every stage of his or her life. The main idea was to provide a secure existence for all citizens, whatever their personal circumstances. This system encompassed a wide range of social benefits, including healthcare, unemployment insurance, retirement pensions, and assistance for the elderly and disabled. The aim was to ensure that no one was left without support in times of need, from childhood to old age. The Beveridge Report was drawn up in a post-war context where the economic situation was favourable, allowing such a system to be put in place. The growing economy, coupled with a commitment to the welfare state, created the conditions for building a society of relative affluence where people's basic needs could be met. The implementation of the Cradle-to-Grave model marked a significant milestone in Britain's social history and has had a considerable influence on other countries. This approach not only helped to shape the British social security system, but also served as a model for similar systems around the world, redefining the responsibilities of the state towards its citizens and laying the foundations for modern post-war societies.
| | 威廉-贝弗里奇勋爵在塑造英国现代福利国家模式方面发挥了至关重要的作用。他在 1942 年的报告中提出了一个革命性的社会保障愿景，即 "从摇篮到坟墓 "模式。该报告设想建立一种制度，使每个人在其人生的每个阶段都能得到国家的支持。其主要理念是为所有公民提供安全的生活，无论其个人境况如何。这一制度涵盖了广泛的社会福利，包括医疗保健、失业保险、退休金以及对老年人和残疾人的援助。其目的是确保从童年到老年，没有人在需要帮助时得不到支持。贝弗里奇报告》是在战后经济形势良好的背景下起草的，因此可以建立这样一个体系。不断增长的经济加上对福利国家的承诺，为建立一个相对富裕的社会创造了条件，人们的基本需求可以得到满足。从摇篮到坟墓 "模式的实施标志着英国社会历史上的一个重要里程碑，并对其他国家产生了相当大的影响。这种方法不仅有助于英国社会保障体系的形成，也成为世界上类似体系的典范，重新定义了国家对公民的责任，为战后现代社会奠定了基础。 |
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| The Beveridge Report, written by Lord William Beveridge, played a crucial role in redefining the social security system in Great Britain after the Second World War. This report introduced innovative principles for the establishment of social protection, based on the three U's: universality, uniqueness and uniformity. These principles marked a significant change in the way social security was conceived and administered. Beveridge's principle of universality suggested that social security cover should extend to the whole population, not just certain groups such as blue-collar workers. This concept aimed to ensure that every citizen, regardless of their socio-economic status, would be entitled to social protection. This universal approach represented a radical departure from previous systems, which were often characterised by fragmentation and limited coverage. The principle of unicity implied the creation of a single public service to manage all social security benefits. The aim of this unified system was to simplify and streamline the management of social security, avoiding duplication of services and ensuring a more coherent and rational use of resources. By centralising administration, Beveridge sought to facilitate access to benefits for all citizens. Finally, the principle of uniformity recommended that social security benefits should be uniform and independent of individual income levels. This approach aimed to ensure equal treatment for all, by providing benefits based on need rather than on past financial contributions. This principle was intended to ensure that benefits would be sufficient to meet the basic needs of every individual, regardless of their financial situation. Together, these principles formed the basis of a fairer and more inclusive social security system in Great Britain. They not only influenced the redesign of the British system in the post-war period, but also served as a model for other countries seeking to establish or reform their own social protection systems. The Beveridge Report thus represents a pivotal moment in the history of social policy, putting forward a progressive and equitable vision of protection for citizens.
| | 第二次世界大战后，威廉-贝弗里奇勋爵撰写的《贝弗里奇报告》在重新定义英国社会保障制度方面发挥了至关重要的作用。该报告提出了建立社会保障的创新原则，即三个 U：普遍性、独特性和统一性。这些原则标志着社会保障的构想和管理方式发生了重大变化。贝弗里奇的 "普遍性 "原则提出，社会保障应覆盖全体人口，而不仅仅是蓝领工人等特定群体。这一概念旨在确保每个公民，无论其社会经济地位如何，都有权享受社会保障。这种普遍方法与以往的制度截然不同，以往的制度往往以分散和覆盖面有限为特点。统一性原则意味着建立一个单一的公共服务机构来管理所有社会保障福利。这一统一制度的目的是简化和精简社会保障的管理，避免重复服务，确保更协调、更合理地使用资源。通过集中管理，贝弗里奇寻求为所有公民获取福利提供便利。最后，统一性原则建议社会保障福利应统一且不受个人收入水平的影响。这一方法旨在通过根据需要而非过去的经济贡献提供福利，确保所有人享有平等待遇。这一原则旨在确保福利足以满足每个人的基本需求，无论其经济状况如何。这些原则共同构成了英国更公平、更具包容性的社会保障体系的基础。它们不仅影响了战后英国制度的重新设计，也为其他寻求建立或改革本国社会保障制度的国家树立了榜样。因此，《贝弗里奇报告》代表了社会政策史上的一个关键时刻，提出了一种进步的、公平的公民保护理念。 |
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| The welfare state model set out in the Beveridge Report has had a significant influence in the Western world, particularly in developed countries. However, its adoption has varied from country to country, with adaptations to suit specific national contexts. In Switzerland, for example, the welfare state system has been partially adopted, with certain particularities reflecting the country's specific political and social features. In the ideal of the welfare state, as conceptualised by Beveridge, social security is not limited to an economic function; it also has an important political function. The aim is not only to provide social protection, but also to transform political democracy into social democracy. This vision envisages a society where full employment and freedom are guaranteed not only by economic mechanisms, but also by social and political policies. In many countries, the social security budget is voted by parliament, underlining the democratic nature of social security management. This management is a tool of social and political policy, controlled by elected bodies (the government and parliament) and financed by taxpayers' money. This approach ensures that social security programmes are accountable to the public and reflect society's priorities and values.
| | 贝弗里奇报告》中提出的福利国家模式在西方世界，特别是发达国家产生了重大影响。然而，各国对这一模式的采用各不相同，并根据具体国情进行了调整。例如，瑞士部分采用了福利国家制度，但某些特殊性反映了该国特定的政治和社会特点。在贝弗里奇构想的福利国家理想中，社会保障不仅限于经济功能，还具有重要的政治功能。其目的不仅在于提供社会保护，还在于将政治民主转变为社会民主。这一愿景设想了一个不仅通过经济机制，而且通过社会和政治政策来保障充分就业和自由的社会。在许多国家，社会保障预算由议会投票决定，这凸显了社会保障管理的民主性质。这种管理是社会和政治政策的工具，由民选机构（政府和议会）控制，资金来自纳税人的钱。这种方法确保社会保障计划对公众负责，并反映社会的优先事项和价值观。 |
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| In Switzerland, the welfare state system has incorporated these principles while retaining its liberal characteristics. The Swiss state continues to value individual freedom and private initiative, but also steps in to help those facing hardship, such as those who have suffered an accident. This Swiss model of the welfare state represents a balance between the liberal principles of the market economy and the need to offer social support to those in need. The welfare state model, although rooted in the Beveridge Report, has been adapted and modified in different countries to meet their specific needs and realities. It continues to be a central element of social policy in many societies, seeking to reconcile economic progress with social justice.
