Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution

Based on a lecture by Michel Oris

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Economic and social history of globalisation, 16th-21st centuries

Agrarian Structures and Rural Society: Analysis of the Preindustrial European Peasantry ● The demographic regime of the Ancien Régime: homeostasis ● Evolution of Socioeconomic Structures in the Eighteenth Century: From the Ancien Régime to Modernity ● Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution ● Structural mechanisms of the industrial revolution ● The spread of the Industrial Revolution in continental Europe ● The Industrial Revolution beyond Europe: the United States and Japan ● The social costs of the Industrial Revolution ● Historical Analysis of the Cyclical Phases of the First Globalisation ● Dynamics of National Markets and the Globalisation of Product Trade ● The Formation of Global Migration Systems ● Dynamics and Impacts of the Globalisation of Money Markets : The Central Role of Great Britain and France ● The Transformation of Social Structures and Relations during the Industrial Revolution ● The Origins of the Third World and the Impact of Colonisation ● Failures and Obstacles in the Third World ● Changing Methods of Work: Evolving Production Relationships from the End of the Nineteenth to the Middle of the Twentieth Century ● The Golden Age of the Western Economy: The Thirty Glorious Years (1945-1973) ● The Changing World Economy: 1973-2007 ● The Challenges of the Welfare State ● Around colonisation: fears and hopes for development ● Time of Ruptures: Challenges and Opportunities in the International Economy ● Globalisation and modes of development in the "third world"

The Industrial Revolution marked a decisive turning point in human history. In less than a century, this upheaval profoundly altered economic and social structures, initiating an era of change whose scale and speed are unparalleled in the annals of the past.

This transformation began on English soil, distinctly before spreading to the whole of Great Britain or the United Kingdom. At the dawn of the 18th century, England, with its 6 million inhabitants, accounted for two-thirds of the British population. It is notable that the Industrial Revolution took root and flourished mainly in England for almost fifty years before its innovations and reforms crossed borders and spread across nations in ways and at a pace specific to each national context.

At the threshold of this period of metamorphosis, around 1780-1790, England was at an unprecedented technical level. Despite representing only around 1% of the world's population, its contribution to iron production amounted to a tenth of global output, reflecting its industrial lead. The spinning industry, which was particularly labour-intensive, was one of the first to undergo accelerated mechanisation, paving the way for an industrial evolution that would reshape the face of work and society.

What is the Industrial Revolution?

The term "Industrial Revolution" embodies the technological and economic transition that transformed the foundations of societies during the 18th century. It marks the beginning of an era in which human ingenuity, coupled with unprecedented industrial advances, began to reshape the natural world with a vigour and scale never before seen. This period of revolution, in the broadest sense of the term, involved a profound modification of social structures by altering pre-existing values and customs. It was characterised by the introduction of massive new production techniques, the emergence of the factory as the principal workplace, and the adoption of the steam engine and other innovations that overturned traditional methods of manufacturing and trading. The Industrial Revolution is not just a period of technological change; it also symbolises a time when social, economic and cultural relationships were redefined, laying the foundations of the modern capitalist economy and having a lasting influence on human history.

The Industrial Revolution was a powerful engine of demographic growth and economic development, contributing to an unprecedented expansion in population and prosperity. This period of intensive transformation reached its peak in the 19th century with the spread of the Industrial Revolution across Europe, spreading its technological innovations and production models across the continent. The term "Industrial Revolution" was thus adopted by sociology to designate this era of major upheaval, not only in the industrial sector, but also in the very structure of society. The implications of this phenomenon go far beyond technical advances: they involve a radical overhaul of social relations, a new class hierarchy, a redefinition of work and a change in mentalities, with the emergence of values such as efficiency, progress and innovation. This revolution has had knock-on effects in all spheres of daily life, profoundly altering human interactions and prospects for the future. Industrialisation not only shaped the economic landscape, it also reorganised human geography, with a massive shift in population from the countryside to the cities, giving rise to modern urbanisation.

Attempting to pinpoint the start of the Industrial Revolution is a complex exercise, given the gradual and sometimes uneven nature of the process, as well as the lack of reliable and systematic statistical data for the period. Historians commonly place the start of the Industrial Revolution around 1750, when notable changes in production and working methods began to be seen in England. Paul Bairoch has emphasised the importance of the Agricultural Revolution as an essential precursor to the Industrial Revolution. Having led to an improvement in agricultural yields and demographic growth, it created the conditions necessary for the development of industry. However, this perspective is the subject of ongoing debate among scholars, with some suggesting that other factors, such as capital accumulation, technological innovation, or political and economic institutions, played equally crucial roles. The term "industrial revolution" itself was not coined until the 19th century, in particular from 1884 onwards, long after the events it describes had taken place. The word 'revolution' was first used in a modern context with the French Revolution in 1789, and although it suggests a rapid and radical transformation, the Industrial Revolution actually took place over several decades, or even a century or more. This concept of abrupt change was particularly popularised in the 1960s by the economic historian Walt Whitman Rostow with his "take-off" model, which compared economic growth to the rise of an aeroplane. According to Rostow, the Industrial Revolution represented the point at which a society moved from economic stagnation to self-sustained growth. The Industrial Revolution is not a sudden event, but rather an evolution characterised by gradual change and continuous adjustment, fundamentally transforming economic and social structures over a long period.

The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy

The Spinning-jenny by James Hargreaves, 1765, museum in Wuppertal, Germany.

The textile revolution is emblematic of the industrial transformation that took place in England in the 18th century, providing a perfect illustration of technological change and its economic repercussions. The "flying shuttle", invented in 1733 by John Kay, was a significant improvement in the weaving industry. It doubled the speed of weaving by allowing the shuttle to traverse the loom at high speed without direct manual intervention. This innovation led to an increase in demand for yarn, as looms could now produce fabric much faster than before. In response to this increase in demand for yarn, in 1764 James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny, a revolutionary spinning machine capable of spinning several threads at the same time, far surpassing the output of traditional spinning machines. However, this invention created an imbalance between yarn production and weaving capacity, with yarn production exceeding what weavers could turn into fabric. In response to this surplus of yarn and the need to increase weaving productivity, the mechanical loom was developed. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright patented the first mechanical loom, which, although initially imperfect, laid the foundations for future improvements. This was followed by the adoption of steam power for looms in the 1780s, which enabled even more efficient use to be made of the yarn produced by the "Spinning Jenny" and led to large-scale mechanised weaving. These innovations not only increased productivity, but also transformed the structure of the textile industry, encouraging the transition from cottage industry to industrial production. They also had significant social consequences, such as the concentration of workers in factories and a reduction in the workforce required, foreshadowing the profound social and economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

The combination of steel and coal was one of the pillars of the Industrial Revolution, along with the textile sector, literally forging the tools and materials needed to build the industrial age. Abraham Darby's innovation in 1709 was a decisive turning point. By using coke, derived from coal (mineral coal), instead of charcoal to smelt iron ore, Darby not only responded to the energy crisis caused by deforestation, but also laid the foundations for much greater iron and steel production. Charcoal was limited not only by the quantity of wood available, but also by its energy efficiency. The Darby process made it possible to produce iron in greater quantities and at lower cost, as the coke could reach the higher and more constant temperatures required for iron production. In addition, coal deposits were abundant in England, guaranteeing a stable and economical supply. This advance had a huge impact, as iron was essential to many industries of the time, including the construction of machinery, ships, buildings and, later, railways. What's more, as coke became the preferred fuel for iron production, this stimulated coal mining, reinforcing the synergy between the iron and coal industries. This dynamic created a virtuous circle of innovation and production that fuelled Britain's industrial expansion and helped establish its global economic dominance throughout the 19th century.

