Version du 5 décembre 2023 à 16:11

根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编^[1]^[2]

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地结构与乡村社会：前工业化时期欧洲农民分析 ● 旧政体的人口制度：平衡状态 ● 十八世纪社会经济结构的演变：从旧制度到现代性 ● 英国工业革命的起源和原因] ● 工业革命的结构机制 ● 工业革命在欧洲大陆的传播 ● 欧洲以外的工业革命：美国和日本 ● 工业革命的社会成本 ● 第一次全球化周期阶段的历史分析 ● 各国市场的动态和产品贸易的全球化 ● 全球移民体系的形成 ● 货币市场全球化的动态和影响：英国和法国的核心作用 ● 工业革命时期社会结构和社会关系的变革 ● 第三世界的起源和殖民化的影响 ● 第三世界的失败与障碍 ● 不断变化的工作方法：十九世纪末至二十世纪中叶不断演变的生产关系 ● 西方经济的黄金时代：辉煌三十年（1945-1973 年） ● 变化中的世界经济：1973-2007 年 ● 福利国家的挑战 ● 围绕殖民化：对发展的担忧和希望 ● 断裂的时代：国际经济的挑战与机遇 ● 全球化与 "第三世界 "的发展模式

克里斯托弗-哥伦布带着两面印有绿色十字架的白色旗帜和一面印有阿拉贡的费迪南德二世和卡斯蒂利亚的伊莎贝拉的首字母 F 和 Y 的黄色旗帜抵达美洲。

第三世界的历史源于欧洲殖民化的深入，这是一个重新定义全球地缘政治格局的时代。这一时期始于 1492 年克里斯托弗-哥伦布抵达美洲，跨越了几个世纪和几大洲，给世界各地的国家和文化留下了不可磨灭的印记。在美洲，殖民化给土著社会带来了巨大的动荡，在欧洲统治的影响下，土著社会发生了翻天覆地的变化。在亚洲，殖民存在主要形成于 19 世纪，其特点是建立贸易站和保护国，从而改变了地区的商业和政治动态。在非洲，殖民化重新划分了边界，并重新构建了撒哈拉以南和以北的社会和经济结构。

与此同时，奴隶贸易，包括跨大西洋奴隶贸易和东部奴隶贸易，对非洲人口造成了破坏性影响。这一现象不仅破坏了非洲的社会结构，也对整个美洲和中东的社会产生了重大影响。欧洲列强制定的殖民协定在第三世界的形成过程中发挥了至关重要的作用。这套经济政策旨在保持殖民地的经济依赖性，限制殖民地的工业化进程，使其只能扮演原材料生产者的角色。这种经济结构，加上殖民化和奴隶贸易的后果，造成了发达国家与发展中国家之间的差距，这种差距一直是现代世界的特征。

这本对殖民化及其影响的概述揭示了这一时期如何对当今的经济和社会差距产生了至关重要的影响，并对发达国家和发展中国家之间的关系产生了深远的影响。

16 世纪初的全球背景

文化多样性与殖民前地缘政治

15 世纪通常被称为现代的开端，是世界历史上的一个关键时期，以一系列重要事件和发展为标志。

1492 年，克里斯托弗-哥伦布发现了新大陆，标志着世界历史的关键时刻，开启了欧洲的海外探险时代。哥伦布是为西班牙服务的热那亚探险家，他一直在寻找一条通往亚洲的海上航线。他向西航行横渡大西洋，到达了他认为的 "印度群岛"，但实际上是美洲大陆，从加勒比群岛开始。这一事件为其他欧洲探险铺平了道路，最终彻底发现了南北美洲大陆。西班牙、葡萄牙、法国、荷兰和英国等强国很快开始在这些新大陆建立殖民地。这些殖民活动产生了深远的影响，尤其是对原住民，他们面临着未知的疾病、战争、失去土地和其他形式的殖民化，导致人口大量减少。这一发现还为跨大西洋贸易奠定了基础，使美洲融入了全球贸易网络。这包括金银等贵重物品的贸易，以及臭名昭著的跨大西洋奴隶贸易。与此同时，哥伦布交换--植物、动物、作物、人口和疾病在新大陆和旧大陆之间的转移--导致了重大的生态和生物变化。欧洲也感受到了哥伦布发现美洲的影响。它刺激了欧洲各国对海外领土的争夺，促进了资本主义的兴起和欧洲海洋力量的扩张。哥伦布发现新大陆不仅改变了这片大陆的历史，还对全球经济、政治和文化动态产生了深远而持久的影响。

文艺复兴是欧洲历史上的一个繁荣时期，在 16 世纪达到顶峰，尽管它在 14 世纪就已在意大利开始。这场文化、艺术、政治和经济运动的标志是对古典古代艺术、科学和思想的深刻革新和重新发现。文艺复兴的核心在于其艺术变革。达芬奇、米开朗基罗和拉斐尔等艺术家重新定义了艺术标准，引进了创新技术，探索了从宗教到世俗的各种主题。他们的作品不仅彰显了人类之美和复杂性，还成为整个欧洲新艺术表现形式的催化剂。除了艺术，文艺复兴时期也是科学和思想进步的时期。人文主义是这一时期的核心思想流派，强调教育、个人价值以及基于理性和观察的知识追求。这导致了文学、哲学和科学等领域的重大进步，并为未来的科学革命奠定了基础。在政治和经济方面，文艺复兴见证了现代民族国家的兴起，法国的弗朗西斯一世和英国的亨利八世等君主实行中央集权。佛罗伦萨和威尼斯等意大利城邦成为商业和文化中心，促进了思想和财富的融合，推动了这场运动。文艺复兴是一个文化和思想觉醒的时期，对欧洲和世界产生了深远的影响。它为现代社会的许多方面奠定了基础，并继续影响着今天的文化、艺术、科学和政治。

始于 16 世纪的新教改革标志着欧洲宗教和文化史上的一个重要转折点。这一时期始于德国僧侣兼教师马丁-路德，他于 1517 年发表了 95 篇论文。这些论文批评了天主教会的多个方面，包括出售赎罪券，并呼吁建立一种更加以《圣经》为中心的信仰，以及唯因信称义。路德发起的这一运动很快得到了普及，并传播到了其他地区，导致了新教的多样化。瑞士的约翰-加尔文（John Calvin）和乌尔里希-茨温利（Ulrich Zwingli）等人为这一多样化做出了贡献，他们各自带来了自己的解释和教义。面对这一挑战，天主教会发起了反宗教改革，从内部改革教会，打击新教思想。1545 年至 1563 年召开的特伦特大公会议在这一回应中发挥了关键作用，会议重申了天主教教义，并进行了教会改革。宗教改革产生了重大的政治和社会影响。在一些国家，宗教改革加强了君主的权力，而在另一些国家，宗教改革则导致了重大的宗教冲突，如法国的宗教战争和中欧的三十年战争。宗教改革的遗产丰富而复杂。在宗教方面，它使基督教出现了前所未有的多样性。在文化和社会方面，它强调个人阅读《圣经》，鼓励扫盲和教育。在经济和政治方面，它影响了欧洲的权力结构，并帮助塑造了现代社会。新教改革是西方历史上的一个重要事件，深刻影响了许多领域的文明发展。

奥斯曼帝国建立于 13 世纪末，经历了一个重要的发展时期，特别是在 15 和 16 世纪，成为了世界上的霸主。这一发展的特点是令人印象深刻的领土扩张以及在地区和全球事务中日益增长的影响力。奥斯曼帝国的崛起始于穆罕默德二世统治时期，他因在 1453 年征服君士坦丁堡而闻名，这标志着拜占庭帝国的灭亡。这次征服不仅巩固了奥斯曼帝国的战略地位，也象征着奥斯曼帝国作为一个大国的崛起。君士坦丁堡更名为伊斯坦布尔，成为帝国的首都和文化、经济和政治中心。在塞利姆一世和苏莱曼大帝等苏丹的统治下，帝国进一步扩张，囊括了中东、北非、巴尔干和东欧的广大地区。奥斯曼帝国不仅军事力量强大，而且行政管理完善，社会国际化程度高。贸易在奥斯曼帝国的经济中发挥着至关重要的作用。通过控制欧亚之间的主要贸易路线，该帝国得以致富并影响地区和全球经济。奥斯曼帝国还是东西方之间的桥梁，促进了文化和科学交流。除了军事和经济实力，奥斯曼帝国还是文化和艺术中心。它是独特的建筑风格、音乐、文学和艺术的摇篮，这些都受到帝国各地多元文化传统的影响。奥斯曼帝国在政治和宗教方面的影响也十分重大。作为一个哈里发帝国，它是穆斯林世界的领导者，在伊斯兰事务中发挥着核心作用。因此，奥斯曼帝国的崛起对欧洲和伊斯兰世界的力量平衡起着至关重要的作用，在世界历史上留下了持久的印记。在它曾经统治过的地区，许多文化、建筑和历史方面的遗产历久弥新。

15 世纪印刷术的发展是人类历史上最重要的转折点之一，彻底改变了信息和思想的传播方式。这一创新主要归功于德国金匠约翰内斯-古腾堡（Johannes Gutenberg），他在 1440 年左右发明了第一台活字印刷机。在古腾堡发明之前，书籍都是手工抄写的，这个过程费时又费钱，严重限制了书籍的流通。印刷机实现了书籍和其他印刷文件的批量生产，大大降低了生产成本和时间。这使得书籍和书面文件更容易被更广泛的公众获取，而这在以前只是特权精英的专利。这一发明对社会和文化产生了深远的影响。它在传播知识和思想方面发挥了至关重要的作用，使信息能够跨越地理和社会界限迅速传播。知识传播的增加推动了文艺复兴和新教改革等重大运动。印刷术对教育和扫盲也产生了重大影响。随着书籍供应量的增加，教育变得更加普及，有助于提高整个欧洲的识字率。印刷术还实现了语言和文字的标准化，在民族语言和文学的发展中发挥了关键作用。在政治上，印刷术促进了政治思想的传播，是改革者和革命者的有力工具。政府和教会经常试图控制或审查印刷机，以维持其权力，这证明了印刷机的巨大影响力。印刷术的发展是信息和思想传播领域的一场革命，通过增加获取知识的机会、鼓励知识和文化创新以及影响政治和社会结构，塑造了现代社会。