| | 在瑞士，福利国家制度在保留其自由主义特点的同时，也融入了这些原则。瑞士政府继续重视个人自由和私人主动性，但也会介入帮助那些面临困难的人，如遭遇事故的人。瑞士的这种福利国家模式体现了市场经济的自由原则与向需要帮助的人提供社会支持的需要之间的平衡。福利国家模式虽然植根于《贝弗里奇报告》，但在不同的国家都进行了调整和修改，以满足其具体需求和现实情况。在许多社会中，福利国家仍然是社会政策的核心要素，它寻求经济进步与社会公正之间的协调。 |
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| The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on 10 December 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly marked a historic moment in the worldwide recognition and protection of fundamental rights. Among these rights, Article 25 of the Declaration plays a crucial role in establishing the right to social security as a fundamental human right. Article 25 states that everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family. This standard of living includes food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services. In addition, the article recognises the right to security in the event of adverse circumstances such as unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or loss of livelihood in circumstances beyond the control of the individual. The inclusion of social security in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights represents an important recognition of the need for social protection for the dignity and well-being of all individuals. It emphasises that access to a minimum of economic and social security is essential to enable people to live with dignity and participate fully in society. This provision has had a considerable impact on national and international policies, encouraging governments around the world to set up or strengthen their social security systems. It has also served as the basis for many subsequent international treaties and laws aimed at guaranteeing and promoting the social and economic rights of citizens.
| | 联合国大会于 1948 年 12 月 10 日通过的《世界人权宣言》标志着世界范围内承认 和保护基本权利的一个历史性时刻。在这些权利中，《宣言》第 25 条在将社会保障权确立为一项基本人权方面发挥了关键作用。第 25 条规定，人人有权享受为维持他本人和家属的健康和福利所需的生活水准。这种生活水准包括食物、衣着、住房、医疗和必要的社会服务。此外，该条还承认在个人无法控制的情况下，如失业、疾病、残疾、鳏寡、年老或丧失谋生能力等不利情况下享有保障的权利。将社会保障纳入《世界人权宣言》，是对为所有人的尊严和福祉提供社会保护的必要性的重要认可。它强调，获得最起码的经济和社会保障是使人们有尊严地生活和充分参与社会的必要条件。这一规定对国家和国际政策产生了相当大的影响，鼓励世界各国政府建立或加强其社会保障体系。它还成为后来许多旨在保障和促进公民社会和经济权利的国际条约和法律的基础。 |
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| == The Rise and Influence of Keynesianism == | | == 凯恩斯主义的兴起和影响 == |
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| [[File:Keynes.jpg|thumb|200px|John Maynard Keynes.]] | | [[File:Keynes.jpg|thumb|200px|约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯]] |
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| John Maynard Keynes, an influential British economist, developed economic theories that had a considerable impact on economic policy in many Western countries, particularly after the Second World War. His vision went beyond the principles of German ordo-liberalism, advocating a more active and committed role for the state in the economy.
| | 约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯是一位颇具影响力的英国经济学家，他提出的经济理论对许多西方国家的经济政策产生了相当大的影响，尤其是在第二次世界大战之后。他的观点超越了德国圣职自由主义的原则，主张国家在经济中发挥更加积极和坚定的作用。 |
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| Keynes's economic theory, often referred to as Keynesianism, argued that in certain circumstances, particularly during economic downturns or recessions, state intervention is necessary to stimulate demand and maintain employment. Keynes argued that state fiscal and monetary policy could be actively used to influence economic conditions, for example, by increasing public spending to stimulate demand or reducing interest rates to encourage investment. Unlike ordo-liberalism, which emphasised the creation of a stable regulatory framework for the market economy while limiting direct state intervention in the economy, Keynesianism advocated more direct and dynamic economic intervention by the state. This approach was based on the idea that the market alone could not always guarantee economic stability and full employment.
| | 凯恩斯的经济理论通常被称为凯恩斯主义，认为在某些情况下，特别是在经济下滑或衰退期间，有必要进行国家干预，以刺激需求和维持就业。凯恩斯认为，可以积极利用国家财政和货币政策来影响经济状况，例如通过增加公共开支来刺激需求，或降低利率来鼓励投资。自由主义强调为市场经济建立稳定的监管框架，同时限制国家对经济的直接干预，而凯恩斯主义则不同，它主张国家对经济进行更直接、更动态的干预。这种做法的基础是，仅靠市场并不能始终保证经济稳定和充分就业。 |
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| All of Western Europe, with the notable exception of Germany, largely adopted Keynesian policies until the 1980s. These policies led to increased public spending in areas such as infrastructure, education and health, as well as the use of monetary policy to manage economic conditions. Keynes' influence was particularly visible in the establishment of the welfare state and in policies to maintain full employment and stabilise the economy. However, in the 1980s, a paradigm shift occurred with the emergence of neo-liberalism and a move towards privatisation, deregulation and reduced state intervention in the economy. This change marked a transition from the Keynesian policies that had dominated the post-war period.
| | 直到 20 世纪 80 年代，除德国外，整个西欧基本上都采用了凯恩斯主义政策。这些政策导致基础设施、教育和卫生等领域的公共开支增加，并使用货币政策来管理经济状况。凯恩斯的影响尤其体现在福利国家的建立以及维持充分就业和稳定经济的政策上。然而，在 20 世纪 80 年代，随着新自由主义的出现，范式发生了转变，走向私有化、放松管制和减少国家对经济的干预。这一转变标志着战后占主导地位的凯恩斯主义政策的过渡。 |
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| In the post-war period, governments' approach to economic and social policy was strongly influenced by the desire to balance social justice with economic growth. This period saw the emergence of policies that aimed not only to improve social welfare, but also to stimulate economic activity. One of the key strategies adopted in many countries was the redistribution of wealth through a progressive tax system. Progressive income tax is designed to impose higher rates on individuals with higher incomes, thereby helping to reduce inequalities in income and wealth. This type of taxation was used as a tool to redistribute resources more equitably across society, funding essential social programmes such as health, education and social security. The underlying idea was that wealthier people should contribute proportionately more to funding public services and supporting the most vulnerable sections of the population.
| | 在战后时期，政府的经济和社会政策方针深受平衡社会公正与经济增长的愿望的影响。这一时期出现了一些不仅旨在改善社会福利，而且旨在刺激经济活动的政策。许多国家采取的主要战略之一是通过累进税制重新分配财富。累进所得税旨在对收入较高的个人征收较高的税率，从而帮助减少收入和财富的不平等。这种税制被用作在全社会更公平地重新分配资源的工具，为医疗、教育和社会保障等基本社会项目提供资金。其基本理念是，较富裕的人应按比例为公共服务提供更多资金，并为人口中最脆弱的群体提供支持。 |
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| Alongside these tax measures, income redistribution was also intended to stimulate consumption and investment. By increasing the purchasing power of low- and middle-income households, these policies aimed to support overall demand in the economy. Increased purchasing power among these groups leads to increased demand for goods and services, which can stimulate production, create jobs and generate sustainable economic growth. This process contributes not only to economic vitality, but also to social stability by guaranteeing a decent standard of living for all citizens. These policies reflect a comprehensive and integrated approach, where economic and social objectives are closely linked. Governments of the time sought to create a society where economic growth and social justice were mutually reinforcing, recognising that the economic health of a nation depended in large part on the health and well-being of its people.