The use of mechanical energy via the steam engine is another fundamental aspect of the Industrial Revolution. The adaptation of this technology in various industrial sectors led to a quantum leap in production and efficiency. The steam engine, in its primitive form, was developed in the early 18th century, with inventors such as Thomas Newcomen who, in 1712, created a steam engine designed to pump water out of coal mines. Although this machine was a significant advance, it was still inefficient and expensive to operate. The real breakthrough came with James Watt, who in the 1760s and 1770s made decisive improvements to Newcomen's steam engine. In particular, he invented a separate condenser that considerably reduced coal consumption and increased efficiency. Watt went on to develop an engine that converted reciprocating motion into rotation, making it applicable to many industrial processes, far beyond the simple pumping of water. From 1780 onwards, with continuous improvements by Watt and others, the steam engine became the engine of industry. It made it possible to synchronise the work of machines, resulting in more predictable and regular production. Workers could now adjust the machine to optimise their working time, and machines could operate day and night, regardless of weather conditions or human or animal muscle power. The impact of the steam engine on industrial society was colossal, not only improving efficiency and reducing costs, but also radically transforming the way work was done and organised. With the development of steam railways and steamships, the steam engine also revolutionised transport, speeding up trade and communication on a previously unimaginable scale.

The role of innovation

The concept of innovation

An invention is the creation of a product or the introduction of a process for the first time. Innovation, however, occurs when this invention is adopted and used to improve existing processes or to create entirely new products or processes, and therefore has an economic or social impact.

The "Baghdad battery", an object discovered that resembles an electrochemical cell and probably dates back more than 2000 years, is an example. If it really were a battery, this discovery would be considered a remarkable invention. However, since we have no evidence that this object was used for practical applications in the society that produced it, it is not considered an innovation in the modern sense of the term.

In the context of the Industrial Revolution, innovation is a key concept. Many inventions, such as James Watt's improved steam engine or James Hargreaves' "Spinning Jenny", met specific needs (such as the need to pump water from mines more efficiently or to produce textiles more quickly) and were adopted on a large scale. These inventions became innovations because they were widely used, integrated into production processes, and had a significant impact on the economy and society as a whole.

The relationship between invention and industrialisation

Before the Industrial Revolution, the increase in demand for manufactured goods led to a shortage of labour in infant industries. This had the effect of increasing the cost of labour, since workers, who were more in demand, had greater bargaining power over their wages. The direct consequence was higher production costs and, consequently, higher prices for consumers. Faced with this situation, entrepreneurs and industrialists had a strong economic interest in finding ways to produce more efficiently. This stimulated innovation and the search for new technologies that could reduce dependence on labour, cut costs and increase production to meet growing demand. Inventions such as the power loom and the steam engine became major innovations in that they were adopted on a large scale, enabling mass production at lower cost. The mechanisation of production processes also enabled goods to be produced in greater quantities and at lower prices, making them accessible to a wider segment of the population, fuelling a virtuous circle of economic growth. This period saw a paradigm shift in which human labour was no longer the main driver of production. Instead, efficiency was achieved through the use of machines, leading to a significant change in the social and economic structures of the time.

The selling price equation, PV (selling price) = Sa (wage) + MP (raw materials) + E (earnings expectancy), takes on particular significance when applied to the English Industrial Revolution. During this period, each component of this equation underwent profound transformations as a result of technological advances and social change. As far as wages (Sa) are concerned, the Industrial Revolution had an ambiguous impact. The increased demand for labour in factories may have led to higher wages for some, while mechanisation has reduced the need for specialist craft skills, putting downward pressure on wages for these trades. However, new skills have become necessary to manage and maintain machinery, creating a changing labour market. The cost of raw materials (RM), meanwhile, has been reduced thanks to more efficient production and transport methods. The development of railways and the mechanisation of mining reduced the price of iron and coal, key components of the emerging industry. Expected income (E) reflects the profits expected from sales. With the increase in mass production, companies could expect high profit margins despite the reduction in unit prices, allowing industrial products to be distributed more widely. Beyond these factors, the Industrial Revolution introduced the importance of capital investment in innovative technologies and the economies of scale achieved through volume production. These factors fundamentally altered the way in which production costs were calculated and managed. So, in the effervescent climate of industrialisation, the formula became more complex. Wages were influenced by the migration of rural workers to industrial towns, raw material costs were lowered by new extraction and processing methods, and income expectations were modulated by increased competition and growing demand resulting from lower selling prices. In addition, the increase in capital costs due to investment in expensive machinery has been offset by faster returns due to increased productivity. Ultimately, economies of scale reduced costs per unit, boosting competitiveness and increasing profits, redefining the economy and society of the time.

In the context of the English Industrial Revolution, if the cost of wages (Sa) and raw materials (MP) is high, companies must either increase the selling price (PV) to maintain their earnings expectation (E), or reduce their profit margin (E) to keep their prices competitive. Since high selling prices can reduce demand for products, companies had a strong incentive to innovate to reduce costs. In the context of the English Industrial Revolution, cost management was crucial for businesses seeking to prosper. High wages and the cost of raw materials posed a dilemma: increase the selling price to preserve profit margins, or reduce those margins to offer competitive prices. Higher prices could have led to lower demand, while lower profit margins could have compromised the viability of the business. Faced with this economic equation, innovation became the key to breaking the deadlock. Technological advances have provided solutions for optimising production. For example, the introduction of new machinery in the textile industry considerably increased production efficiency, reducing dependence on expensive labour and encouraging mass production, which lowered the unit cost of each product. Automation has also played a major role in reducing the need for skilled labour, helping to keep wage costs down. At the same time, improvements in the management and processing of raw materials, such as the replacement of charcoal by coke in iron production, have not only reduced costs but also increased output. These innovations have enabled companies to maintain or lower their selling prices while maintaining an acceptable profit margin. In an increasingly competitive market, with consumers looking for low-cost products, innovation was not only a question of maximising profits but also a necessity for economic survival.