16 世纪是科学技术取得显著进步的时期，为后来的科学革命奠定了基础。在这个时代，出现了一些重要的科学人物，他们的工作深刻地改变了我们对世界的认识。波兰天文学家尼古拉斯-哥白尼在这一范式转变中发挥了至关重要的作用。1543 年，他发表了《论天球的旋转》（De revolutionibus orbium coelestium）一书，提出了日心宇宙模型。这一模型将太阳而非地球置于太阳系的中心，挑战了自古以来盛行并得到教会支持的地心说。后来，意大利科学家伽利略-伽利莱也做出了重大贡献。随着望远镜的改进，伽利略能够观测到支持日心说的天体现象。他的观测，特别是对金星和木星卫星的相位观测，为反对地心说提供了令人信服的证据。这些科学进步并非没有争议。哥白尼的 "日心说 "在伽利略发现的支持下，被天主教会视为异端邪说。伽利略本人也受到宗教裁判所的审判，不得不公开放弃自己的观点。除了天文学，其他科学领域也取得了重大进展。安德烈亚斯-维萨里（Andreas Vesalius）等人对人体解剖学的理解发生了革命性的变化，他对人体结构的详细研究挑战了许多古老的医学信仰。这些科学进步对当时的社会和文化产生了深远的影响。它们鼓励人们以更加实证和质疑的态度来看待世界，为现代科学方法奠定了基础。对观察和理性的强调所产生的反响远远超出了科学的范畴，对哲学、宗教甚至政治都产生了影响。16 世纪是科学的决定性时刻，标志着发现和创新时代的开始，重塑了人类对宇宙的认识，并为未来的科学发展奠定了基础。

16 世纪见证了欧洲现代民族国家的出现和加强，这一进程标志着从中世纪封建主义向更加集中和统一的治理形式的重大转变。法国的弗朗西斯一世和英国的亨利八世等具有影响力的君主制人物在一定程度上推动了这一转变。法国国王弗朗西斯一世在通过中央集权巩固王权方面发挥了关键作用。他在位期间的特点是加强了王室管理并扩大了法国领土。弗朗西斯一世还促进了文化和艺术的发展，使法国成为文艺复兴的中心。他在中央集权方面的努力有助于建立一个更加统一和高效的现代国家。在英格兰，亨利八世也标志着现代国家形成的一个重要阶段。他在位期间最著名的事件就是与罗马天主教会决裂并建立了英格兰教会，这一行为不仅具有宗教意义，还加强了王权。这种中央集权对英国民族国家的形成至关重要。伴随现代国家崛起的是中央集权机构的建立、统一法律体系的发展和专业官僚机构的出现。这些变化促进了更加统一的国家的形成，并逐渐削弱了封建领主的权力，而封建领主曾是领土和军事权力的主要拥有者。这些发展也对国际关系产生了影响，出现了更有条理的外交，并诞生了国家主权的概念。各国开始作为不同的主权实体进行互动，为现代国际体系奠定了基础。

16 世纪欧洲贸易和探险的扩张标志着世界贸易和文化交流进入了一个前所未有的关键阶段。这一时期的特点是大胆的航行和地理大发现，其中尤以 1498 年瓦斯科-达-伽马的航行最为著名，他开辟了一条通往印度的新航路。瓦斯科-达-伽马的航行绕过好望角到达印度海岸，标志着欧亚之间首次建立了直接的海上联系。这对国际贸易产生了巨大影响，因为欧洲商人可以绕过中东的中间商，直接获得珍贵的亚洲香料和其他商品。这条新路线为相关欧洲国家的财富和影响力做出了贡献，尤其是葡萄牙，它在香料贸易中占据了领先地位。伴随欧洲贸易扩张的是一个探索时代，航海家和探险家们绘制了未知领域的地图，并与世界各地的不同民族和文化建立了联系。这些交往导致了文化、技术和生物的重大交流，即哥伦布大交流，见证了植物、动物、文化、人口和疾病在各大洲之间的转移。欧洲的扩张也对所开拓地区的当地人口产生了重大影响。在美洲、非洲和亚洲，影响是深远的，从殖民化和经济剥削到重大的文化和社会变革。奴隶贸易尤其成为这一时期黑暗而关键的一面，数百万非洲人被迫流落到美洲。在经济上，这一时期为现代资本主义和全球经济体系奠定了基础。贸易的增加和全球贸易路线的开辟促进了各国经济的增长和国际金融体系的发展。16 世纪欧洲贸易和探险的扩张是全球化的主要推动力，对世界经济、国际政治和文化间关系产生了深远影响。这个时代的发现和互动不可磨灭地塑造了现代世界。

16 世纪是资本主义开端和世界贸易发展的重要时期。随着新贸易路线的探索和海外殖民地的建立，欧洲各国开始以前所未有的规模从事国际贸易，为现代资本主义制度奠定了基础。瓦斯科-达-伽马等探险家开辟了通往亚洲的新航路，克里斯托弗-哥伦布发现了美洲，这使欧洲列强直接获得了大量宝贵的资源。这些资源包括香料、黄金、白银和其他在欧洲需求量极大的异域商品。对这些路线和财富来源的控制很快成为一个重大问题，导致欧洲各国之间的激烈竞争。这一时期还出现了一些贸易公司，如荷兰东印度公司和英国东印度公司，它们在贸易和殖民化中发挥了关键作用。这些公司通常得到各自政府的支持，是世界上最早的股份公司之一，是金融和企业领域的一大创新。国际贸易的增长刺激了市场经济和重商资本主义的发展，贸易和资本积累成为经济活动的核心。这种制度鼓励投资、冒险和创新，这是资本主义的主要特征。与此同时，欧洲国家之间对资源和权力的争夺导致了军事冲突和对世界大部分地区的殖民。殖民扩张的动机不仅在于寻求财富，还在于希望控制战略要地，扩大政治和文化影响力。然而，这段历史也有其黑暗的一面，特别是跨大西洋奴隶贸易和对殖民地土著人民的剥削。这些做法产生了深远而持久的影响，其后果至今仍清晰可见。16 世纪资本主义和世界贸易的开始是经济、政治和文化变革的推动力。这一时期不仅影响了欧洲的经济发展，也为今天的全球经济体系奠定了基础。

不可否认，15 世纪是世界历史的一个转折点，标志着一系列塑造现代世界的重大事件和发展的开始。在这一时期，从地缘政治和经济到文化和科学等各个领域都发生了重大变革。这一时期最重要的事件之一是克里斯托弗-哥伦布于 1492 年发现了新大陆，为欧洲人探索美洲并将其殖民化铺平了道路。这一发现不仅改变了世界地图的绘制，还导致了空前规模的文化和经济交流，即哥伦布交流。在文化和思想方面，16 世纪的标志是文艺复兴，这场运动重新定义了艺术、文学和科学，并重新激发了人们对古典古代思想和价值观的兴趣。这一时期出现了达芬奇、米开朗基罗和拉斐尔等标志性人物。在宗教领域，由马丁-路德发起的新教改革挑战了天主教会的权威，并导致欧洲基督教的重大分裂。这场运动对欧洲的宗教、政治和社会产生了深远的影响，并帮助塑造了现代宗教景观。这一时期还见证了现代国家的崛起，法国的弗朗西斯一世和英国的亨利八世等君主加强了中央集权，为现代政府结构奠定了基础。与此同时，科学也取得了显著进步，哥白尼和伽利略等人挑战了地心宇宙观，为科学革命奠定了基础。最后，贸易和探险的扩张以及资本主义的萌芽改变了全球经济。新贸易路线的开辟和贸易公司的出现为世界贸易和当代经济体系奠定了基础。15 世纪为我们现代世界的许多方面奠定了基础，在地缘政治、文化、科学、经济和宗教领域对人类历史的轨迹产生了不可磨灭的影响。

全球的社会和文明

16 世纪初，欧洲正经历着一场重大而复杂的变革。在克服了 1400 年大瘟疫的肆虐之后，欧洲人口开始重新聚集，约占当时世界人口的 20%。文艺复兴时期的特点是文化和知识的复兴，以及社会和政治的重大变革。欧洲文艺复兴时期，人们对古代知识重新产生了兴趣，文学、艺术和哲学在古希腊和古罗马遗产的启发下得以复兴。与此同时，欧洲吸收并改造了世界其他地区的创新成果。例如，尽管活字印刷术通常与欧洲的约翰内斯-古腾堡（Johannes Gutenberg）联系在一起，但它的前身却在亚洲。同样，最初在中国发展起来的火药在欧洲得到了采用和完善，从而改变了战争和军事防御。从宗教和文化的角度来看，此时的欧洲在很大程度上是单一的，由基督教主导。1492 年，一些国家，特别是西班牙，驱逐穆斯林和犹太人的政策加强了这一点，这一政策在一定程度上促进了宗教和文化的统一，但也造成了内部的紧张和冲突。在宗教方面，这一时期的欧洲也更加坚定地信奉基督教，基督教往往被视为优越的信仰。这种世界观是欧洲殖民扩张的主要驱动力，宗教常常被用来为探索和殖民提供理由。欧洲也是一个外向型地区，积极寻求将其影响力扩展到世界各地。这在瓦斯科-达-伽马等人的探险航行中显而易见，这些航行开辟了新的贸易路线，标志着欧洲殖民时代的开始。