| | 除这些税收措施外，收入再分配还旨在刺激消费和投资。通过提高中低收入家庭的购买力，这些政策旨在支持经济的整体需求。这些群体购买力的提高会增加对商品和服务的需求，从而刺激生产、创造就业并带来可持续的经济增长。这一过程不仅有助于增强经济活力，还能保障所有公民享有体面的生活水平，从而促进社会稳定。这些政策体现了一种全面综合的方法，将经济目标和社会目标紧密联系在一起。当时的各国政府认识到，一个国家的经济健康在很大程度上取决于其人民的健康和福祉，因此努力创造一个经济增长与社会公正相辅相成的社会。 |
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| John Maynard Keynes revolutionised economic thinking with his theory emphasising the importance of demand in the economy. Unlike previous economic approaches that focused primarily on supply, Keynes argued that demand was the main driver of economic activity. Keynesian theory is based on the idea that demand generates consumption, which in turn stimulates production and employment. This perspective differs significantly from that of the German ordo-liberals, who favoured investment and economic stability. For Keynes, boosting demand was a crucial means of reviving and maintaining economic momentum, particularly in times of slowdown or recession. Keynes also advocated specific fiscal and monetary measures to stimulate demand. He was in favour of wealth taxes, arguing that the redistribution of wealth could increase overall consumption by transferring resources from high-income individuals, who tend to save, to lower-income individuals, who are more inclined to spend. In addition, Keynes recommended lowering interest rates to encourage borrowing and investment, thereby supporting economic activity. Keynes also advocated policies of major public investment. Such investment, particularly in infrastructure projects or technological development, was seen as an essential means of creating jobs and stimulating demand. The idea was that state intervention could compensate for market failures during periods of weak economic activity. At the heart of Keynes' theory was the belief that consumption was the main driver of economic demand. By developing an economic theory centred on demand, Keynes established a framework that profoundly influenced economic policies in many countries for decades after the Second World War. This Keynesian approach emphasised the importance of active management of the economy by the state, using fiscal and monetary tools to stimulate economic growth and maintain employment.
| | 约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯的理论强调了需求在经济中的重要性，彻底改变了经济思想。与以往主要关注供给的经济方法不同，凯恩斯认为需求是经济活动的主要驱动力。凯恩斯理论的基础是需求产生消费，消费反过来又刺激生产和就业。这一观点与主张投资和经济稳定的德国自由主义者的观点大相径庭。在凯恩斯看来，刺激需求是重振和保持经济势头的重要手段，尤其是在经济放缓或衰退时期。凯恩斯还主张采取具体的财政和货币措施来刺激需求。他赞成征收财富税，认为财富的再分配可以将资源从倾向于储蓄的高收入者手中转移到更倾向于消费的低收入者手中，从而增加总体消费。此外，凯恩斯还建议降低利率，以鼓励借贷和投资，从而支持经济活动。凯恩斯还主张实施重大公共投资政策。这种投资，尤其是对基础设施项目或技术发展的投资，被视为创造就业和刺激需求的重要手段。其理念是，在经济活动疲软时期，国家干预可以弥补市场失灵。凯恩斯理论的核心是认为消费是经济需求的主要驱动力。通过发展以需求为中心的经济理论，凯恩斯建立了一个框架，该框架在第二次世界大战后的几十年里深刻影响了许多国家的经济政策。凯恩斯主义强调国家积极管理经济的重要性，利用财政和货币工具来刺激经济增长和维持就业。 |
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| The concept of the Keynesian multiplier, introduced by the economist John Maynard Keynes, highlights the vital role of public investment in stimulating overall economic growth. This process begins with an initial investment by the state, usually in infrastructure or other major projects, which may require some initial indebtedness. The aim is to improve the efficiency and productivity of the economy through these investments. These state investments lead to job creation, which in turn leads to higher employment and wages. An increase in household income boosts their purchasing power, leading to an increase in consumption. This increase in demand, in turn, encourages the private sector to increase production to meet new consumer needs. Companies may therefore need to hire more staff and invest in new production capacity. The knock-on effect of this increase in consumption creates a virtuous circle in the economy. More production leads to more jobs, which further stimulates consumption. This positive dynamic also has a beneficial impact on public finances. On the one hand, the increase in employment reduces the need for the state to provide welfare benefits, while on the other, tax revenues increase as a result of higher incomes and consumption. These combined effects give the State the opportunity to gradually repay the initial debt. The Keynesian multiplier illustrates how judicious public investment can trigger a chain of positive economic reactions, leading to increased economic growth and widespread prosperity. This theory highlights the importance of targeted government intervention in stimulating economic activity, particularly during periods of slowdown or recession.
| | 经济学家约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯提出的凯恩斯乘数概念强调了公共投资在刺激整体经济增长中的重要作用。这一过程始于国家的初始投资，通常是对基础设施或其他重大项目的投资，这可能需要一些初始负债。目的是通过这些投资提高经济效率和生产力。这些国家投资会创造就业机会，进而提高就业率和工资水平。家庭收入的增加会提高他们的购买力，从而导致消费的增加。需求的增加反过来又鼓励私营部门增加生产，以满足新的消费需求。因此，公司可能需要雇佣更多的员工并投资新的生产能力。消费增长的连锁反应会在经济中形成良性循环。更多的生产带来更多的就业机会，从而进一步刺激消费。这种积极的动力也对公共财政产生了有利影响。一方面，就业的增加减少了国家提供福利的需求，另一方面，税收也会因收入和消费的增加而增加。这些综合效应使国家有机会逐步偿还最初的债务。凯恩斯乘数说明了明智的公共投资如何能够引发一连串积极的经济反应，从而促进经济增长和普遍繁荣。这一理论强调了政府有针对性的干预对刺激经济活动的重要性，尤其是在经济放缓或衰退时期。 |
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| For John Maynard Keynes, public debt was not simply a burden, but could be seen as a wealth-producing investment, particularly when used to stimulate economic demand and growth. This perspective on debt played a crucial role in the economic policies of Western countries during the Trente Glorieuses period, which ran from approximately 1945 to 1975. During this period, many Western countries experienced unprecedented economic growth. One of the key strategies employed to support this growth was debt-financed public investment. In line with Keynesian theory, this investment was intended to stimulate demand, create jobs and promote economic growth. In turn, increased output and employment led to higher tax revenues, which helped governments to repay their debts over time. Public debt has also been an important source of funding for the welfare state. Borrowed funds have been used to finance various social initiatives, such as health, education, social security and infrastructure. These social investments have not only improved the quality of life of citizens, but have also contributed to economic and social stability, ensuring a decent standard of living for all and reducing inequalities. This approach to debt as a means of generating wealth and sustaining economic growth was widely accepted and implemented during the Trente Glorieuses. It enabled significant progress to be made in building prosperous and balanced societies. However, with the economic and political changes of the late 1970s and early 1980s, notably the emergence of neo-liberalism, this Keynesian approach to debt and economic policy began to be questioned.