Acceleration in the pace of technological progress

The evolution of technology during the Industrial Revolution perfectly illustrates the dynamic interplay between innovation and the need to overcome practical obstacles. Each new invention could introduce significant changes to production processes, but often these same changes created unexpected challenges which in turn required innovative solutions. This cascade of successive innovations led to progressive gains in efficiency and productivity.

For example, improvements in weaving machines increased demand for yarn, leading to the invention of the "spinning Jenny", a machine capable of spinning large quantities of wool quickly. This innovation itself created an excess of yarn that exceeded weaving capacity, leading to the development of more efficient mechanical looms. Each step in this process not only solved the immediate problem but also paved the way for increases in production capacity and reductions in costs.

The lateral diffusion of innovations is another characteristic phenomenon of this period. Innovations did not remain confined to their field of origin, but crossed industrial sectors, catalysing advances in other areas. The development of the steam engine is a remarkable example. Initially designed to pump water out of mines, the steam engine was adapted to produce rotary motion, paving the way for the design and production of locomotives. This cross-sectoral adaptability of innovations enabled a widespread transformation of industry and transport, changing not only the way products were manufactured and distributed, but also the very structure of the economy and society.

These cumulative innovations and their cross-fertilisation were essential to the modernisation of industry and the creation of new economic structures that characterised the Industrial Revolution. They not only made processes more efficient but also laid the foundations for an industrial and technological society that would continue to evolve long after the end of the classical industrial period.

The factory system

The factory system is one of the fundamental changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. This system marked a decisive turning point in production methods by concentrating manpower, raw materials and machines in single, large establishments: factories. In these factories, in contrast to crafts and home production (the "putting-out system"), work was highly specialised and each worker was assigned a specific task in the production process. This organisation of work, known as the division of labour, led to an exponential increase in productivity. Workers no longer needed to be skilled craftsmen capable of making a product from scratch; instead, they could be trained quickly to perform a specific operation.

The factory system also changed the economic face of society. For the first time, production was freed from the constraints of human or animal muscle power. The steam engine, along with other forms of technology, provided a reliable source of energy that enabled uninterrupted, large-scale production. Moreover, with the centralisation of production, factory owners could exercise more rigid control over the production process and workers. This centralisation led to more systematic management and standardisation of products and working practices. However, the factory system was not without its problems. It was associated with difficult working conditions, long and exhausting working days and strict labour discipline. It was also criticised for dehumanising the worker and for having deleterious social consequences, such as the deterioration of workers' health and the exploitation of children.

Structure and operation of the plant

The Industrial Revolution marked a radical transformation in the way goods were produced and in the living environment of workers. In the past, people lived and worked mainly in rural areas, producing goods at home or in small workshops. This decentralised model of production, known as the domestic system or the production system, was revolutionised by the introduction and improvement of the steam engine. The first steam engines were used to drain water from mines, but they were soon adapted to supply power to other machines in factories. This innovation meant that production could be centralised in large factories, where machines could operate efficiently using a common energy source. The installation and maintenance of expensive steam engines required production to be concentrated in a single location.

This led to a significant transformation in the way work was organised. Workers left their homes and small workshops to work in factories, where they could be supervised more easily and where work was organised in a much more structured way. This centralisation of work in factories led to rapid urbanisation, with workers moving to the towns that grew up around these production centres, which were often located close to energy sources or emerging transport networks. The impact on workers was profound. They had to adapt to a life no longer governed by natural cycles, but by the strict timetables imposed by the operation of the factories. Productivity increased dramatically with the use of steam-powered machines, reducing the time needed to produce goods.

These changes were not without their difficulties. Workers faced difficult conditions, public health in overcrowded urban areas deteriorated and cities were often unhealthy. Nevertheless, this concentration of production and labour enabled economies of scale and innovations that transformed the global economy, laying the foundations for contemporary economic growth and prosperity.

Introduction of industrial discipline

The Industrial Revolution brought about a major change in the way work was organised. Under the previous system, workers had a great deal of leeway over their working hours, with a less restrictive structure that allowed them to adapt their work to their personal lives and to the seasons. However, this flexibility was no longer possible with the introduction of factories.

With the birth of these large industrial facilities, workers had to adapt to a much more rigid working environment. Discipline became a central aspect of production for several key reasons. Firstly, steam engines and other expensive tools needed to be used continuously to be profitable, implying the need for a workforce that was constantly present and operational. Secondly, the factory work process required meticulous coordination of tasks, each worker being a link in a mass production chain. The absence or delay of a single worker could throw the whole system out of balance. Thirdly, mass production depended on uniformity and predictability, which required workers to follow standardised procedures to ensure the homogeneity of the end products.

To ensure this discipline, factories introduced strict working hours and precise rules for breaks, with surveillance systems to monitor employees' hours of attendance. Late arrivals and absences were often punished by fines, and the whole working environment was designed to maximise efficiency and output.

This transition to strict work discipline was a trial for many workers who were used to greater freedom. Friction between employees and bosses was commonplace, and the adjustment to industrial life was accompanied by tensions and struggles for workers' rights. Adjusting to the new rhythms imposed by industrialisation and the demands of the factories took time and profoundly transformed society.

Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England

The Industrial Revolution, which began in England towards the end of the 18th century, was a major turning point in human history. This period saw the emergence of new technologies that overturned traditional production methods, particularly in sectors such as textiles, metallurgy and later chemicals and transport. Technological innovations were the driving force behind this change. The development of the steam engine by James Watt, the creation of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves, and the introduction of the puddling process for the production of purer iron by Henry Cort are just a few examples of the technological advances that fuelled this transformation. These inventions enabled faster production on a larger scale, reducing the cost of goods and changing working methods. In economic terms, the Industrial Revolution led to the creation of new types of businesses and industries, and to the concentration of production in ever-larger factories, known as the "factory system". This concentration of production led to economies of scale and a spectacular increase in productive efficiency. Socially, it led to a massive displacement of the population. Farm workers and craftsmen, whose trades had been rendered obsolete by the new machines, migrated to the cities to work in the factories, resulting in rapid and often unplanned urbanisation. It also gave rise to a new social class: the working class, who lived in often precarious conditions and worked long hours. The Industrial Revolution also had a major impact on the environment, with increased pollution and greater exploitation of natural resources. It laid the foundations for modern economic growth, but also raised questions about sustainable development and social equity that are still relevant today. The Industrial Revolution was not simply a period of technical change, but a profound transformation of society as a whole that redefined economic, social and even political structures on a scale never before seen.