俄罗斯以幅员辽阔而闻名，是世界上面积最大的国家。它横跨欧亚两大洲，面积约 1700 万平方公里。俄罗斯幅员辽阔，地貌、气候和自然资源丰富多样。俄罗斯的欧洲部分虽然比亚洲部分小得多，但却是俄罗斯大部分人口和主要城市（包括首都莫斯科和圣彼得堡）的所在地。该地区的特点是平原广阔、气候温和。西伯利亚占俄罗斯在亚洲的大部分领土，以其广袤的森林、山脉和严酷的气候而闻名，冬季漫长而寒冷。尽管气候恶劣，西伯利亚却拥有丰富的自然资源，如石油、天然气和各种矿产。俄罗斯幅员辽阔，与许多国家接壤，横跨两大洲，是地缘政治的重要参与者。幅员辽阔的领土也给全国的治理、经济发展和互联互通带来了独特的挑战。俄罗斯幅员辽阔是其国家特征的一个决定性特征，影响着其政策、经济和在国际舞台上的地位。

16 世纪初，欧洲的社会经济发展水平在许多方面与世界其他先进地区（如印度和中东）不相上下。在工业革命之前的这一时期，包括欧洲在内的世界大部分地区都是以农业经济为主。从技术角度看，欧洲并不明显优于中东或印度的文明。这些地区历史悠久，在数学、天文学、医学和工程学等领域做出了重大贡献。例如，中东，特别是在伊斯兰黄金时代，发展了重要的科学和技术知识，这些知识后来影响了欧洲。印度在数学（特别是零和十进制计数法概念的发展）和冶金等领域取得了巨大进步。印度的纺织品和手工艺品也很有名，在欧洲和其他地方都很受重视。然而，从 16 世纪起，欧洲开始经历一系列重要的发展，这些发展有助于欧洲在技术和经济上超越其他地区。例如，古登堡的印刷术促进了知识的广泛传播。大发现开辟了新的贸易路线，与世界各地建立了联系，也产生了相当大的影响。虽然 16 世纪初的欧洲在技术上并不优于印度或中东等地区，但它即将开始一系列变革，这些变革将改变其社会经济结构，并使其在随后的几个世纪中走上称霸全球的道路。

16 世纪初，在欧洲人到来之前，美洲的文化和技术具有显著的多样性，包括阿兹台克人、玛雅人和印加人在内的先进文明在美洲蔚然成风。北美洲幅员辽阔，由多种多样的土著社会和文化组成。这些民族发展了适应其不同环境的生活方式，从狩猎和采集到先进的农业形式，在一些地区还发展了城市社会。美洲最南端，特别是今天的南美洲地区，有些地区人口密度较低，但却是印加帝国等先进文明的发源地。印加人建立了一个庞大的帝国，拥有复杂的行政机构、创新的农业技术和令人印象深刻的公路网。前哥伦布时期美洲的权力和文化核心在中部地区，那里的阿兹台克帝国和玛雅帝国尤为发达。这些文明发展了复杂的文字系统、非凡的天文知识、不朽的建筑和有组织的社会。然而，与同时期的欧洲人相比，这些文明在技术上也有很大的局限性。其中最显著的一点是缺乏先进的冶金技术，尤其是钢铁技术，这限制了他们生产与欧洲人相媲美的武器和工具的能力。他们也没有马或牛等大型家畜，而这些家畜在欧洲的农业和运输工具中发挥着至关重要的作用。这些技术差异对他们与欧洲探险家和征服者的相遇产生了重大影响。虽然美洲印第安文明在许多方面都很复杂和先进，但由于缺乏某些关键技术，再加上欧洲人带来的疾病等其他因素，导致他们在欧洲殖民化的冲击下迅速衰落。

16 世纪初，受地理、文化和历史因素的影响，非洲和中东呈现出多样化的社会经济和技术现实。马格里布包括摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚和突尼斯等北非地区，是奥斯曼帝国的一部分。该地区的经济和技术发展水平接近欧洲，拥有繁荣的城市、先进的灌溉系统以及受阿拉伯、柏柏尔和地中海文明交流影响的丰富文化。撒哈拉以南非洲地区通常被称为 "黑非洲"，该地区的文化和经济体系多种多样。在许多地区，由于靠近沙漠或存在舌蝇等地理条件，很难进行大规模耕作和使用役畜。这导致了适应这些环境的社会和经济组织形式，通常以自给农作、游牧或捕鱼为基础。在奥斯曼帝国的主导影响下，中东是文化和贸易的交汇点。奥斯曼帝国的首都伊斯坦布尔是当时世界上最大、最发达的城市之一，估计人口约 70 万。它是重要的商业、文化和行政中心，拥有令人印象深刻的基础设施和建筑。中东和北非部分地区的经济和技术发展可与同期的欧洲相媲美，有时甚至超过欧洲。这些地区拥有丰富的文化和科学遗产，尤其是在医学、天文学和数学等领域。16 世纪初，马格里布和中东地区都受到奥斯曼帝国一体化的影响，呈现出先进的发展水平。相比之下，撒哈拉以南非洲由于其独特的地理挑战，已经发展出适应其特殊环境条件的经济和社会制度。

16 世纪初，亚洲在人口和文化方面都具有重要意义，是当时世界上许多最伟大文明的发源地。亚洲的人口远远超过欧洲，是古代先进文明的摇篮。中国、印度、日本、东南亚和其他地区的帝国和王国发展了丰富的文化和复杂的政治经济制度。在印度，16 世纪初莫卧儿帝国的出现标志着稳定和繁荣时期的开始。在阿克巴大帝等统治者的领导下，帝国统一了印度次大陆的大部分地区，成为一个军事和政治大国。莫卧儿王朝先进的行政管理，加上印度丰富的文化和经济财富，使该地区成为全球的重要角色。印度的棉纺织业尤为著名，是当时世界上最大、最先进的棉纺织业。印度纺织品的质量和精细程度备受追捧，棉花和其他产品（如香料）的贸易在世界经济中发挥着核心作用。印度纺织业不仅是经济引擎，也是印度技术先进性的体现，在某些领域，印度的技术水平往往与欧洲相当，甚至超过欧洲。从技术和工业角度来看，包括印度在内的亚洲某些地区与欧洲不相上下，甚至更胜一筹。这一点在冶金、纺织品制造和造船等领域尤为明显。16 世纪初的亚洲是一个充满活力和多样性的大陆，拥有先进的文明、成熟的经济和强大的政治体系。特别是印度，作为一个政治、经济和军事巨人，在许多领域都可与欧洲相媲美，有时甚至超越欧洲。

在漫长而丰富的历史进程中，中国是许多对人类产生深远影响的基本发明的摇篮。在 16 世纪早期之前的时期，中国在各个科技领域都做出了重大贡献。公元 2 世纪初，蔡伦发明了纸，尽管纸的形式可能在他之前就已存在。中国的纸由植物纤维制成，质量上乘，比当时世界上其他地方使用的书写材料更耐用。中国还发明了对书法艺术和知识传播至关重要的优质墨水。中国还发明了火药。火药最初是在炼金术中发现的，在中国首次用于军事目的。这一发明彻底改变了全世界的战争战术。虽然中国古代炼碳的确切细节没有明确记载，但中国在历史上展示了冶金（包括钢铁生产）的高超技艺。指南针是中国发明的另一种重要工具，最初用于占卜，后来才应用于航海。它彻底改变了海上航行，使航行更加准确和遥远。中国的这些发明不仅在中国，而且在全世界都产生了重大影响，塑造了许多社会和文化的发展。这些技术通常通过丝绸之路和其他贸易网络传播到世界其他地区，对全球范围内的科技发展起到了关键作用。从这个意义上说，中国一直是创新的主要源泉，也是人类科技进步的重要贡献者。

16 世纪初，尽管存在一些差异，但世界不同文明之间在技术和社会经济发展方面呈现出一定程度的同质性。例如，中国在多个技术领域处于领先地位，但印度、中东、非洲部分地区和欧洲等其他地区也发展了先进的技术和社会经济体系。这些地区通过贸易和文化交流分享创新成果，促进了知识和技术的传播。这些文明之间在技术和发展方面的差距并不十分明显。奥斯曼帝国和印度等地区在建筑、文学、科学和技术等领域的先进程度与中国不相上下。在欧洲，尽管在某些方面落后于中国，但仍取得了重大进步，尤其是文艺复兴和新教改革的开始。创新从一个地区传播到另一个地区的能力在全球发展中发挥着至关重要的作用。先进地区的创新传播到世界其他地区，并往往根据当地情况进行调整和改进。16 世纪末，欧洲开始在世界舞台上日益壮大，主要是通过殖民化。推动欧洲扩张的因素很多，包括航海技术的进步、经济和宗教动机以及政治扩张的愿望。通过殖民和建立海外帝国，欧洲成功地开发了世界资源并扩大了影响力。虽然 16 世纪初不同文明之间存在差异，但在发展方面却存在一定的同质性。这种同质性促进了创新在世界各地的传播，为随着欧洲扩张和殖民化而加速的全球互联铺平了道路。