| | 在约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯看来，公共债务不仅仅是一种负担，还可以被视为一种创造财富的投资，尤其是在用于刺激经济需求和增长时。在大约 1945 年至 1975 年的 "光辉特伦特 "时期，这种债务观在西方国家的经济政策中发挥了至关重要的作用。在此期间，许多西方国家经历了前所未有的经济增长。支持这一增长的主要策略之一是债务融资公共投资。根据凯恩斯理论，这种投资旨在刺激需求、创造就业和促进经济增长。反过来，产出和就业的增加又会带来税收的增加，从而帮助政府逐步偿还债务。公债也是福利国家的重要资金来源。借入的资金被用于资助各种社会举措，如卫生、教育、社会保障和基础设施。这些社会投资不仅提高了公民的生活质量，还促进了经济和社会稳定，确保人人享有体面的生活水准，减少了不平等现象。这种将债务作为创造财富和维持经济增长手段的做法在 "光辉岁月 "时期得到了广泛接受和实施。它使我们在建设繁荣和平衡的社会方面取得了重大进展。然而，随着 20 世纪 70 年代末和 80 年代初的经济和政治变革，特别是新自由主义的出现，这种凯恩斯主义的债务和经济政策方法开始受到质疑。 |
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| == The welfare state as guarantor of security of existence == | | == 作为生存安全保障者的福利国家 == |
| The economic theory of John Maynard Keynes provided a new understanding of the interaction between the welfare state and the liberal economy. According to Keynes, a generous welfare state, combined with low unemployment, could boost the economy. This view contrasted with earlier economic thinking, which often saw social spending as a burden rather than a productive investment. In the Keynesian view, a well-structured welfare state plays a stabilising role in the economy. By providing a safety net for citizens, notably through benefits such as unemployment insurance and social assistance, the welfare state helps to maintain a level of consumer demand, even during periods of economic slowdown. This constant demand encourages businesses to continue producing, which has a stabilising effect on the economy as a whole. Furthermore, low unemployment ensures that the majority of citizens are actively participating in the economy, which is crucial to sustaining economic growth. In this context, the welfare state is not seen as a burden, but rather as an essential element in ensuring economic health and social well-being. Keynes also put forward the idea that social spending, far from being a brake on economic growth, can actually stimulate it. A generous welfare state improves general well-being and reduces inequality, creating a more balanced society and a more robust economy. Citizens who enjoy good health, quality education and financial security are better equipped to contribute productively to the economy. Keynes' theory revolutionised the way in which the welfare state is perceived in a market economy. It highlights the crucial role of social policies not only for the well-being of citizens, but also for economic dynamism and stability. This perspective underlines the importance of an integrated approach that recognises the interdependence of economic and social policies.
| | 约翰-梅纳德-凯恩斯的经济理论为福利国家与自由经济之间的互动提供了新的理解。凯恩斯认为，慷慨的福利国家加上低失业率可以促进经济发展。这种观点与早期的经济思想形成了鲜明对比，早期的经济思想往往将社会支出视为一种负担，而不是一种生产性投资。在凯恩斯看来，结构良好的福利国家在经济中发挥着稳定作用。通过为公民提供安全网，特别是通过失业保险和社会援助等福利，福利国家有助于维持一定水平的消费需求，即使在经济放缓时期也是如此。这种持续的需求鼓励企业继续生产，从而对整个经济产生稳定作用。此外，低失业率可确保大多数公民积极参与经济活动，这对维持经济增长至关重要。在这种情况下，福利国家不被视为负担，而是确保经济健康和社会福祉的重要因素。凯恩斯还提出了社会支出非但不会阻碍经济增长，反而能够刺激经济增长的观点。一个慷慨的福利国家可以改善总体福祉，减少不平等现象，从而创造一个更加平衡的社会和更加强劲的经济。享有良好健康、优质教育和经济保障的公民能够更好地为经济做出生产性贡献。凯恩斯的理论彻底改变了市场经济中对福利国家的认识。它强调了社会政策不仅对公民福祉，而且对经济活力和稳定的关键作用。这一观点强调了综合方法的重要性，即承认经济政策和社会政策的相互依存性。 |
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| The period immediately following the end of the Second World War was marked by exceptional economic growth, which played a key role in supporting welfare state policies in many countries. This era, often referred to as the 'Glorious Thirty', saw unprecedented rates of economic growth, creating ideal conditions for the funding and expansion of social programmes. Post-war reconstruction, combined with technological innovation and industrial expansion, led to a period of remarkable economic prosperity. This prosperity translated into a significant increase in tax revenues for governments, making it easier to fund a wide range of welfare state programmes. These programmes, including universal healthcare, retirement pensions, unemployment insurance and various forms of social assistance, were designed to improve living conditions and reduce social inequalities. In addition, sustained economic growth has strengthened popular support for these welfare state policies. Citizens, enjoying the fruits of economic growth, were generally more willing to accept the taxes needed to fund these programmes. They clearly perceived the benefits of state-provided services, particularly in terms of improved quality of life and social security. The post-Second World War period created an economic environment conducive to the development and sustainability of ambitious welfare state policies. The combination of robust economic growth, increased tax revenues and public support enabled governments to implement social programmes that have played a crucial role in shaping modern societies.
| | 第二次世界大战结束后的一段时期，经济超常规增长，在许多国家支持福利国家政策方面发挥了关键作用。这个时代通常被称为 "光荣的三十年代"，经济增长速度前所未有，为资助和扩大社会计划创造了理想的条件。战后重建，加上技术创新和工业扩张，带来了一段显著的经济繁荣时期。这种繁荣使政府的税收大幅增加，从而更容易为各种福利国家计划提供资金。这些计划包括全民医疗保健、退休金、失业保险和各种形式的社会援助，旨在改善生活条件和减少社会不平等。此外，持续的经济增长也加强了民众对这些福利国家政策的支持。公民们在享受经济增长成果的同时，普遍更愿意接受为这些计划提供资金所需的税收。他们清楚地认识到国家提供服务的好处，特别是在提高生活质量和社会保障方面。第二次世界大战后创造的经济环境有利于雄心勃勃的福利国家政策的发展和可持续性。强劲的经济增长、税收的增加和公众的支持，使各国政府能够实施社会计划，这些计划在塑造现代社会方面发挥了至关重要的作用。 |
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| === Concept and Impact of Livelihood Security === | | === 生计保障的概念和影响 === |
| The significant rise in living standards in developed countries after the Second World War, particularly during the Trente Glorieuses, was closely linked to the rise in real wages. This period was characterised by sustained economic growth, driven by industrial development, technological innovation and the expansion of markets, which generated increased demand for labour and, consequently, higher wages. This rise in real wages, adjusted for inflation, has enabled workers to enjoy a greater share of the gains in economic productivity. In many countries, trade union action and the adoption of progressive social policies have played a key role in ensuring that the benefits of economic growth are shared more equitably across the population. At the same time, the implementation of progressive tax systems and the development of robust welfare states have helped to redistribute wealth and reduce income inequalities. The combined effect of these wage increases and redistribution policies has led to a significant improvement in living standards. Households benefited from an increase in their purchasing power, which translated into a better quality of life, greater access to education and healthcare, and a general improvement in living conditions. The period was therefore marked by significant advances, not only in terms of material wealth but also in terms of security and quality of life for the average citizen.