The Industrial Revolution found a particularly favourable breeding ground in England, thanks to a combination of factors that worked harmoniously together to catalyse this radical change. It had abundant reserves of coal and iron, essential for powering new machinery and industrial production. At the same time, a rapidly expanding population provided an abundant workforce for factories and a growing market for manufactured goods. Technological advances were also booming, with a series of inventions transforming industries such as textiles and energy production. This spirit of innovation was underpinned by relatively easy access to capital and a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit, enabling innovations to grow rapidly into successful businesses. Added to this, political stability and a well-established legal system provided a secure environment for investment and protection for innovation through patent systems. The reach of the British Empire, meanwhile, opened up distant markets for manufactured goods while ensuring a steady flow of raw materials. In addition, a culture favourable to scientific progress and the practical application of knowledge further promoted technical innovation. A social structure that allowed a degree of mobility gave rise to a new class of skilled workers and managers, essential to the running of industrial enterprises. Finally, investment in infrastructure such as canal networks and railways greatly improved logistics, making the transport of raw materials and finished goods more efficient. All these elements converged to establish England as the cradle of this revolution, which subsequently spread far beyond its borders.

A consumer revolution in the 18th century: 1700 - 1760

The emergence of a new desire to consume

The emergence of a growing desire to consume goods is a phenomenon that accompanied and stimulated the Industrial Revolution. In the 18th century, as the population grew and incomes gradually improved, demand for manufactured goods began to rise.

Before mechanisation transformed production, this increased demand was met by traditional methods of work, such as the "putting-out system", where craftsmen worked in their homes or in small workshops, producing goods that had not yet been rationalised by machines. This economic growth without productivity gains meant that more people were needed to produce the same quantity of goods, since output per worker remained relatively stable without the help of mechanisation. This created pressure on available resources, particularly labour and raw materials. The imbalance between growing demand and stagnant production capacity encouraged investors and entrepreneurs to look for ways to increase productivity. This led to the adoption of new technologies, such as spinning and weaving machines, which could produce far more efficiently than manual methods. As a result, the first innovations of the Industrial Revolution were mainly geared towards satisfying this growing desire for consumption. The mechanisation and centralisation of production in factories made it possible to produce goods in greater quantities and at lower cost, thereby meeting market demand while increasing productivity and stimulating economic growth.

The growth in consumption in 18th-century Britain can be seen as the result of the expansion of maritime trade. British naval power provided regular and secure access to a wide range of exotic products. These goods, which had previously been reserved for an elite, began to circulate more widely and stimulate curiosity and desire among the general population. What's more, consumption began to be democratised, extending beyond the upper classes to reach a wider audience. People could now afford to buy objects that symbolised status and membership of a certain social class. Documents such as after-death inventories reveal that people owned more personal items than ever before, including fashion and recent clothing, reflecting a general increase in consumption and interest in material goods. At the same time, the industrial revolution brought with it technological advances that revolutionised the production of goods. Products such as clothing became cheaper and more accessible, encouraging more frequent replacement and increased consumption. These innovations not only made consumption more accessible, but also encouraged further innovation to meet growing demand. The era was also characterised by a shift in social values and individual aspirations. Personal success and the ability to consume became markers of social position, prompting a wide variety of individuals to seek to improve their quality of life through the purchase of goods. In this way, the industrial revolution and consumer culture reinforced each other, creating a virtuous cycle of demand and innovation that contributed to Britain's sustained economic growth during this period.

Birth of a consumer-driven economy

Another interesting facet of the Industrial Revolution is the evolution of commercial practices and the birth of mass consumption in 18th-century England. Traditional trade, based on peddling, which involved itinerant sellers carrying their wares from village to village, began to change. The emergence of the fixed shop and the sedentary commercial space marked a significant turning point in the way we sell and consume. Shops with large windows, which were a novelty at the time, offered an attractive spectacle that captivated the eyes of passers-by. These windows were meticulously organised to present goods in an attractive and aesthetic way, playing on the desires and aspirations of potential customers. This was a departure from the direct, functional approach of peddling, introducing an element of spectacle and desire into the act of buying. Advertising, in its various emerging forms, played a crucial role in this new consumer culture. It began to influence consumers' choices by making them believe they needed products they had not previously considered. Print ads, billboards and even product demonstrations were all used to encourage purchases. At the same time, the emergence of new leisure activities and the structuring of time around moments of relaxation also played a role in changing consumer behaviour. Sunday walks after mass, for example, provided an opportunity to socialise and stroll around, turning a visit to the shops into a pastime in itself. This helped to normalise and further integrate consumerism into people's daily lives. These developments contributed to the birth of a consumer society in England, where the acquisition of goods became an integral part of culture and lifestyle, going far beyond the satisfaction of basic needs to encompass a dimension of pleasure, social status and personal identity.

Major social changes in 18th-century Britain

The evolution of values in England during the Industrial Revolution reflects a profound change in social priorities and cultural attitudes. As society was transformed by advances in technology and industry, the notion of progress itself began to be rethought in material terms. The importance attached to traditional religious and moral values began to decline in favour of an appreciation of tangible benefits and material well-being. Economic success and the accumulation of wealth became indicators of progress and social status. In this new framework of values, individual and collective success was often measured by the ability to consume, own and improve the material comforts of life. This association between progress and material well-being had significant implications for society. For example, dressing in fashionable clothes or improving the insulation and comfort of homes were no longer just ways of meeting practical needs, but also symbols of status and personal achievement. This encouraged the adoption of innovative technologies and the constant search for improvements in the production of consumer goods. The consumer mentality that developed during this period was fuelled by the belief that material progress was not only desirable but also a right. This led to a culture where the pursuit of progress was intrinsically linked to the acquisition of material goods, influencing the motivations behind technological innovation and shaping the trajectory of industrial society. Ultimately, this shift in value system played a key role in the dynamics of the Industrial Revolution, motivating economic expansion and profoundly influencing the evolution of social and economic structures in modern England and, by extension, across the globe.

The eighteenth century marked a period of significant social transformation, particularly in England where the rigidities of feudal structures began to loosen. The rise of the bourgeoisie, a social class made up of individuals who derived their status from their wealth and their role in commerce and industry, changed the way in which social status was perceived and acquired. In pre-industrial society, the nobility was at the top of the social hierarchy, and status was mainly inherited. However, with the economic upheavals of the Industrial Revolution, the wealth generated by commerce and the new industries began to offer routes up the social ladder that had not been possible before. Successful entrepreneurs, merchants and industrialists began to acquire goods and a lifestyle that had previously been the preserve of the nobility. In England, the nobility also reacted to these changes, as shown by their interest in agricultural improvement and agronomy, investing in areas that contributed to economic development. Increased social fluidity allowed those who succeeded in business to imitate the outward appearances of the nobility, adopting their lifestyle, their clothes and even their hobbies. Social status thus began to be influenced by economic success and the ability to consume and display outward signs of wealth. This trend was even more marked in the American colonies, where class distinctions were less entrenched and economic opportunity was often seen as a means of establishing a new social status. Indeed, in the United States, the promise of democracy and equality of opportunity was rooted in a context where social status could be acquired through individual achievement rather than through birth. The boundaries between social classes were more permeable, allowing for greater social mobility. This led to cases where certain individuals from the nobility were prepared to give up their hereditary title in order to participate in this new world of opportunities based on personal merit and economic success. The fluidity of society was thus a driving force behind social and economic change, contributing to the emergence of a capitalist dynamic where wealth and industrial innovation redefined power structures and hierarchies.