欧洲殖民化的主要阶段

美洲的殖民化：殖民时代的黎明及其变革

墨西哥-特诺奇蒂特兰城的建立。杜兰法典》，16 世纪。

1520 年至 1540 年是美洲历史的关键时期，西班牙征服者对哥伦布之前的文明进行了迅速而残酷的征服。这场征服始于 1492 年克里斯托弗-哥伦布抵达美洲后不到 30 年的时间，给美洲大陆的原住民带来了毁灭性的后果。由埃尔南-科尔特斯（Hernán Cortés）和弗朗西斯科-皮萨罗（Francisco Pizarro）等人领导的征服者将目标对准了阿兹特克人和印加人等先进而有组织的文明。尽管这些社会先进而复杂，但很快就被欧洲入侵者击溃。造成这一迅速结果的因素有很多，包括西班牙人的军事优势、战术和外交手段的运用，以及对土著帝国内部分裂的利用。在征服这些帝国的过程中，人类也付出了可怕的代价。除了直接的暴力征服，从欧洲传入的疾病（如天花）也使土著人口锐减，而土著人对这些疾病毫无免疫力。到 1650 年，美洲人口急剧下降，从大约 6000 万下降到大约 1000 万。这次人口下降是人类历史上最大的一次。征服者相对轻松地推翻了这些先进文明，这助长了欧洲人的优越感。这种优越感加上从新大陆获得的财富，增强了欧洲在世界舞台上的实力和影响力。西班牙征服者对美洲的征服不仅从根本上改变了美洲大陆，而且对全球力量平衡以及延续了几个世纪的文化和种族观念产生了深远影响。

欧洲征服美洲后，美洲土著人口锐减的悲剧可归咎于两个主要原因：传染病的传入以及以屠杀和强迫劳动为形式的直接暴力。欧洲、非洲和美洲世界的相遇导致了所谓的 "微生物统一"。欧洲人，后来还有被当作奴隶驱逐的非洲人，把原住民不知道的疾病带到了美洲。这些疾病，如天花、斑疹伤寒、麻风病、痢疾和黄热病，尤其具有毁灭性。原住民对这些疾病没有天然免疫力，因此遭受了巨大损失。尤其是天花，它造成了无法估量的灾难，使整个社区人口锐减。与此同时，征服者还对土著人实施了大规模的直接暴力。这种暴力包括有计划的屠杀和奴役许多社区。强迫劳动（通常是在矿井等非人条件下）不仅夺走了许多土著人的生命，还摧毁了他们的社会和文化组织基础。这两个因素加在一起，导致美洲土著人口急剧减少。这段黑暗的历史对美洲社会产生了深远的影响，并继续在土著人民的集体记忆和历史中产生共鸣。征服美洲仍然是人类历史上最悲惨和最具变革性的事件之一。

欧洲人对美洲的征服催生了一种主要以对自然资源和土著居民的剥削为基础的经济。这种经济的发展经历了几个阶段，以开采的强度和性质为标志。最初，金银是欧洲征服者的主要目标，由此产生了掠夺经济。印加帝国和玛雅帝国等的财富被有计划地掠夺。大量财宝被转移到欧洲，扰乱了美洲和欧洲的经济。一旦容易获取的财富被耗尽，人们的注意力就转向了采矿业，特别是位于现在的玻利维亚的波托西（Potosí）矿区。这些矿山是世界上最大和最富有的矿山之一，主要开采银矿，强迫土著居民在极其艰苦的条件下劳动。从 16 世纪中叶到 17 世纪初，种植园制度开始形成。这种制度适应了美洲和欧洲在地质和气候方面的差异。拉丁美洲的热带气候非常适合种植糖和咖啡等作物。这些作物主要出口到欧洲大都市，在大农场种植。这些种植园的劳动力主要是印第安奴隶，后来还有通过跨大西洋奴隶贸易带来的非洲奴隶。这些种植园的工作条件往往是残酷和不人道的，几乎不考虑奴隶的生命和福利。在欧洲人统治下，美洲经济的特点是对自然资源和人力资源的大力开发。金银先是被掠夺，然后被开采，之后经济转向种植园农业，对土壤和奴隶劳动力进行密集开发。这一时期给非洲大陆留下了深深的伤痕，其影响至今仍可感受到。

西班牙多米尼加人巴托洛梅-德-拉斯卡萨斯在美洲殖民史上发挥了至关重要的作用，尤其是在捍卫土著人民权利方面。在密集的殖民化和开发时期，同时代的人们清楚地看到，当地人口正在急剧减少，部分原因是开发和外来疾病。德拉斯-卡萨斯是最早也是最狂热的土著人捍卫者之一。作为一名牧师，他向西班牙司法当局恳求保护印第安人，认为印第安人皈依天主教使他们遭受奴役是不可接受的。他的论点基于道德和宗教原则，主张印第安人作为基督教的皈依者或潜在皈依者，其精神和人权应得到尊重。然而，德拉斯卡萨斯遭到了种植园主和其他殖民利益集团的强烈反对，他们的农场严重依赖奴隶劳动力。这些集团不愿放弃廉价劳动力，极力反对 de Las Casas 的努力。虽然 de Las Casas 没有成功说服西班牙当局立即废除印第安奴隶制，但他的工作有助于提高人们对印第安人困境的认识，并影响了后来的政策。在他的努力下，几十年后，印第安奴隶制逐渐被废除，但许多形式的剥削和强迫劳动依然存在。巴塞洛缪-德-拉斯卡萨斯的工作是这一历史时期反抗不公正的重要见证。虽然他在当时取得的成就有限，但他仍是一位倡导土著人民权利的重要历史人物。

美洲印第安人人口的崩溃对跨大西洋奴隶贸易的发展产生了重大影响。由于疾病、屠杀和不人道的工作条件，土著劳动力急剧减少，面对这种情况，欧洲殖民者寻找其他办法来维持他们的经济活动，特别是大型蔗糖和咖啡种植园。为了弥补土著人口崩溃造成的劳动力损失，欧洲人将目光转向了非洲。这是大规模非洲奴隶贸易的开始，标志着跨大西洋奴隶贸易的爆发。被俘虏的非洲人在极端困难和不人道的条件下被强行运过大西洋，这一跨越被称为 "中间航程"。非洲奴隶大量涌入美洲，直接满足了殖民地对劳动力的需求。奴隶主要受雇于种植园，但也从事采矿和家政服务等其他行业。非洲奴隶的生活和工作条件十分残酷，其特点是极端暴力和系统性的非人化。跨大西洋贩卖奴隶成为这段世界历史上最悲惨、最不人道的特征之一。它不仅对数百万流离失所的非洲人及其后裔造成了毁灭性的后果，也对美洲的经济、社会和文化发展产生了深远的影响。美洲印第安人人口的崩溃是跨大西洋奴隶贸易出现和爆发的决定性因素，这一黑暗事件不可磨灭地塑造了美洲的历史和社会。

北美殖民扩张

欧洲人最初对北美洲的殖民统治不同于对拉丁美洲的殖民统治，部分原因是气候和对经济机会的认识不同。北美洲气候温和，更像欧洲。然而，拉丁美洲提供了金银等直接财富以及有利于种植糖和咖啡等高利润产品的气候条件，而北美洲则不同，它似乎并没有为第一批欧洲殖民者提供同样直接的经济机会。在拉丁美洲，西班牙和葡萄牙征服者很快就发现了盛产金银的文明，如印加帝国和阿兹台克帝国，这激发了他们的浓厚兴趣，殖民活动迅速展开。而在北美洲，第一批欧洲探险家却没有发现这样的即时财富。此外，与拉丁美洲相比，北美洲的原住民社会没有那么中央集权，也没有那么宏伟壮观，因此征服和剥削并不那么明显，也不那么有利可图。因此，北美洲早期的殖民活动相对有限，主要集中在毛皮贸易、渔业和农业等活动上，而不是开采有价值的矿产。后来，随着人们认识到北美洲的农业和商业潜力，欧洲人才扩大了定居范围。北美洲最初的经济利益不如拉丁美洲明显，这影响了欧洲在这些地区殖民的方式和力度。剥削的逻辑注重眼前的财富和快速的经济收益，导致欧洲人最初对北美洲的关注较少。

欧洲在北美洲的殖民化晚于在拉丁美洲的殖民化，其动机和特点也截然不同。它主要以定居为基础，即建立永久性社区，而不是立即进行经济开发。欧洲的宗教冲突，尤其是天主教徒和新教徒之间的冲突，是移民北美的主要动力。许多欧洲人为躲避本国的宗教迫害和政治动乱而寻求避难。1620 年抵达现在的马萨诸塞州的 "五月花号 "就是这种移民的典型代表。这艘船载着一群寻求宗教自由的英国新教徒--清教徒，在北美建立了最早的永久定居点之一。随着运输成本的降低和北美机遇的传播，越来越多的欧洲人被美好生活的前景所吸引。这些移民的动机不仅仅是宗教原因，还有土地、财富和新生活的承诺。与拉美殖民地不同的是，北美殖民地以农业为主，定居者自己耕种土地，当地的劳动力往往被用来开采资源。这种定居动态对北美的发展产生了深远的影响，导致建立了不同于拉丁美洲的政治和社会结构的社会。随着时间的推移，这些定居点逐渐演变成具有自身文化和政治特征的复杂社会，为后来的美国和加拿大奠定了基础。

欧洲在亚洲的足迹：贸易与保护国

普拉西战役后克莱夫勋爵与米尔-贾法尔的会面，弗朗西斯-海曼（约 1762 年）绘制。

The period from the late 15th century to the mid-18th century marked an era of European maritime dominance, with significant implications for India and other parts of Asia. This era began with Vasco da Gama's arrival in India in 1498, paving the way for growing European influence in the region. The arrival of Europeans in India and other parts of Asia coincided with a period when European ships, armed with cannons and other advanced naval technology, dominated the seas. This naval superiority enabled European powers, notably Portugal, the Netherlands, Great Britain and France, to control key sea routes and dominate maritime trade. In India, the European presence transformed the dynamics of trade. The European powers established trading posts and colonies along the coasts, controlling key points of maritime trade. Local merchants were often forced to sell their products, particularly spices, to these European powers, who then exported them to Europe and other markets. Although the spice trade represented only a small fraction (0.02-0.05%) of Asia's GNP, it generated enormous profits for the Europeans. European domination of the seas also had the effect of limiting the development of Asian fleets. The national navies of countries like India were outmatched by European naval power, hindering their ability to engage in maritime trade on an equal footing. This period of European domination had profound and lasting effects on India and other parts of Asia. It not only redirected trade flows and economic relations, but also paved the way for more direct European political and colonial influence in these regions, particularly evident with the rise of the British East India Company and Britain's subsequent colonisation of India.