| | 第二次世界大战后，特别是在 "光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）时期，发达国家生活水平的大幅提高与实际工资的增长密切相关。这一时期的特点是，在工业发展、技术创新和市场扩张的推动下，经济持续增长，对劳动力的需求增加，工资随之提高。经通货膨胀调整后的实际工资增长使工人能够享受到更大份额的经济生产率收益。在许多国家，工会行动和采取进步的社会政策在确保全民更公平地分享经济增长成果方面发挥了关键作用。与此同时，累进税制的实施和健全福利国家的发展也有助于财富再分配和减少收入不平等。在这些工资增长和再分配政策的共同作用下，生活水平显著提高。家庭受益于购买力的提高，从而带来了更好的生活质量、更多的教育和医疗机会以及生活条件的普遍改善。因此，这一时期不仅在物质财富方面，而且在普通公民的安全和生活质量方面都取得了重大进展。 |
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| The transition to a tertiary society, with the service sector becoming predominant, had a profound impact on the standard of living and security of workers after the Second World War. This tertiarisation of the economy has led to significant changes in the nature of work and in the overall economic structure, with positive repercussions for society. With the expansion of the tertiary sector, new jobs were created in areas such as public administration, education, health and financial services. These service jobs have often offered greater stability and better working conditions than in the industrial sector. Public administration, in particular, has played a crucial role in providing secure and regular employment, thereby contributing to greater job security for workers. At the same time, the increase in service sector jobs, coupled with higher wages and greater social protection, has given households more resources for consumption. This rise in consumption has helped to improve living conditions, allowing greater access to a variety of goods and services, and thus boosting overall living standards. In addition, the welfare state has played a key role in alleviating deprivation and reducing poverty. Social policies and programmes such as health insurance, retirement pensions, unemployment insurance and housing subsidies have provided essential support, especially for the most vulnerable sections of society. These measures have not only helped to reduce poverty, but have also provided greater economic security for the population as a whole. The tertiarisation of the economy, coupled with a robust welfare state, has thus led to a substantial improvement in living standards and greater security for workers. These developments were crucial in creating more prosperous, equitable and stable societies, marking an important stage in post-war social and economic development.
| | 第二次世界大战后，向第三产业社会转型，服务业占主导地位，对工人的生活水平和保障产生了深远影响。经济的第三产业化使工作性质和整体经济结构发生了重大变化，对社会产生了积极影响。随着第三产业的扩张，公共行政、教育、卫生和金融服务等领域创造了新的就业机会。与工业部门相比，这些服务行业的工作往往更加稳定，工作条件也更好。特别是公共行政部门，在提供有保障和正常的就业方面发挥了关键作用，从而有助于提高工人的工作保障。与此同时，服务业工作岗位的增加，加上工资的提高和社会保障的加强，为家庭提供了更多的消费资源。消费的增加有助于改善生活条件，使人们有更多机会获得各种商品和服务，从而提高整体生活水平。此外，福利国家在缓解匮乏和减少贫困方面也发挥了关键作用。医疗保险、退休金、失业保险和住房补贴等社会政策和方案提供了必要的支持，尤其是对社会最弱势群体的支持。这些措施不仅有助于减少贫困，还为全体人民提供了更大的经济保障。经济的第三产业化，再加上健全的福利国家，使工人的生活水平得到了大幅提高，生活更有保障。这些发展对于创造更加繁荣、公平和稳定的社会至关重要，标志着战后社会和经济发展进入了一个重要阶段。 |
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| The Trente Glorieuses period, characterised by sustained and rapid economic growth, saw the transformation of social security into a genuine safety net to secure people's lives. This era was marked by important economic and social developments, one of which was the ability to support and compensate for changes in economic sectors through labour mobility. One of the key theories explaining this phenomenon is the spillover theory, formulated by the French economist and demographer Alfred Sauvy in his book "La machine et le chômage", published in 1980. According to Sauvy, technical progress, by improving productivity, leads to a transfer of jobs from one sector to another. This dynamic is observed when automation or improved efficiency in one sector, such as manufacturing, reduces the need for labour in that sector. The resulting workers are then 'dumped' into other sectors, often the service sector, where new jobs are created.
| | 光辉岁月"（Trente Glorieuses）时期的特点是经济持续快速增长，见证了社会保障转变为保障人民生活的真正安全网。在这一时期，经济和社会取得了重要发展，其中之一就是通过劳动力流动支持和补偿经济部门变化的能力。法国经济学家和人口学家阿尔弗雷德-绍维（Alfred Sauvy）在 1980 年出版的《机器与劳动》一书中提出了外溢理论，这是解释这一现象的重要理论之一。根据 Sauvy 的观点，技术进步通过提高生产力，导致工作岗位从一个部门转移到另一个部门。当一个部门（如制造业）的自动化或效率提高，减少了该部门对劳动力的需求时，就会出现这种动态。由此产生的工人被 "抛 "到其他部门，通常是服务业，在那里创造了新的就业机会。 |
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| During the Trente Glorieuses, this labour mobility was facilitated by a context of robust economic growth and by welfare state policies that provided the necessary training, outplacement assistance and other forms of support. Social security systems played a crucial role in helping workers navigate these transitions, providing protection against unemployment and assisting with retraining. The Trente Glorieuses period was a time of major economic transformation, when social security evolved into a robust safety net. Alfred Sauvy's spillover theory highlights how technical progress and sectoral change can lead to a redistribution of the workforce, with the support of social policies adapted to facilitate this transition and secure the existence of workers in a rapidly changing world.
| | 在 "光辉岁月 "时期，这种劳动力流动得益于强劲的经济增长和福利国家政策，这些政策提供了必要的培训、转岗援助和其他形式的支持。社会保障体系在帮助工人实现这些转变、提供失业保护和协助再培训方面发挥了至关重要的作用。光辉岁月 "时期是一个重大的经济转型时期，社会保障在这一时期发展成为一个强大的安全网。阿尔弗雷德-绍维的外溢理论强调了技术进步和部门变革如何能够导致劳动力的重新分配，而社会政策的支持则能够促进这一转变，并在快速变化的世界中保障工人的生存。 |
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| === The Three Pillars of Livelihood Security === | | === 生计保障的三大支柱 === |
| Since the 1950s, the global economic landscape has undergone a significant transformation with the rise of the service sector, marking a significant change in the economic structure of societies. This has led to a transition from societies based primarily on industrial production to those dominated by services, profoundly affecting the nature of work and patterns of consumption. The continued growth of the service sector has led to a diversification of economic needs and increased demand for a variety of services. This transition has been particularly visible in the advanced economies, where there is a move towards an increasingly knowledge- and information-based economy. In these knowledge-based societies, skills such as expertise, innovation and information management have become crucial economic assets. Jobs in the service sector often require high levels of education and skills, reflecting the shift from an economy based on material production to one centred on intellect and creativity. At the same time, growth in the tertiary sector has also been characterised by an expansion in consumer-related services. This development encompasses a wide range of activities, from retail, hospitality and tourism to culture and leisure. This expansion reflects a change in consumer habits, with growing demand for more diverse and sophisticated consumer experiences. The shift to an economy dominated by the service sector represents a major step in the evolution of modern societies. This transformation has not only reshaped the economic structure, but has also redefined the nature of work and consumption patterns, underlining the growing importance of knowledge and service skills in the global economy.