Production up 60% between 1700 and 1760

The period from 1700 to 1760 marked the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in England and was characterised by significant advances that paved the way for the major changes to come. The 60% increase in production during this period illustrates the acceleration of industrial activity and the growing efficiency of manufacturing processes. The adoption of the steam engine, developed by Thomas Newcomen around 1712 and improved by James Watt later in the century, played a crucial role. Although the first steam engines were mainly used to pump water from mines, they laid the foundations for their future use as a source of energy in industrial production. Indeed, the steam engine became an emblematic symbol of the Industrial Revolution, enabling increased automation and the mechanisation of many manufacturing processes. The factory system also contributed to this increase in production. By centralising workers and machines in large complexes, it was possible to specialise and rationalise production, increasing the quantity and consistency of goods produced. This specialisation made it possible to exploit economies of scale and reduce production costs, making products more accessible to a growing population. In addition, improvements in transport infrastructure, such as the construction of canals and the development of roads, facilitated the movement of raw materials to factories and the distribution of finished goods to local and international markets. These innovations in transport have reduced the time and costs associated with distribution, enabling British-made products to become competitive on the world market. These technological and organisational transformations contributed to sustained economic growth in England, laying the foundations for the industrial expansion that would characterise the second half of the 18th century. This period was therefore a pivotal moment when the foundations of a modern industrial economy were laid, marking the beginning of an era of progress and innovation that would transform the world.

High salaries

The increase in production during the English Industrial Revolution was accompanied by a growth in the workforce employed in the new industrial sectors. This increased demand for workers put upward pressure on wages due to the principles of supply and demand: a high demand for workers in a context of limited supply naturally tends to drive up wages. As wages rose, workers and their families had more means to consume, contributing to the gradual enrichment of the "little people" or working classes. This increased consumption in turn fuelled demand for manufactured goods, stimulating production and industrial innovation. However, this rise in wages had a secondary effect: it encouraged factory owners and entrepreneurs to look for ways to reduce production costs in order to maintain or increase their profit margins. Mechanisation appeared to be the obvious solution for achieving this objective. By replacing manual labour, which was becoming increasingly expensive, with machines, companies could produce goods faster, in greater quantities and at a lower cost. This substitution of capital (machines) for labour led to what is often referred to as the 'second phase' of the Industrial Revolution, which was marked by an even greater rise in mechanisation and automation in production. This had long-term consequences for the structure of employment and the skills required of the workforce. Workers had to adapt to new working methods, often more rigorous and repetitive, in an industrial environment. These changes also led to social tensions, as while some sectors of society became richer as a result of industrialisation, others saw their traditional way of life disrupted, with increased competition and downward pressure on wages in some manual trades as a result of automation.

Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe?

The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe can be attributed to a number of interrelated factors. Firstly, access to abundant resources such as coal and iron was essential, as these materials provided the basis for the creation and improvement of new technologies, propelling industrial development. In addition, Europe benefited from a steadily growing population, an inexhaustible source of labour for fledgling factories and a market for manufactured goods. Europe also had a rich tradition of innovation and a thriving entrepreneurial spirit, elements that have always stimulated the discovery and application of new techniques and knowledge. This fertile atmosphere for progress was reinforced by dynamic educational and research institutions. Finally, a stable political and economic framework has fostered the industrial revolution by providing an environment conducive to business and investment. Stable governments, well-established legal systems and a business-friendly environment enabled infant industries to develop and take risks, often with the support of government policies and dedicated infrastructure. In this way, Europe became the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, laying the foundations for a profound and long-lasting change in industrial production, work and society as a whole.

Sense of superiority and open-mindedness

Karl Marx's historical analysis of Asian and European societies is complex and forms part of a wider set of theories on socio-economic development and historical change. Marx addressed the issue of ethnocentrism and feelings of superiority in the European context, examining how these attitudes might have influenced European behaviour during the colonial era and imperial expansion. It is true that for much of European history, Christianity provided a homogenising cultural and ideological framework, particularly during the period when the Catholic Church dominated religiously and politically. This may have contributed to a sense of superiority and a strong sense of collective identity, particularly in relation to other civilisations. The expulsion of Jews and Muslims during and after the Middle Ages (as in Spain at the end of the 15th century), for example, was partly due to a desire for religious and political unity that ultimately fuelled the ideology of Christian 'purity'. Nevertheless, Europe was far from monolithic, and denominational differences, particularly after the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, led to centuries of religious conflict and diversity within Europe itself. These conflicts and competition between nation states and denominational powers may also have stimulated innovation and expansion overseas, as each sought to extend its influence and wealth. European openness - the curiosity and desire to discover and exploit new territories and resources - was another key factor in European expansion and the development of the Industrial Revolution. This combination of ethnocentrism and the desire to explore led European nations to sail to new continents, establish colonies and begin the process of global trade that would be a precursor to the modern world economy. Marx's thesis of Christian unity as the basis for a sense of superiority is therefore part of a much wider analysis and should not be seen as a complete or exclusive explanation of the historical complexities of the time.

In his work, David Landes has put forward the idea that certain cultural and technological elements, such as the alphabet, may have played a role in Europe's ability to progress technologically and economically. According to this view, the phonetic alphabet, which required the memorisation of a relatively small number of characters compared with the ideographic systems used in East Asia, facilitated the spread of reading and writing skills, thereby contributing to a wider dissemination of knowledge and innovation. As for the influence of Protestantism, thinkers such as Max Weber have suggested that certain forms of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinist ethic, encouraged literacy and a certain form of asceticism conducive to the accumulation of capital, which would have favoured the development of entrepreneurship and modern capitalism. The situation in Japan is different, but not necessarily an insurmountable obstacle to industrialisation. The Japanese writing system is complex, combining three sets of characters: kanji (characters borrowed from Chinese), hiragana and katakana (two syllabaries unique to Japanese). However, the basic teaching of these characters was systematised from an early age in Japan, enabling widespread literacy. In addition, the Meiji era in Japan (1868-1912) was marked by a series of reforms aimed at modernising the country along Western lines, which included extensive educational reforms. Japan's industrialisation occurred rapidly thanks to a series of deliberate state policies, the adoption of foreign technologies, and heavy investment in education and workforce training. The Meiji government encouraged the learning and practice of Western technical and scientific skills, while retaining and adapting aspects of Japan's traditional culture and systems, leading to a unique blend that fostered industrialisation. It is therefore important to recognise that while certain cultural factors can influence the development of a society, they do not in themselves determine the success or failure of industrialisation. Strategic government policies, adaptive institutions, and the ability to assimilate and innovate from foreign technologies and ideas are also essential factors.