The period after 1760 marks a significant turning point in the history of India, characterised by increasing British domination, notably through military victories and growing land occupation. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 was a key event in this process. This battle saw a British army, led by Robert Clive, achieve a decisive victory over the forces of the Nawab of Bengal. This victory was not only significant in military terms, but also marked the beginning of British political and economic dominance in India. After this victory, between 1790 and 1820, the British gradually extended their control over vast areas of India. They used both their own army and local forces to wage military campaigns against various Indian political entities. This expansion was facilitated by the weakness of the Mughal Empire, which was in decline at the time, and by the skilful use of internal divisions within India. The British not only took advantage of the political rivalries and disunity between the various Indian kingdoms and principalities, but also made use of their technological and military superiority. Their ability to mobilise considerable resources and use advanced military tactics played a crucial role in their success. These developments led to the establishment of the British Empire in India, which was to become one of the jewels in the British crown. The period of British rule in India had profound and lasting consequences, affecting the political, social, economic and cultural structure of the subcontinent. It also laid the foundations for the resistance and liberation movements that would emerge over the course of the 20th century, culminating in India's independence in 1947.

In the 18th century, China differed from the other major Asian powers of the time in that it had not been colonised and remained a unified empire. Under the Qing dynasty, China was a vast and powerful empire, enjoying considerable political stability and economic prosperity. The Qing dynasty, which ruled China at the time, succeeded in maintaining the unity and stability of the empire. This was achieved through efficient centralised government, competent administration and a powerful army. China also had a flourishing agricultural economy and active internal and external trade, reinforcing its position as a major power. China was able to resist colonisation thanks to its military strength, imposing size and centralised governance. This enabled the empire to maintain its sovereignty in the face of the colonial ambitions of European powers, which were already well established in other parts of Asia. Although China was not colonised, it did have significant interactions with foreign powers. These interactions were often marked by complex dynamics, with China seeking to maintain its autonomy while engaging in limited and controlled trade with Europe. However, towards the end of the eighteenth century and into the nineteenth century, China began to experience increased pressure from Western powers, which eventually led to a series of conflicts and concessions, including the Opium Wars and the Unequal Treaties. These events marked the beginning of a period of challenge to China's sovereignty and territorial integrity. Eighteenth-century China was notable for its ability to maintain its status as a unified and independent empire, despite increasing pressure from Western colonial powers. This period represents an important era in Chinese history, preceding the challenges and transformations of the 19th century.

The legacy of European colonisation in North Africa

The cruiser Berlin in front of the Kasbah of Agadir.

French colonisation of North Africa began in the 19th century and played a significant role in the international politics of the time, even influencing the beginnings of the First World War.

France's conquest of Algeria in 1830 marked the beginning of an era of profound change in North Africa. This period radically transformed Algerian society and the economy, and had a lasting impact on relations between France and Algeria. The arrival of French settlers, followed by Italians, Spaniards and other Europeans, led to the mass expropriation of Algerian farmland. This land was redistributed to the new arrivals, who used it to grow crops for export to France. This process not only changed Algeria's land structure, but also disrupted its traditional social and economic fabric, with significant repercussions for the indigenous population. The colonisation of Algeria was anything but peaceful. It was met with fierce resistance from the local population, led by figures such as Emir Abdelkader. These conflicts were marked by intense violence, reflecting the struggle of Algerians against foreign occupation and exploitation. The colonial era in Algeria has left a complex legacy that continues to shape relations between France and Algeria. Questions of identity, colonial history and its aftermath remain at the heart of discussions and exchanges between the two countries. In short, the conquest and colonisation of Algeria by France were crucial events, indelibly shaping the history and society of both nations.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the expansion of French influence in North Africa, with the colonisation of Tunisia and Morocco. These two countries were incorporated into the French colonial empire in the form of protectorates, a move motivated by economic, strategic and political interests. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia following the signing of the Treaty of Bardo. This treaty marked the beginning of French control over Tunisia, which until then had been a semi-autonomous Ottoman territory. The establishment of the protectorate enabled France to exert considerable political and economic influence in Tunisia, while officially retaining the nominal authority of the local bey. Morocco, for its part, became a French and Spanish protectorate in 1912 following the signing of the Treaty of Fez. France gained control of most of Morocco, while Spain gained smaller areas in the north and south of the country. As in Tunisia, the establishment of the protectorate in Morocco was aimed at extending French influence in the region and securing strategic economic interests, particularly in response to the colonial ambitions of other European powers, such as Germany. Both protectorates saw significant changes. France introduced administrative, economic and educational reforms, profoundly altering the social and political structures of both countries. However, this period was also marked by resistance and struggles for independence, reflecting the growing dissatisfaction of local populations with colonial rule. The colonisation of Tunisia and Morocco therefore played an important role in the history of North Africa, and the legacies of this period continue to influence the region today. These events not only reshaped the political map of North Africa, but also had a profound impact on the cultural, social and economic dynamics of Tunisia and Morocco.

The Agadir crisis of 1911 is a striking example of the geopolitical tensions and colonial rivalries that characterised Europe in the early 20th century. Germany's dispatch of the SMS Panther gunboat to Agadir Bay in Morocco was a direct challenge to French influence in the region. This show of force by Germany was intended to renegotiate the terms of the European presence in Morocco and to assert its own colonial ambitions. This crisis exacerbated the already high tensions between the major European powers, particularly between France and Germany. It highlighted the colonial and nationalist rivalries that were intensifying in Europe, contributing to the atmosphere of mistrust and competition that prevailed at the time. These tensions were a prelude to the wider conflicts that were to erupt with the First World War. French colonisation of North Africa, particularly Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco, had a profound impact on the region. It brought about major social, cultural and political transformations, permanently changing the landscape of these territories. Colonial policies were often marked by administrative and economic reforms, but also by conflict and resistance on the part of local populations. Internationally, France's actions in North Africa have influenced power dynamics and relations between the major European powers. French colonial expansion not only reshaped the political map of the region, but also had an impact on the international system, helping to shape the conditions that led to the major conflicts of the 20th century. The Agadir crisis and the French colonisation of North Africa are examples of how European imperial ambitions shaped world history in the early 20th century, with consequences that are still felt today.

The French colonisation of Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco, as well as the colonial interests of other European powers in the Mediterranean region, were linked to major political and strategic issues, particularly in the context of the growing tensions that preceded the First World War. The Mediterranean has always been a strategic region due to its importance for maritime trade and its geopolitical position. For France and other European powers, securing control or influence over this region was crucial to their national interests. The colonies in North Africa offered not only economic advantages, but also served as strategic bases for the projection of military and naval power in the Mediterranean. The run-up to the First World War was marked by intense rivalry between the great European powers for colonial expansion. France's colonisation of North Africa was part of this dynamic, with rival powers, notably Germany and Italy, also seeking to extend their influence in the region. The Agadir crisis of 1911 is a case in point, where Germany challenged French ambitions in Morocco. Meanwhile, local populations in the colonies were facing major political, social and economic changes. These changes were often accompanied by resistance and struggles for independence, which continued throughout the 20th century. The French colonies in North Africa were more than just territorial extensions; they were strategic pawns in the great game of European colonial politics and power. Control of these territories was seen as essential to maintaining the balance of power and preparing for future confrontations, notably the First World War.

At the turn of the 20th century, Egypt and Libya became focal points of colonial competition, mainly because of their strategic position and their importance for European imperial ambitions.

In the 1880s, Egypt occupied a unique position in the colonial order of the time, being under substantial British influence without formally being a colony. This was largely due to the strategic importance of the Suez Canal, a sea route inaugurated in 1869 that transformed international shipping. The Suez Canal, linking the Mediterranean to the Red Sea, revolutionised maritime trade by considerably shortening the distance between Europe and Asia. For Britain, with the world's largest colonial empire and India as its jewel, the canal was of vital importance. It provided faster and more efficient access to its colonies in Asia, making control of this sea route of paramount strategic importance. British influence in Egypt therefore increased, particularly after the opening of the canal. The British were particularly keen to secure this sea route against any potential threat, whether from other colonial powers or internal unrest in Egypt. This led to an increased military and political presence in Egypt, with the British exerting considerable influence over Egyptian domestic affairs. This British dominance in Egypt was a key part of their overall strategy to maintain and strengthen their empire, in particular by securing their route to India. Control of the Suez Canal became a major issue in the colonial politics and international rivalries of the time, reflecting the complexity of imperial interests and the competition for strategic points around the world.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Italy, driven by a sense of nationalism and imperialist ambition, began to set its sights on Libya, seeing the region as an opportunity to extend its influence and assert its status on the international stage. Italy's conquest of Libya was part of a wider framework of colonial competition between the European powers. The era of Italian nationalism and imperial expansionism led Italy to seek to establish a colonial presence in North Africa, following in the footsteps of other European powers such as France and Great Britain. The year 1911 marked a turning point with the outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War. Italy laid claim to Libya, then part of the Ottoman Empire, with the aim of establishing an Italian protectorate. This military campaign, which lasted from 1911 to 1912, was crowned with success for Italy, which thus took control of Libya. Libya represented for Italy not only a new colony to exploit for its resources, but also a means of strengthening its presence in the Mediterranean and positioning itself as a major colonial power. The Italian colonisation of Libya led to major changes in the region, with social, economic and political repercussions. Italy's expansionist move into Libya was characteristic of the period of imperialist rivalries in Europe, when nations sought to extend their influence through colonisation and territorial conquest. The situation in Libya, as in other parts of North Africa, reflected the complex and often conflicting dynamics of the international system at the time.