| | 自二十世纪五十年代以来，随着服务业的兴起，全球经济格局发生了重大转变，标志着社会经济结构发生了重大变化。这导致社会从主要以工业生产为基础过渡到以服务业为主导，对工作性质和消费模式产生了深刻影响。服务业的持续增长导致了经济需求的多样化和对各种服务需求的增加。这种转变在发达经济体中尤为明显，这些经济体正日益向以知识和信息为基础的经济发展。在这些知识型社会中，专业知识、创新和信息管理等技能已成为重要的经济资产。服务业的工作往往需要高水平的教育和技能，这反映了从以物质生产为基础的经济向以智力和创造力为中心的经济的转变。与此同时，第三产业的增长还表现为与消费者相关的服务业的扩张。这一发展涵盖了从零售、酒店和旅游到文化和休闲的广泛活动。这种扩张反映了消费习惯的变化，人们对更加多样化和复杂的消费体验的需求日益增长。向以服务业为主的经济转变是现代社会发展的重要一步。这种转变不仅重塑了经济结构，还重新定义了工作性质和消费模式，凸显了知识和服务技能在全球经济中日益重要的地位。 |
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| The growing role of transfer incomes in post-war economies has been a key factor in improving living standards and economic stabilisation. These transfer incomes, derived from social and welfare state spending, have taken on greater importance in the economy, becoming increasingly significant in terms of economic weight. The increase in welfare state expenditure has encompassed a variety of social benefits and assistance, such as retirement pensions, unemployment benefits, housing benefits and family benefits. This trend of increasing expenditure reflects the growing importance of the welfare state in modern societies, marking a commitment to the social protection and well-being of citizens. These transfer incomes offer significant stability and financial security for recipients. By providing regular financial support, they help to secure people's lives, protecting them against economic fluctuations and guaranteeing a decent standard of living. One of the major advantages of these incomes is their relative insensitivity to economic cycles, providing a constant source of income even in times of economic slowdown. In addition, transfer incomes play a vital anti-cyclical and counter-cyclical role in the economy. During recessions, when household incomes may fall due to increased unemployment or reduced working hours, transfer income helps to support household consumption. This support is crucial in limiting the negative impacts of a recession and maintaining economic momentum. Transfer income acts as a financial safety net, helping to stabilise the economy and mitigate the effects of economic cycles. The expansion of transfer incomes via the welfare state played a significant role in improving living standards and stabilising economies after the Second World War. These incomes not only improved the financial security of individuals, but also helped to maintain stable consumption, which is essential to the economic resilience of modern societies.
| | 转移性收入在战后经济中的作用越来越大，成为提高生活水平和稳定经济的关键因素。这些来自社会和福利国家支出的转移性收入在经济中的重要性日益凸显，在经济中的分量越来越重。福利国家支出的增加涵盖了各种社会福利和援助，如退休金、失业救济金、住房补贴和家庭补贴。这种支出增长的趋势反映了福利国家在现代社会中日益增长的重要性，标志着对公民的社会保护和福利的承诺。这些转移性收入为领取者提供了重要的稳定性和经济保障。通过提供定期的财政支持，它们有助于保障人们的生活，保护他们免受经济波动的影响，并保证他们过上体面的生活。这些收入的主要优势之一是对经济周期相对不敏感，即使在经济放缓时期也能提供稳定的收入来源。此外，转移性收入在经济中发挥着重要的抗周期和反周期作用。在经济衰退期间，由于失业率上升或工作时间减少，家庭收入可能会下降，转移性收入有助于支持家庭消费。这种支持对于限制衰退的负面影响和保持经济发展势头至关重要。转移性收入起到了金融安全网的作用，有助于稳定经济和减轻经济周期的影响。第二次世界大战后，通过福利国家扩大转移性收入在提高生活水平和稳定经济方面发挥了重要作用。这些收入不仅提高了个人的经济安全，还有助于保持稳定的消费，这对现代社会的经济恢复能力至关重要。 |
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| The post-war period was marked by effective state intervention within a predominantly national framework, which was one of the main reasons for the economic stability and improved living standards of the period. However, as globalisation progressed, new tensions emerged between the protective role of the state and the challenges posed by an increasingly globalised economy. In the years following the Second World War, nation states played a central role in protecting and promoting the well-being of their citizens. They implemented ambitious economic and social policies, notably by developing extensive welfare state systems. These systems aimed to guarantee social security against various risks such as illness, unemployment and old age. At the same time, the adoption of Keynesian policies aimed at stimulating demand and public investment contributed to sustained economic growth and high levels of employment. However, the advent of globalisation has introduced new challenges for the traditionally protective role of the state. Market globalisation, trade liberalisation and international economic integration have sometimes limited the ability of governments to act autonomously in managing their national economies. This situation has created a tension between the need to maintain social protection policies at national level and the demands of a globalised economy, where markets and companies operate on an international scale. Although the post-war period was characterised by strong state intervention within a national framework, leading to economic stability and improved living standards, the rise of globalisation has introduced additional complexities and challenges. States must now navigate a globalised environment while seeking to preserve the protective and welfare functions that have been essential to their economic and social success in the past.
| | 战后时期，国家在以国家为主的框架内进行了有效干预，这是该时期经济稳定和生活水平提高的主要原因之一。然而，随着全球化的发展，国家的保护作用与日益全球化的经济所带来的挑战之间出现了新的紧张关系。第二次世界大战后，民族国家在保护和促进本国公民福祉方面发挥了核心作用。它们实施了雄心勃勃的经济和社会政策，特别是发展了广泛的福利国家体系。这些制度旨在保障社会保障，以应对疾病、失业和养老等各种风险。同时，采用凯恩斯主义政策刺激需求和公共投资，促进了持续的经济增长和高就业率。然而，全球化的到来给国家传统的保护作用带来了新的挑战。市场全球化、贸易自由化和国际经济一体化有时限制了政府自主管理本国经济的能力。在这种情况下，维持国家层面的社会保护政策的需要与市场和公司在国际范围内运作的全球化经济的要求之间产生了矛盾。尽管战后时期的特点是国家在国家框架内进行强有力的干预，导致经济稳定和生活水平提高，但全球化的兴起带来了更多的复杂性和挑战。国家现在必须在全球化的环境中游刃有余，同时努力维护保护和福利职能，这些职能对国家过去在经济和社会方面取得成功至关重要。 |
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| == Dynamics and Transformations of the Consumer Society == | | == 消费社会的动态与变革 == |
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| [[Image:Fredmeyer edit 1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Food products displayed on the shelves of a supermarket in Portland, Oregon, USA.]] | | [[Image:Fredmeyer edit 1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|美国俄勒冈州波特兰市一家超市货架上陈列的食品。]] |
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| In the United States, the post-war period saw the development of a 'welfare state', but with a distinct difference from its European counterparts. In the United States, the welfare state was firmly rooted in a consumer culture. This model fits in well with Keynesian theory, which emphasises stimulating demand to promote economic growth. The American consumer society developed as an economic system that actively encouraged consumption and the constant creation of new needs. Instead of focusing solely on satisfying existing needs, this system seeks to create new desires and open up new markets. This approach goes beyond simply responding to consumer demands; it aims to shape and amplify those demands.