Access to energy sources

The availability and use of reliable and powerful energy sources undoubtedly played a pivotal role in Europe's industrial revolution. Indeed, before the industrial era, economies were primarily based on agriculture and human or animal labour. With the Industrial Revolution, there was a fundamental change in the way energy was obtained and used, enabling mass production and unprecedented efficiency. Water was one of the first sources of energy used to industrialise production, thanks to the invention of water mills and water wheels. These technologies used the kinetic energy of running water to power various machines in the textile industries, for example. The steam engine then revolutionised this energy paradigm. Invented in the early 18th century and perfected by engineers such as James Watt, the steam engine made it possible to harness the energy of coal, a resource that was abundant in Europe at the time, particularly in Great Britain. This source of energy allowed greater flexibility in the location of factories, because unlike waterwheels, steam engines did not need to be located near a source of running water. As the Industrial Revolution developed, coal became the fuel of choice, not only for steam engines, but also for the new heating and power generation technologies that were developed in the late 19th century. Later, with the discovery and exploitation of oil, another dense and transportable energy source became available, supporting the continuing expansion of industrialisation. Access to these energy sources, and the ability to harness them efficiently, were key to keeping Europe at the forefront of industrial innovation for several centuries. The energy revolution that accompanied the industrial era not only facilitated mass production, but also stimulated the development of new industries and transport, and had a profound impact on the social and economic structures of European societies.

Climatic and geographical influences

The Industrial Revolution unfolded differently across Europe, shaped by the unique geographical, economic and cultural conditions of each region. In Britain, France, Switzerland and Germany, a variety of factors played a part in the development of industry. Britain is often regarded as the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, largely due to its vast coal reserves and easy access to iron. For example, the coal mines of Wales and the north of England provided the essential fuel for James Watt's steam engine. The iron deposits of the Midlands enabled steel to be produced in large quantities, thanks in particular to the puddling process improved by Henry Cort. In addition, the country's island geography stimulated a flourishing shipbuilding industry, supported by advances such as Robert Fulton's steamship. This mastery of the seas facilitated not only foreign trade but also the ability to import raw materials and export finished products.

In France, the industrial revolution was more gradual. Although it also had coal reserves, such as those in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais coalfield, and iron reserves in Lorraine, its industrial development was held back by the political upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Nevertheless, regions such as Normandy saw the emergence of textile industries, and Lyon became an important centre for silk. The invention of the Jacquard loom by Joseph Marie Jacquard modernised textile production, demonstrating France's technical ingenuity. Switzerland, despite its lack of natural resources compared with its neighbours, has excelled in fields requiring great technical skill and little need for raw resources. Watchmaking, for example, has become a renowned industry in the cantons of Neuchâtel and Geneva. The precision and quality of Swiss watches was unrivalled, reflecting the emphasis placed on technical training and precision craftsmanship. Germany experienced a later industrial revolution, but was notable for its emphasis on scientific research and development. The Ruhr coal deposits fuelled a powerful steel industry, and the chemical industry also took off with companies like BASF. Germany's technical universities (Technische Universitäten) produced a generation of engineers and inventors who contributed to rapid mechanisation and technological innovation.

In each of these regions, the unique combination of resources, skills, innovations and economic conditions shaped the development of the Industrial Revolution. The ability of these countries to adapt, invest and innovate was crucial to their respective industrial transformations.

Political fragmentation and competition

Columbus and Queen Isabella I of Castile depicted on a monument in the Plaza de Colón in Madrid.

The late Middle Ages and the Renaissance saw Europe fragment into a patchwork of political territories, leading to intense rivalry between the emerging nations. This competition served as a catalyst for exploration and innovation, laying the foundations for what would become the Industrial Revolution and European colonial expansion.

Karl Marx, in his historical analysis, often discussed the limitations inherent in autocratic and centralised societies, such as those found in the Chinese Empire. He postulated that these rigid political structures stifled innovation and inevitably led to their own decline. In contrast, he saw the competitive dynamism of European states as a driver of change and progress. This competition was evident in the field of geographical discovery, where monarchs were keen to fund expeditions to increase their prestige and extend their influence. The case of Christopher Columbus is exemplary: after being rejected by Portugal, he won the support of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Isabella's intention was not only to extend the domain of the Spanish crown, but also to gain a strategic and economic advantage over her European rivals, notably Portugal, which had already established a sea route to India around Africa.

The desire to outdo rivals also stimulated technological development. European armies were constantly evolving, seeking more effective weapons and better fortifications. This climate of competition also spurred research in the fields of navigation and cartography, essential to maritime exploration and domination. The competitive dynamics of nation-states also led to the establishment of trading companies with royal monopolies, such as the British East India Company or the Dutch East India Company, both of which played crucial roles in establishing global trade networks and accumulating wealth, propelling their respective countries into a new era of industrial and colonial expansion. This inter-state competition was a key factor in Europe's emergence as a global power centre in the modern period, profoundly shaping the economic and political trajectories of the region and the world as a whole.

Impact of colonial expansion

The great maritime discoveries, which began at the end of the 15th century, paved the way for an era of early globalisation, often characterised by triangular trade. This proved to be a powerful engine for the economic development of Europe. The triangular trade involved three main regions: Europe, Africa and the Americas. European ships sailed to Africa where they traded manufactured goods for slaves. These slaves were then transported across the Atlantic in inhumane conditions to the Americas as part of the sinister "Middle Passage". In the New World, slaves were sold and the products of their forced labour, such as sugar, cotton, tobacco and later coffee, were transported to Europe. The profits from these sales were often reinvested in the production of manufactured goods, fuelling the growth of European industry. This period also saw the introduction to Europe of agricultural crops from the Americas, such as potatoes, tomatoes and maize, which transformed European diets and contributed to an increase in population. In return, the Europeans introduced horses, cattle and diseases to which the native populations had no immunity, causing demographic disasters.

The triangular trade had a considerable impact on the development of Europe. Not only did it generate enormous profits for European traders and financiers, it also stimulated the development of key sectors such as shipbuilding, banking, insurance and, in some regions, manufacturing. In addition, the accumulated capital financed technological advances and provided the means for industrial expansion. However, it is essential to recognise the immense human cost of this period. The slave trade brought incalculable suffering and death to millions of Africans, and European colonisation of the Americas led to the systematic destruction of indigenous cultures and the disappearance of entire populations. The prosperity gained through these unequal exchanges laid the foundations for Europe's economic and industrial ascendancy, but it also left a legacy of injustice and division that continues to influence international relations and world politics today.