These developments reflect the way in which European geopolitical and imperial interests reshaped the Middle East and North Africa in the early 20th century. Control of these regions was seen as essential for the security of trade routes and the maintenance of colonial empires, leading to significant political and social changes in these areas. These events not only influenced the international dynamics of the time, but also left a lasting legacy that continues to influence politics and international relations in these regions.

The Colonial Era in Sub-Saharan Africa: Changes and Consequences

The history of sub-Saharan Africa in the context of colonisation and the slave trade is complex and tragic, marked by forced integration into global economic systems long before the continent was formally colonised.

The colonisation of sub-Saharan Africa by European powers took place later than in other regions, with a particular intensification in the 1880s. This period, often referred to as the 'Partition of Africa', saw European nations competing to extend their influence and control over the African continent. This scramble for Africa was motivated by a variety of geopolitical factors, including the desire to gain access to natural resources, secure markets for European industrial products and extend political and economic spheres of influence. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 marked a key moment in this process. The European powers, including Britain, France, Germany and Portugal, came together to formalise the rules of African colonisation, dividing up the continent without regard for indigenous social, cultural and political structures. This arbitrary division of African territories often ignored ethnic and historical boundaries, creating artificial borders that have contributed to persistent conflicts and tensions in the region. This period of late colonisation had a profound impact on sub-Saharan Africa, leading to radical changes in its political, economic and social systems. The colonial powers imposed new administrative and economic structures, often aligned with their own interests, and exploited the continent's resources for the benefit of their national economies. The repercussions of this period are still felt today, both in the internal dynamics of African nations and in their relations with the former colonial powers.

Even before the era of formal colonisation, sub-Saharan Africa was tragically integrated into the global economy through the transatlantic slave trade. This slave trade, which lasted from the 16th to the 19th century, involved the forced deportation of 10 to 12 million Africans to the Americas. The scale of the trade and the way in which it was conducted had catastrophic consequences for African societies. The effects of the transatlantic slave trade on sub-Saharan Africa were profound and multidimensional. The massive removal of millions of people not only resulted in a significant loss of population, but also disrupted existing social and economic structures. Communities have been torn apart, families separated, and entire societies have been disrupted by the loss of their members. In addition to the social trauma, the slave trade had a devastating economic impact. Many regions lost a significant proportion of their workforce, slowing economic development and exacerbating inequality and dependency. African societies were irreversibly transformed, with effects that are still felt today. This dark period in history is not only a painful chapter for Africa, but also for the Americas, where African slaves and their descendants significantly shaped the societies in which they were forced to live. The transatlantic slave trade remains a tragic example of the extremes of human exploitation and its lasting impact on societies around the world.

Parallel to the transatlantic slave trade, another, often less mentioned but equally important, slave trade took place between Africa, the Maghreb and the Middle East. This Eastern slave trade lasted from the 7th century until the beginning of the 20th century, and involved between 13 and 15 million Africans. This trade had considerable repercussions on African populations, similar in severity to those of the transatlantic trade. African slaves transported to the Maghreb and the Middle East were used in a variety of capacities, ranging from domestic work to the army, agriculture and crafts. As with the transatlantic trade, this led to the separation of families, the destruction of community structures and major economic disruption in African societies. In addition to the direct human and social impact, the Eastern slave trade also had a cultural and demographic impact on the Middle East and Maghreb regions. The populations of African descent in these regions bear witness to this long history of the slave trade. Recognition of the Eastern slave trade is essential to understanding the full history of African slavery and its long-term effects. It highlights the complexity and extent of the slave trade, and the deep scars it left on the African continent and beyond. The after-effects of this trade, like those of the transatlantic slave trade, continue to affect societies and international relations around the world.

The history of sub-Saharan Africa during the pre-colonial and colonial periods is deeply marked by external influences and interventions, notably through the slave trade and colonisation. These two phenomena had a profound and lasting impact on the continent, leaving indelible marks on its history, social structure and economy. The slave trade, with its two main branches - the transatlantic slave trade and the Eastern slave trade - led to the forced deportation of millions of Africans. These practices not only depopulated vast regions but also disrupted existing social and economic structures. The repercussions of the slave trade extended well beyond the period of its activity, affecting future generations and societal dynamics on the continent and in African diasporas around the world. With the advent of colonisation, mainly in the 1880s, sub-Saharan Africa experienced a new wave of external intervention. The European colonial powers redrew borders, imposed new administrative and economic structures, and exploited the continent's resources for the benefit of their national economies. This period of colonisation also introduced profound changes to the political, cultural and social systems of African societies. Together, these external interventions - the slave trade and colonisation - significantly shaped sub-Saharan Africa. They not only altered the course of its history, but also had a profound impact on the development of its societies and economy. The legacies of these periods are still visible today, influencing the continent's development trajectories, its international relations and our understanding of its past.

Synthesis of European Colonial Expansion

Distribution of colonial territories in 1920; the British Empire was able to preserve its influence by empowering its viceroyalties.

European colonisation, which spanned several centuries, had different durations and characteristics in different parts of the world.

European colonisation of America, which began with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, marks a major turning point in the continent's history. Although European exploration began in the late 15th century, it was during the 16th century that colonisation really intensified, with nations such as Spain, Portugal, France and Great Britain establishing colonies across vast swathes of the continent. This period of over three centuries of colonisation profoundly altered the landscape of America. The colonial powers not only exploited the continent's natural resources, but also imposed new political, economic and social structures. Indigenous societies and cultures were profoundly affected, often devastated by diseases introduced by Europeans, war, forced assimilation and dispossession of their lands. Colonisation brought about major demographic, cultural and ecological changes. Many indigenous societies were reduced in number or completely destroyed, and cultural practices and languages were often suppressed or altered. At the same time, the mixing of European, African and indigenous peoples gave rise to multicultural and multiracial societies, albeit often stratified and unequal. The consequences of colonisation in America extended well beyond the 1800s and 1830s, a period that saw the emergence of independence movements in many colonies. The legacies of this period continue to influence American nations, manifesting themselves in their political structures, social dynamics and cultural identities. European colonisation in America remains a crucial and complex chapter in the continent's history, with repercussions that continue to be felt to this day.

The period of European colonisation in Asia, although shorter than in America, had a significant impact on the continent. Stretching from approximately 1800-1820 to 1945-1955, the European presence in Asia was often characterised by the establishment of trading posts, protectorates and colonies, rather than the large-scale settlement colonisation seen in America. This period saw powers such as Great Britain, France, the Netherlands and, later, the United States, establish significant influence in various Asian regions. Colonial empires in Asia focused on controlling trade routes, gaining access to natural resources and dominating local markets. Regions such as India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Burma and many others were profoundly affected by European colonisation. Colonisation in Asia led to major political, economic and social changes. Colonial administrative structures, export-oriented economies and the introduction of new technologies and institutions profoundly transformed Asian societies. At the same time, this often led to tensions and conflicts, as colonial practices collided with local structures and traditions. The end of the Second World War marked a turning point for Asian colonies, with the rise of nationalist movements and struggles for independence. This process of decolonisation, which began in the late 1940s and continued until the 1950s, led to the emergence of new independent nation states across Asia. This first wave of decolonisation was a key moment in world history, signalling the decline of the European colonial empires and the birth of a new international order.

European colonisation of North Africa, which began in the 1830s and continued until the 1960s, brought about significant changes in the region. This period of colonisation was mainly dominated by three European powers: France, Italy and Spain. France established its presence in Algeria as early as 1830, later extending its influence to Tunisia and Morocco. Italy, in its quest to become a colonial power, conquered Libya in the early 20th century. Spain, although less present, also maintained colonial territories in northern Morocco. These European interventions profoundly altered the political, social and economic structures of North Africa. The colonial powers introduced new administrations, legal and educational systems, and sought to exploit the region's economic resources for their own interests. These changes were often imposed despite significant resistance from local populations. The period of colonisation was also marked by efforts at modernisation and urbanisation, but these developments were often accompanied by social and economic disparities. Colonial policies sometimes exacerbated ethnic and social divisions and limited economic opportunities for local populations. The era of colonisation in North Africa came to an end in the 1950s and 1960s, a period marked by independence struggles and nationalist movements. These movements led to the end of colonial control and the emergence of independent nations, although the legacy of colonisation continues to influence the region in many ways.

European colonisation of sub-Saharan Africa, although relatively late compared to other regions, had a profound and lasting impact on the continent. It began mainly in the 1880s and 1890s, at a time when European powers were engaged in a frantic race to acquire territory in Africa, a phenomenon often referred to as the "Scramble for Africa". This period of colonisation brought radical changes to sub-Saharan Africa. The borders of today's countries were largely drawn during this period, often without regard to existing ethnic, linguistic or cultural divisions. These artificial borders created nations with diverse and sometimes antagonistic groups, laying the foundations for many future conflicts and political tensions. Politically and economically, colonisation introduced new administrative structures and economic models centred on the exploitation of natural resources for the benefit of the colonial metropolises. These policies often hampered local economic development and exacerbated social and economic inequalities. The period of colonisation in sub-Saharan Africa was also marked by the resistance of local populations against colonial control and oppression. This resistance eventually led to liberation and independence movements in the 1950s and 1960s, marking the end of formal colonisation, although the impacts of this period continue to influence the region in many ways. The decolonisation of sub-Saharan Africa was a complex process, marked by struggles for national sovereignty, cultural identity and economic development.