| | 在美国，战后 "福利国家 "得到了发展，但与欧洲的福利国家截然不同。在美国，福利国家牢牢扎根于消费文化。这种模式与强调刺激需求以促进经济增长的凯恩斯理论不谋而合。美国的消费社会是作为一种积极鼓励消费和不断创造新需求的经济体系发展起来的。这种体系并不只关注满足现有需求，而是努力创造新的欲望，开拓新的市场。这种方法不仅仅是简单地满足消费者的需求，而是要塑造和放大这些需求。 |
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| In his book "The New Industrial State", originally published in 1967, the economist John Kenneth Galbraith discusses the notion of the reverse pipeline theory. This theory suggests that in advanced economies, the traditional process by which demand dictates production is being reversed. Instead of production responding to pre-existing demand, companies, through advertising and other forms of persuasion, create new consumer needs and preferences. In this way, production and marketing become the drivers of demand, rather than the other way round. This dynamic is characteristic of the consumer society, where economic success is no longer based solely on the ability to meet needs, but also on the ability to generate new ones. As a result, the economy is increasingly geared towards sectors with the greatest capacity to stimulate consumption, with profound implications for culture, society and the economy as a whole.
| | 经济学家约翰-肯尼斯-加尔布雷思（John Kenneth Galbraith）在其最初于 1967 年出版的《新工业国》一书中讨论了反向管道理论的概念。该理论认为，在发达经济体中，需求决定生产的传统过程正在发生逆转。企业不再根据原有需求进行生产，而是通过广告和其他形式的说服，创造新的消费需求和偏好。这样，生产和营销就成了需求的驱动力，而不是相反。这种动态是消费社会的特征，在消费社会中，经济的成功不再仅仅取决于满足需求的能力，还取决于创造新需求的能力。因此，经济越来越向最能刺激消费的部门倾斜，这对文化、社会和整个经济都产生了深远的影响。 |
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| The consumer society system, as it has flourished in the United States, has its roots in the economic and social developments that began in the 1920s. This period laid the foundations for the "American way of life", characterised by a level of mass consumption and prosperity unprecedented in American history. The concept of Fordism, named after the industrialist Henry Ford, played a key role in this transformation. Fordism revolutionised industrial production methods, emphasising automation, assembly lines and standardised production. This approach reduced production costs and increased productivity, leading to lower prices for consumer goods. At the same time, workers' wages rose, making these goods more accessible to a large segment of the population. These changes encouraged the emergence of an era of mass consumption in the United States. Products such as cars and household appliances became symbols of success and comfort. This increased accessibility to consumer goods marked the beginning of the American way of life, in which prosperity and material well-being became central aspirations. The American way of life developed around consumerism, individual comfort and leisure. Advertising and marketing became indispensable tools for promoting this consumer culture, encouraging consumers to acquire the latest products available on the market. This period not only transformed the American economy, but also shaped a new way of life based on consumption and material well-being, becoming an emblematic model of economic and social progress.
| | 在美国蓬勃发展的消费社会体系起源于 20 世纪 20 年代的经济和社会发展。这一时期为 "美国式生活 "奠定了基础，其特点是美国历史上前所未有的大规模消费和繁荣。以实业家亨利-福特命名的福特主义概念在这场变革中发挥了关键作用。福特主义彻底改变了工业生产方式，强调自动化、流水线和标准化生产。这种方法降低了生产成本，提高了生产率，从而降低了消费品的价格。与此同时，工人的工资也提高了，使大部分人更容易获得这些商品。这些变化促进了美国大众消费时代的出现。汽车和家用电器等产品成为成功和舒适的象征。消费品的日益普及标志着美国生活方式的开始，在这种生活方式中，繁荣和物质福祉成为人们的核心愿望。美国人的生活方式是围绕消费主义、个人舒适和休闲发展起来的。广告和营销成为推广这种消费文化不可或缺的工具，鼓励消费者购买市场上的最新产品。这一时期不仅改变了美国的经济，还塑造了一种以消费和物质福利为基础的新生活方式，成为经济和社会进步的典范。 |
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| The consumer society in the United States, which developed strongly in the post-war period, is based on several key aspects that have reshaped consumer habits and economic behaviour. A central element of this model is the considerable expansion of the range of products available, propelled by technical innovation and commercial strategies aimed at arousing and satisfying an ever-wider range of consumer needs. Department stores, with their vast assortment of products, have become emblems of this abundance, offering a diversified choice and encouraging consumption. At the same time, the development of household credit has played a key role in facilitating and promoting mass consumption. With the emergence and consolidation of the middle classes, access to credit has become widespread, enabling many households to purchase expensive goods such as vehicles and household appliances that were previously beyond their financial reach. Credit made it possible to buy goods immediately by spreading out payments, thereby stimulating consumption. Advertising also played a fundamental role in this system, creating a constant desire for new products. By targeting consumers through a variety of media, advertising not only provided information about available products, but also helped to shape consumers' desires and preferences, encouraging them to acquire the latest products. This constant solicitation has helped to anchor consumerism at the heart of American culture and lifestyle.
| | 美国的消费社会是在战后时期大力发展起来的，它以重塑消费习惯和经济行为的几个关键方面为基础。这种模式的一个核心要素是，在技术创新和商业战略的推动下，可供选择的产品种类大大增加，旨在唤起和满足更广泛的消费需求。百货商店以其种类繁多的产品成为这种丰富性的象征，提供多样化的选择并鼓励消费。与此同时，家庭信贷的发展也在促进和推动大众消费方面发挥了关键作用。随着中产阶级的崛起和巩固，获得信贷的机会已变得十分普遍，使许多家庭能够购买汽车和家用电器等昂贵商品，而这些商品在以前是他们的经济能力所无法承受的。信贷使人们可以通过分散支付来立即购买商品，从而刺激了消费。广告在这一体系中也发挥了根本性的作用，创造了对新产品的持续渴望。广告通过各种媒体瞄准消费者，不仅提供了有关现有产品的信息，还帮助塑造了消费者的欲望和偏好，鼓励他们购买最新产品。这种持续不断的诱惑使消费主义成为美国文化和生活方式的核心。 |
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| As the economies of the United States and Europe evolved over the course of the twentieth century, particularly towards the end of the 1960s, there was a notable transformation in the distribution of household expenditure. One striking trend was the relative decline in the share of food expenditure in the total household budget, which had a significant impact on consumption patterns. In the United States, food expenditure represented around 20% to 30% of the household budget at the end of the 1960s. In Europe, this proportion was slightly higher, at between 30% and 40%. This reduction in the share of food expenditure in the total budget is indicative of an overall improvement in living standards. It suggests that households had more of their disposable income available for other types of expenditure. This development has had important implications for the economies of developed countries. With a smaller proportion of the budget devoted to food, American and European households were able to allocate more resources to other forms of consumption. This has included the purchase of durable goods such as household appliances and cars, as well as spending on leisure, education and services. As a result, there has been a diversification of consumption patterns and growth in sectors other than food. This shift towards more diversified consumption is also indicative of wider economic changes, such as rising incomes, improved living standards, and the expansion of the middle class. It has played a role in the dynamics of economic growth, stimulating demand in a variety of sectors and contributing to overall economic development.