The industrialisation of Switzerland provides a fascinating example that challenges some common assumptions about the preconditions for the Industrial Revolution. With no colonial empire and no direct access to the sea, Switzerland nevertheless managed to position itself as one of the most developed economies in Europe thanks to several key factors. Switzerland's political stability and policy of neutrality have enabled it to avoid the excessive costs associated with conflict and to concentrate on economic development. This has been complemented by a commitment to education and training, creating a highly skilled and innovative workforce. Swiss innovations in fields such as precision engineering and watchmaking laid the foundations for what was to become a tradition of high technology. In terms of resources, Switzerland was able to harness its water resources for energy, which was essential in the early stages of its industrial development. Its strategic position at the heart of Europe also facilitated dynamic trade relations with powerful neighbouring nations. Switzerland's financial sector also became a pillar of the economy, providing the capital needed for industrial investment both inside and outside the country. This capital helped to finance not only domestic industry but also to create international opportunities. Finally, Switzerland has intelligently targeted niche industrial sectors, focusing on quality and cutting-edge technology rather than raw materials or production volume. Swiss watchmaking, for example, has become synonymous with precision and quality, reaffirming that industrial success can be achieved through specialisation rather than colonial expansion or maritime trade. The history of Swiss industrialisation thus demonstrates that the path to industrial development can take many forms, and is influenced by a unique mix of social, economic and political factors tailored to the particular context of each country.

Is the industrial revolution inevitable?

The Industrial Revolution, the beginning of which can be seen in England, occurred as a result of a convergence of favourable circumstances. Eighteenth-century England enjoyed remarkable political stability and robust financial institutions, notably its established central bank, which created an environment conducive to investment and enterprise. The enclosure movement had also reshaped the agricultural landscape, freeing up a workforce that would feed the cities and the first factories. This transformation was underpinned by the abundance of resources such as coal and iron, which were crucial to the manufacture of machinery and the emergence of the railways. Technical advances, such as James Watt's improvement of the steam engine, reinforced this dynamic by enabling mechanised production. Investment in industrialisation was also stimulated by the wealth derived from England's colonial empire and the supremacy of its merchant navy. England also benefited from legislation conducive to business development, a vast domestic market, and an ever-improving transport network that facilitated internal trade. At the same time, a tenacious entrepreneurial culture, supported by a patent system that encouraged innovation and a tradition of economic freedom, paved the way for major advances. By contrast, Spain at the same time faced a number of obstacles that held back its industrial momentum. The abundance of gold and silver from the colonies paradoxically distracted attention from the need for internal innovation and industrial investment. Agricultural productivity stagnated and did not drive people to the cities as it did in England. Periods of political instability and conflict also hampered the long-term investment essential for successful industrialisation. What's more, a strict mercantilist framework often limited private initiative and free trade, which were essential to the entrepreneurial spirit. Thus, the Industrial Revolution in England was not a historical certainty, but rather the result of a complex tangle of socio-economic and political factors that shaped a particularly fertile path for industrial change, a path that was not so clear for Spain or other European nations at the time.

Towards the second half of the 18th century, England underwent a meteoric economic metamorphosis, often referred to as the Industrial Revolution. This transformation, which began around 1760, became firmly established in the space of a few decades. By 1800, England had not only reshaped its own industrial and economic landscape, but had also laid the foundations for a phenomenon that would spread to the rest of Europe. British industrialisation, with its host of technological innovations, began to be exported to neighbouring nations such as France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. Each country adapted these new methods to its particular context, resulting in a period of significant economic growth and social change across the continent. However, the first wave of the Industrial Revolution did not immediately spread beyond Europe to other parts of the world. Societies in Asia, Africa and the Americas were affected differently, often indirectly, by European colonial empires. Europe, with its technological advances and increased economic power, established a dominance that was to widen the gap with other regions of the globe. This divide has had profound repercussions on global development, influencing the economic, political and social trajectories of societies far beyond Europe's borders. The consequences of this dynamic are complex and still visible in contemporary international relations. Industrialisation has created an increasingly interconnected world, while accentuating the disparities between industrialised and non-industrialised nations.

Debated theory: a pioneering agricultural revolution?

To some extent, the Industrial Revolution can be seen as an agricultural revolution. The Industrial Revolution was marked by a shift from manual labour to machine production, and this had a major impact on agriculture too. The development of new technologies, such as mechanised ploughs and threshers, increased the productivity and efficiency of agriculture. The growth of the transport network, including the construction of roads, canals and railways, has also made it easier to transport agricultural produce to market, helping to boost agricultural trade. In addition, the population growth that accompanied the Industrial Revolution created a greater demand for food, which further stimulated the development of agriculture. Overall, the Industrial Revolution had a significant impact on agriculture, and can be considered an agricultural revolution in this sense.

Gradual disappearance of fallow land

The Industrial Revolution is intrinsically linked to parallel changes in agriculture, which has led some historians to refer to it as the 'Agricultural Revolution'. Technological innovation led to considerable improvements in agricultural production methods, increasing productivity and reducing the need for a large workforce in the countryside. One example of this is the improvement of agricultural implements such as the plough, which has been enhanced by the use of new materials such as iron and steel. Inventions such as Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill, combine harvesters and crop rotation systems also played a key role in this transformation. Improvements in animal husbandry through the systematic selection of species also helped to increase the availability of meat, milk and wool. In addition, the agricultural revolution freed up part of the rural population, who migrated to the cities to work in factories, fuelling urban and industrial growth. The development of more efficient transport infrastructures also facilitated the transport of agricultural surpluses to urban markets, encouraging the development of trade and the expansion of the economy. However, this transition was not without negative consequences. It has led to the enclosure of communal land, forcing many small farmers to abandon their land and seek work in the city. What's more, the transition to more intensive farming also sometimes degraded the environment, a phenomenon that continued and intensified with the agricultural modernisation of the twentieth century. The industrial revolution and the agricultural revolution were two facets of the same modernisation process, which reshaped society, the economy and the environment in profound and lasting ways.