In each region, European colonisation has left a complex and often problematic legacy, with significant impacts on the historical, cultural and economic trajectories of the colonised societies. The colonial period indelibly shaped international relations and global dynamics, the effects of which are still being felt today.

In the context of the millennia of human history, the period of European colonisation represents a relatively short span of time. Nevertheless, this era had a disproportionate impact on the formation of the modern world, particularly in terms of the division between the so-called "rich" and "poor" nations. Colonisation, which spans roughly from the 16th to the mid-20th century, coincided with and was closely linked to the emergence of modern capitalism and the Industrial Revolution in Europe. These economic developments in Europe were fuelled in part by the resources and labour of the colonised territories. This process not only enriched the colonising nations, but also led to the impoverishment and economic dependence of the colonies. The notion of the "colonial pact" refers to the economic relationship in which the colonies were often confined to being suppliers of raw materials for the colonising metropoles and markets for their finished products. This system prevented the development of autonomous local industries in many colonies and kept these economies in a state of dependence. The consequences of colonisation and the colonial pact are profound and long-lasting. Not only did they reshape the political boundaries and social structures of the colonised regions, but they also created economic imbalances and inequalities that persist to this day. The colonial period also generated complex cultural and political dynamics, the repercussions of which are still evident in international relations and in struggles for economic and social justice throughout the world.

The Politics of the Colonial Pact: Economic Structures and Dependencies

The concept of the colonial pact, developed during the period of colonisation, had a considerable impact on the way in which colonial powers managed their colonies, and in particular on their economic development. The concept originally emerged with the French colonisation of Canada, but has been applied in a variety of colonial contexts. According to the principles of the colonial pact, the colonies were seen primarily as sources of raw materials for the metropolis and markets for its manufactured products. This arrangement was designed to protect and promote the economic interests of the colonising country. As a result, the colonies were often prevented from developing their own industry and were encouraged to concentrate on the production of raw materials. This system had the effect of limiting the transmission of the Industrial Revolution to the colonies. While European nations experienced rapid technological and economic advances as a result of the Industrial Revolution, the colonies were generally kept in a state of economic dependence. This policy prevented the development of local industries, reinforcing the colonies' economic dependence on the metropolises. By establishing strict control over the economic development of their colonies, the colonial powers not only extracted significant wealth, but also significantly shaped the economic trajectories of these regions. This system helped to create and perpetuate economic inequalities between developed and developing countries, often referred to as the 'Third World'. The effects of this dynamic are still being felt in current global economic relations.

The colonial pact, as implemented by the colonial powers, was a system designed to reinforce and maintain the economic dependence of the colonies on the metropole. It was based on four main rules that shaped economic relations between the colonies and the colonising countries:

Importation from the metropolis: According to this rule, the colonies were mainly supplied with manufactured goods by the colonising country. This meant that the inhabitants of the colonies were largely forced to buy goods imported from the metropolis, thus limiting the development of any local industry and guaranteeing a captive market for products from the metropolis.
Exclusive export to the metropolis: The colonies were obliged to export their products, often raw materials such as minerals, agricultural products or textiles, exclusively to the colonising country. This enabled the metropolis to control trade in colonial resources and to profit from their resale on world markets.
No manufacturing in the colonies: This rule prohibited or severely limited the development of manufacturing or industrial industries in the colonies. The aim was to keep the colonies as sources of raw materials and to prevent any competition with metropolitan industries.
Trade controlled by the metropolitans: Colonial trade was tightly controlled by the metropolitans, whether through trade monopolies, strict regulations or customs barriers. This stranglehold on trade ensured that economic exchanges were always to the advantage of the metropolis.

These rules of the colonial pact created an economic structure in which the colonies were economically dependent on the metropolis, with little scope for autonomous development. This system had a lasting impact on the colonial economies, steering them towards the production of raw materials and limiting their economic diversification and industrialisation. The effects of these policies are still felt in many former colonies, influencing their current economic development.

The implementation of the four rules of the colonial pact had a profound impact on the economic structure of the colonies, directing their development towards a single-sector economy based on raw products. This economic structure, established during the colonial era, had lasting repercussions on the world, particularly in terms of the economic imbalances between the former colonies and the colonising countries.

Ban on industrialisation: Prohibiting or limiting industrialisation in the colonies prevented the development of an autonomous industrial base. This kept the colonies in the role of suppliers of raw materials, while manufacturing industries were concentrated in the metropolises.
Specialisation in a single-sector economy: The colonies were often specialised in the production of one or a few raw products (such as rubber, cotton, coffee, sugar, minerals, etc.). This specialisation made the colonial economies extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in the world prices of these raw materials and made them dependent on the markets of the colonising countries.

This economic structure, established during colonisation, has created persistent imbalances in the global economy. Former colonies often inherited economies based on the export of raw materials and lacking industrial diversification. Even after decolonisation, many countries struggled to diversify their economies away from dependence on a limited number of export products.

Today, this structure of the world is changing, although the legacies of colonisation remain visible. Many formerly colonised countries are seeking to diversify their economies, develop their industrial sectors and integrate into the global economy in a more balanced way. This transition, however, is complex and faces many challenges, both internally and in terms of global economic and trading systems.

Historical repercussions of colonisation

The period of European colonisation, stretching from the 16th to the 20th century, and the prolonged practice of the slave trade were decisive forces in the formation of the modern world, and in particular in the emergence and definition of the Third World. These historical eras not only reshaped the geopolitical maps of vast regions of the globe, but also established economic and social structures that endure to the present day.

Colonisation imposed arbitrary borders, established alien systems of governance and reconfigured local economies to serve the interests of colonial metropolises. Similarly, the slave trade had devastating effects, depopulating entire regions and upending societies on several continents. Together, these processes created a divided world, marked by economic disparities and inequalities in development.

The colonial pact, with its ban on industrialisation and forced specialisation in single-sector economies, reinforced this division, limiting development opportunities in the colonies and consolidating wealth and industrial power in the colonising countries. These dynamics have contributed to the creation of a world in which the formerly colonised countries are still struggling to overcome the challenges inherited from that era.

So although colonisation and the slave trade are over, their legacies continue to influence international relations, economic development trajectories and struggles for social and economic justice. An understanding of this period is essential for grasping the complexities of the contemporary world and for addressing issues of development, inequality and international relations in an informed way in the current context.

Annexes

Foreign Affairs,. (2015). How Europe Conquered the World. Retrieved 8 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/europe/2015-10-07/how-europe-conquered-world
Akhilesh Pillalamarri, T. (2015). 250 Years Ago, This Event Changed Everything in South Asia. The Diplomat. Retrieved 8 October 2015, from http://thediplomat.com/2015/10/250-years-ago-this-event-changed-everything-in-south-asia/

References

[1] Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève

[2] CV de Michel Oris en français

[1]

[2]