| | 随着美国和欧洲经济在 20 世纪的发展，特别是在 20 世纪 60 年代末，家庭支出的分配发生了显著变化。一个显著的趋势是食品支出在家庭总预算中所占比例相对下降，这对消费模式产生了重大影响。在美国，20 世纪 60 年代末，食品支出约占家庭预算的 20%至 30%。在欧洲，这一比例略高，在 30%至 40%之间。食品支出在总预算中所占比例的下降表明生活水平的整体提高。这表明，家庭有更多的可支配收入可用于其他类型的支出。这一发展对发达国家的经济产生了重要影响。由于用于食品的预算比例降低，美国和欧洲家庭能够将更多资源用于其他形式的消费。这包括购买家用电器和汽车等耐用品，以及休闲、教育和服务支出。因此，消费模式出现了多样化，食品以外的行业也出现了增长。向更多样化消费的转变也表明了更广泛的经济变化，如收入增加、生活水平提高和中产阶级扩大。它在经济增长的动力中发挥了作用，刺激了各行各业的需求，促进了整体经济发展。 |
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| The consumer society, as it developed over the course of the twentieth century, brought about a profound revolution in lifestyles, extending its influence far beyond the simple acquisition of goods. This evolution has been characterised by a significant change in the way people spend their time and interact in their daily lives. Improved public services and innovation in household appliances have played a major role in this transformation. Appliances such as washing machines, dishwashers and microwaves have considerably reduced the time spent on household chores. This freeing up of time has allowed people to devote more time to leisure and entertainment activities, fostering the emergence of a leisure economy. With more free time, demand for activities such as holidays, sports and cultural entertainment has increased, stimulating the development of new industries and services to meet these needs. At the same time, there has been a significant transformation in the way people live and communicate, driven by media such as television, radio and later the internet. These technologies have not only changed the way information is received and shared, they have also opened the way to new forms of entertainment and social communication. They have also facilitated the promotion of consumer culture and helped shape consumer behaviour and expectations. This evolution has culminated in the affirmation of a leisure society, where free time and leisure activities have become central components of contemporary lifestyles. In this society, the pursuit of well-being and quality of life have become key objectives, strongly influencing consumer habits. This focus on leisure and entertainment has not only shaped the economy, but has also had a profound impact on culture and social values, placing leisure and pleasure at the heart of the modern human experience.
| | 消费社会在二十世纪的发展过程中，给生活方式带来了一场深刻的革命，其影响远远超出了简单的商品购买。这一演变的特点是人们消磨时间和日常生活互动的方式发生了重大变化。公共服务的改善和家用电器的创新在这场变革中发挥了重要作用。洗衣机、洗碗机和微波炉等家用电器大大减少了家务劳动的时间。时间的解放使人们有更多的时间从事休闲和娱乐活动，促进了休闲经济的兴起。有了更多的空闲时间，人们对假日、体育和文化娱乐等活动的需求也随之增加，从而刺激了满足这些需求的新产业和新服务的发展。与此同时，在电视、广播以及后来的互联网等媒体的推动下，人们的生活和交流方式也发生了重大转变。这些技术不仅改变了信息接收和共享的方式，还开辟了新的娱乐和社会交流形式。它们还促进了消费文化的推广，帮助塑造了消费者的行为和期望。这种演变最终导致休闲社会的形成，自由时间和休闲活动已成为当代生活方式的核心组 成部分。在这个社会中，追求幸福和生活质量已成为主要目标，对消费习惯产生了强烈影响。对休闲和娱乐的关注不仅塑造了经济，也对文化和社会价值观产生了深远影响，使休闲和愉悦成为现代人类体验的核心。 |
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| The Canadian-American economist John Kenneth Galbraith, renowned for his critical analyses of the economy and society, took a particularly critical look at consumer society, particularly in the United States. In his view, social movements and social justice issues have often been overshadowed or downplayed in a context where consumerism has dominated society's discourse and values. Galbraith argued that, in American society, consumption has become a kind of barometer of success and well-being. This focus on consumption has had several consequences. On the one hand, it has contributed to a certain self-congratulation, where economic progress and standard of living are measured in terms of consumer goods and the ability to consume. On the other hand, this emphasis on consumption has sometimes distracted attention from deeper social and economic problems, such as inequality, poverty and environmental sustainability. For Galbraith, the limitation of this approach lies in its inability to address and resolve these fundamental problems. In his view, the consumer society's focus on material accumulation neglects crucial aspects of human well-being and social justice. In the United States, where consumption is particularly embedded in culture and the economy, this critique takes on a particularly relevant dimension. Galbraith's perspective on consumer society highlights the limits of a system that privileges consumption as an indicator of prosperity and success, at the risk of neglecting broader and more important social and economic issues.
| | 加拿大裔美籍经济学家约翰-肯尼斯-加尔布雷思（John Kenneth Galbraith）以其对经济和社会的批判性分析而闻名，他对消费社会，尤其是美国的消费社会进行了特别的批判。他认为，在消费主义主导社会话语和价值观的背景下，社会运动和社会正义问题往往被掩盖或淡化。加尔布雷思认为，在美国社会，消费已成为成功和幸福的晴雨表。这种对消费的关注产生了几种后果。一方面，它助长了某种自我安慰，即以消费品和消费能力来衡量经济进步和生活水平。另一方面，对消费的强调有时会分散人们对更深层次的社会和经济问题的关注，如不平等、贫困和环境可持续性。在加尔布雷斯看来，这种方法的局限性在于无法应对和解决这些根本问题。他认为，消费社会对物质积累的关注忽视了人类福祉和社会公正的重要方面。在美国，消费尤其根植于文化和经济之中，因此这种批判具有特别重要的意义。加尔布雷思从消费社会的角度，强调了将消费作为繁荣和成功指标的制度的局限性，这种制度可能会忽视更广泛、更重要的社会和经济问题。 |
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| = Annexes = | | = 附件 = |
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| * Jean Fourastié : ''Les Trente Glorieuses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975'', 1979. | | * Jean Fourastié : ''Les Trente Glorieuses ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975'', 1979. |
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| = References = | | = 参考资料 = |
| <references/> | | <references/> |
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