Advances in agronomy and technical innovations in agriculture

The nobility's interest in agronomy during the Industrial Revolution was a key factor in agricultural innovation. This period was marked by a scientific and practical drive to improve agricultural productivity. Progressive nobles and landowners began to adopt and develop new agricultural techniques and practices. This included not only improved tools and machinery, but also the application of science to the selection and breeding of farm animals. In England, for example, this was the era of the "agricultural improvers" or "gentlemen farmers", who were noblemen or wealthy men who took a personal interest in the advancement of agriculture. Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) is a prominent example of one of these improvers. He was one of the first to apply systematic selection methods to improve livestock breeds. In particular, he developed the Leicester Longwool breed of sheep, which produced more meat and wool than traditional breeds. He also worked on cattle, creating more productive breeds for milk and meat. This kind of innovation had major economic and social repercussions. The increased availability of cheap meat and wool fuelled trade and industry, such as the woolen mills that were essential to the burgeoning textile industry. Similarly, increased milk production had an impact on the diets of growing urban populations. These agronomic experiments were part of a wider 'Enclosure' movement, where common land was fenced off and converted into more productive, privately managed farms. This often had devastating effects on the peasants who lost their traditional rights to the land, but it also boosted the efficiency of agricultural production, helping to fuel the Industrial Revolution.

Elite transformation and peasant evolution

The age of the gentleman farmer

Gentleman farmers were an essential part of the evolution of agriculture during the Industrial Revolution, and their influence often extended far beyond their own estates. Their approach to farming often combined a passion for innovation and improvement with the resources to experiment with and implement new techniques. These wealthy landowners played a pioneering role by investing in the research and development of improved farming practices, such as land sanitation, crop rotation and selective breeding. Their experiments led to a significant increase in agricultural productivity, which in turn helped free up labour for the rapidly growing factories in the cities, a central feature of the Industrial Revolution. However, this period of change was not without its critics. The enclosure movement, for example, has often been associated with gentlemen farmers. This practice involved transforming common land, over which many small farmers had grazing and cultivation rights, into private property for more intensive farming. Although this increased the efficiency of agricultural production, it also displaced many farmers, contributing to rural distress and forced urbanisation. Over time, with the advent of scientific agriculture and large-scale commercial farming in the 19th and 20th centuries, the gentleman farming tradition lost its importance as a driving force for agricultural innovation. Nevertheless, the legacy of gentleman farming remains in modern farming practices, and its role in the agricultural revolution that accompanied and supported the Industrial Revolution remains an important subject of study for economic historians.

Proto-industrialisation refers to a phase prior to the Industrial Revolution proper, characterised by a type of small-scale, dispersed production, often carried out within the framework of the so-called "domestic system" or "putting-out system". In this system, craftsmen, who could be weavers, spinners, blacksmiths or workers in other traditional trades, carried out part of the industrial production from their homes or small-scale workshops. These proto-industrial craftsmen often lived in rural areas and farmed at a subsistence level or slightly above, supplementing their income with their industrial work. They were not solely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, which made them less vulnerable to crop failures and variations in agricultural prices. However, they were not entirely dependent on income from industrial work either, giving them a degree of economic resilience. Their industrial work often involved the production of textile goods, which were in high demand at the time. Merchants or entrepreneurs supplied the raw materials - wool, linen, cotton - and placed orders with craftsmen, who transformed them into textile products in their homes. The merchants then collected the finished products to sell on local markets or for export. This model facilitated the transition to industrialisation by creating a skilled workforce and getting merchants used to investing in production and managing complex distribution networks. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the introduction of machinery, many proto-industrial practices were integrated into larger, more mechanised production systems. Factories gradually replaced home-based work, radically transforming the European economy and society.

The Jenny spinning machine, invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, marked a decisive turning point in the history of textile production. This manual spinning machine could do the work of several traditional spinners at once, radically transforming the efficiency and economy of yarn production. With the introduction of the spinning Jenny and other technological innovations such as Richard Arkwright's water frame and Samuel Crompton's mule-jenny, textile production capacity increased dramatically. These machines could produce finer, stronger yarns much more quickly than hand spinners. This increase in efficiency lowered production costs and increased the amount of fabric available on the market. The craftsmen and spinners who worked at home as part of the domestic system simply couldn't compete with the machines that produced more and at lower cost. Many went bankrupt or were forced to find work in the new factories in order to survive. These changes contributed to the migration of workers from the countryside to the cities, giving rise to an urban working class and large-scale industrialisation. This socio-economic upheaval was not without consequences. It led to a period of hardship and social unrest for many former craftsmen and their families. Resistance to these changes manifested itself in movements such as the Luddites, who were craftsmen who destroyed the machines they believed were responsible for the loss of their jobs. However, despite the resistance, industrialisation continued, leading to the modern age of industry and technology.

The enclosure process

A deed of enclosure dating from 1793.

The phenomenon known as enclosures in England was particularly marked in the 18th and 19th centuries and had a profound effect on the social and economic structure of the English countryside. The enclosure movement involved the consolidation of common land, previously open to all members of a parish for grazing and cultivation, into separate private holdings. The nobility and large landowners, often taking advantage of the Enclosure Acts, 'enclosed' these lands, establishing their exclusive right of ownership and using them for more intensive and commercial farming. This process led to the expropriation of many small farmers, who lost not only their land but also their traditional means of subsistence. The social consequences of this movement were dramatic. Many of these landless peasants, deprived of their traditional means of subsistence, were forced to migrate to the cities in search of work, thus supplying the workforce needed for the nascent industrial revolution. The influx of these workers into urban areas greatly increased the supply of labour, allowing factory owners to charge low wages as demand for jobs far exceeded supply. This also led to precarious working conditions and the creation of urban slums where workers often lived in miserable conditions. The Prince of Wales, and later other members of the British Royal Family, accumulated large tracts of land during this period, which became a significant part of the Crown's wealth. These lands, managed today by the Duchy of Cornwall and the Duchy of Lancaster, are still important sources of income for the Royal Family. The enclosure of common land was a key factor in the acceleration of industrialisation, as it freed up labour for factories, changed farming practices and transformed the social structure of the British countryside.

Will Kymlicka, in his 1999 book Theories of Justice: An Introduction, notes that "In seventeenth-century England, there was a movement towards the enclosure (private appropriation) of land formerly held by the community and accessible to all. On these lands (the "commons"), anyone could exercise the right to graze, gather wood, etc. Private appropriation of the commons led to the fortunes of some and the loss of resources of others, who were now deprived of any means of subsistence". The practice of enclosure, which accelerated during the agricultural revolution that preceded the industrial revolution, brought about profound changes in the structures of property ownership and in the organisation of English society at the time. The "commons" were lands on which members of a community could rely for essential resources. When these lands were enclosed and turned into private property, it often benefited those in positions of power or wealth, who could afford to buy and enclose the land, while the small peasants and rural workers who depended on these commons for their survival were left destitute. The effects of enclosures were not limited to the deprivation of resources for the poor. It also changed the dynamics of work in England, forcing many people to become agricultural wage labourers for the new landowners or to move to the cities, becoming the workforce for the factories and businesses of the industrial age. This displacement also played a role in the creation of an urban working class, and by extension, in the political and social changes that accompanied the Industrial Revolution.