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 === 全球的社会和文明 ===
-At the beginning of the 16th century, Europe was undergoing a period of significant and complex transformation. After overcoming the ravages of the great plague of 1400, Europe's population began to repopulate, representing around 20% of the world's population at the time. This period of renaissance was marked by cultural and intellectual renewal, as well as major changes in society and politics. The European Renaissance saw a renewed interest in ancient knowledge, with a revival of literature, art and philosophy inspired by the legacy of ancient Greece and Rome. At the same time, Europe absorbed and adapted innovations from other parts of the world. For example, although printing with movable type is often associated with Johannes Gutenberg in Europe, it had precursors in Asia. Similarly, gunpowder, initially developed in China, was adopted and perfected in Europe, transforming warfare and military defence. From a religious and cultural point of view, Europe at this time was largely homogeneous, dominated by Christianity. This was reinforced by the expulsion of Muslims and Jews from several countries, notably Spain in 1492, a policy that contributed to a certain degree of religious and cultural uniformity, but also to internal tensions and conflicts. In terms of religion, this period also saw Europe become more firmly anchored in the Christian faith, which was often perceived as superior. This worldview was a key driver in European colonial expansion, where religion was often used to justify exploration and colonisation. Europe was also an outward-looking region, actively seeking to extend its influence around the world. This was evident in voyages of exploration, such as that of Vasco da Gama, which opened up new trade routes and marked the beginning of the era of European colonisation.
+世纪初，欧洲正经历着一场重大而复杂的变革。在克服了 1400 年大瘟疫的肆虐之后，欧洲人口开始重新聚集，约占当时世界人口的 20%。文艺复兴时期的特点是文化和知识的复兴，以及社会和政治的重大变革。欧洲文艺复兴时期，人们对古代知识重新产生了兴趣，文学、艺术和哲学在古希腊和古罗马遗产的启发下得以复兴。与此同时，欧洲吸收并改造了世界其他地区的创新成果。例如，尽管活字印刷术通常与欧洲的约翰内斯-古腾堡（Johannes Gutenberg）联系在一起，但它的前身却在亚洲。同样，最初在中国发展起来的火药在欧洲得到了采用和完善，从而改变了战争和军事防御。从宗教和文化的角度来看，此时的欧洲在很大程度上是单一的，由基督教主导。1492 年，一些国家，特别是西班牙，驱逐穆斯林和犹太人的政策加强了这一点，这一政策在一定程度上促进了宗教和文化的统一，但也造成了内部的紧张和冲突。在宗教方面，这一时期的欧洲也更加坚定地信奉基督教，基督教往往被视为优越的信仰。这种世界观是欧洲殖民扩张的主要驱动力，宗教常常被用来为探索和殖民提供理由。欧洲也是一个外向型地区，积极寻求将其影响力扩展到世界各地。这在瓦斯科-达-伽马等人的探险航行中显而易见，这些航行开辟了新的贸易路线，标志着欧洲殖民时代的开始。
-Russia is renowned for its vast territory, making it the largest country in the world in terms of surface area. It spans two continents, Europe and Asia, and covers an area of around 17 million square kilometres. This vast expanse gives Russia a great diversity of landscapes, climates and natural resources. The European part of Russia, although much smaller than its Asian counterpart, is home to the majority of its population and its main cities, including Moscow, the capital, and St Petersburg. This region is characterised by extensive plains and temperate climates. Siberia, which makes up most of Russia's territory in Asia, is famous for its vast forests, mountains and harsh climate, with long, very cold winters. Despite its harsh climate, Siberia is rich in natural resources, such as oil, natural gas and various minerals. Russia's immense size means that it shares borders with many countries, and its spread over two continents makes it an important geopolitical player. This vast territorial expanse also poses unique challenges in terms of governance, economic development and connectivity across the country. Russia's colossal size is a defining feature of its national identity, influencing its policies, economy and place on the international stage.
+俄罗斯以幅员辽阔而闻名，是世界上面积最大的国家。它横跨欧亚两大洲，面积约 1700 万平方公里。俄罗斯幅员辽阔，地貌、气候和自然资源丰富多样。俄罗斯的欧洲部分虽然比亚洲部分小得多，但却是俄罗斯大部分人口和主要城市（包括首都莫斯科和圣彼得堡）的所在地。该地区的特点是平原广阔、气候温和。西伯利亚占俄罗斯在亚洲的大部分领土，以其广袤的森林、山脉和严酷的气候而闻名，冬季漫长而寒冷。尽管气候恶劣，西伯利亚却拥有丰富的自然资源，如石油、天然气和各种矿产。俄罗斯幅员辽阔，与许多国家接壤，横跨两大洲，是地缘政治的重要参与者。幅员辽阔的领土也给全国的治理、经济发展和互联互通带来了独特的挑战。俄罗斯幅员辽阔是其国家特征的一个决定性特征，影响着其政策、经济和在国际舞台上的地位。
-At the beginning of the 16th century, Europe had a level of socio-economic development that, in many respects, was comparable to that of other advanced regions of the world, such as India and the Middle East. This period, prior to the Industrial Revolution, was characterised by predominantly agrarian economies in most parts of the world, including Europe. From a technological point of view, Europe was not clearly superior to the civilisations of the Middle East or India. These regions had a long history of significant contributions in fields such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine and engineering. For example, the Middle East, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age, had developed significant knowledge in science and technology, which later influenced Europe. In India, substantial advances had been made in fields such as mathematics (notably the development of the concepts of zero and the decimal numbering system) and metallurgy. India was also famous for its textiles and handicrafts, which were highly prized in Europe and elsewhere. However, from the 16th century onwards, Europe began to experience a number of key developments that would contribute to its technological and economic advance over other regions. Gutenberg's printing press, for example, facilitated the wider dissemination of knowledge. The Great Discoveries, by opening up new trade routes and establishing contacts with different parts of the world, also had a considerable impact. Although Europe in the early 16th century was not technologically superior to regions such as India or the Middle East, it was about to embark on a series of changes that would transform its socio-economic structure and set it on the road to global domination in the centuries that followed.
+世纪初，欧洲的社会经济发展水平在许多方面与世界其他先进地区（如印度和中东）不相上下。在工业革命之前的这一时期，包括欧洲在内的世界大部分地区都是以农业经济为主。从技术角度看，欧洲并不明显优于中东或印度的文明。这些地区历史悠久，在数学、天文学、医学和工程学等领域做出了重大贡献。例如，中东，特别是在伊斯兰黄金时代，发展了重要的科学和技术知识，这些知识后来影响了欧洲。印度在数学（特别是零和十进制计数法概念的发展）和冶金等领域取得了巨大进步。印度的纺织品和手工艺品也很有名，在欧洲和其他地方都很受重视。然而，从 16 世纪起，欧洲开始经历一系列重要的发展，这些发展有助于欧洲在技术和经济上超越其他地区。例如，古登堡的印刷术促进了知识的广泛传播。大发现开辟了新的贸易路线，与世界各地建立了联系，也产生了相当大的影响。虽然 16 世纪初的欧洲在技术上并不优于印度或中东等地区，但它即将开始一系列变革，这些变革将改变其社会经济结构，并使其在随后的几个世纪中走上称霸全球的道路。
-At the beginning of the 16th century, before the arrival of the Europeans, America had a remarkable cultural and technological diversity, with advanced civilisations including the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas. North America was vast and made up of diverse indigenous societies and cultures. These peoples had developed lifestyles adapted to their varied environments, ranging from hunting and gathering to sophisticated forms of agriculture and urban society in some regions. The southernmost parts of America, notably the regions of present-day South America, were less densely populated in some areas, but were home to advanced civilisations such as the Inca Empire. The Incas had created a vast empire with a complex administration, innovative agricultural techniques and an impressive road network. The heart of power and cultural sophistication in pre-Columbian America lay in the central regions, where the Aztec and Mayan empires were particularly advanced. These civilisations had developed sophisticated writing systems, remarkable astronomical knowledge, monumental architecture and organised societies. However, these civilisations also had significant technological limitations compared to Europeans of the same era. One of the most notable was the absence of advanced metallurgy, particularly in iron and steel, which limited their ability to produce weapons and tools comparable to those of Europeans. Nor did they have large domestic animals such as horses or oxen, which played a crucial role in Europe for agriculture and as a means of transport. These technological differences had a major impact on their encounters with European explorers and conquerors. Although Amerindian civilisations were sophisticated and advanced in many areas, the absence of certain key technologies, combined with other factors such as the diseases brought by the Europeans, contributed to their rapid decline in the face of European colonisation.
+世纪初，在欧洲人到来之前，美洲的文化和技术具有显著的多样性，包括阿兹台克人、玛雅人和印加人在内的先进文明在美洲蔚然成风。北美洲幅员辽阔，由多种多样的土著社会和文化组成。这些民族发展了适应其不同环境的生活方式，从狩猎和采集到先进的农业形式，在一些地区还发展了城市社会。美洲最南端，特别是今天的南美洲地区，有些地区人口密度较低，但却是印加帝国等先进文明的发源地。印加人建立了一个庞大的帝国，拥有复杂的行政机构、创新的农业技术和令人印象深刻的公路网。前哥伦布时期美洲的权力和文化核心在中部地区，那里的阿兹台克帝国和玛雅帝国尤为发达。这些文明发展了复杂的文字系统、非凡的天文知识、不朽的建筑和有组织的社会。然而，与同时期的欧洲人相比，这些文明在技术上也有很大的局限性。其中最显著的一点是缺乏先进的冶金技术，尤其是钢铁技术，这限制了他们生产与欧洲人相媲美的武器和工具的能力。他们也没有马或牛等大型家畜，而这些家畜在欧洲的农业和运输工具中发挥着至关重要的作用。这些技术差异对他们与欧洲探险家和征服者的相遇产生了重大影响。虽然美洲印第安文明在许多方面都很复杂和先进，但由于缺乏某些关键技术，再加上欧洲人带来的疾病等其他因素，导致他们在欧洲殖民化的冲击下迅速衰落。
-At the beginning of the 16th century, Africa and the Middle East presented diverse socio-economic and technological realities, influenced by geographical, cultural and historical factors. The Maghreb, comprising the regions of North Africa such as Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, was part of the Ottoman Empire. This region had a level of economic and technical development close to that of Europe, with flourishing cities, sophisticated irrigation systems and a rich culture influenced by exchanges between Arab, Berber and Mediterranean civilisations. Sub-Saharan Africa, often referred to as "Black Africa", presented a great diversity of cultures and economic systems. In many areas, geographical conditions, such as the proximity of the desert or the presence of the tsetse fly, made large-scale farming and the use of draught animals difficult. This led to forms of social and economic organisation adapted to these environments, often based on subsistence farming, nomadic herding or fishing. The Middle East, under the dominant influence of the Ottoman Empire, was a crossroads of cultures and trade. Istanbul, the capital of the Ottoman Empire, was one of the largest and most developed cities in the world at the time, with an estimated population of around 700,000. It was an important centre of commerce, culture and administration, with an impressive infrastructure and architecture. The economic and technical development of the Middle East and parts of North Africa was comparable to, and sometimes even greater than, that of Europe in the same period. These regions had a rich cultural and scientific heritage, particularly in fields such as medicine, astronomy and mathematics. At the beginning of the 16th century, both the Maghreb and the Middle East showed advanced levels of development, influenced by their integration into the Ottoman Empire. By contrast, sub-Saharan Africa, with its unique geographical challenges, had developed economic and social systems adapted to its particular environmental conditions.
+世纪初，受地理、文化和历史因素的影响，非洲和中东呈现出多样化的社会经济和技术现实。马格里布包括摩洛哥、阿尔及利亚和突尼斯等北非地区，是奥斯曼帝国的一部分。该地区的经济和技术发展水平接近欧洲，拥有繁荣的城市、先进的灌溉系统以及受阿拉伯、柏柏尔和地中海文明交流影响的丰富文化。撒哈拉以南非洲地区通常被称为 "黑非洲"，该地区的文化和经济体系多种多样。在许多地区，由于靠近沙漠或存在舌蝇等地理条件，很难进行大规模耕作和使用役畜。这导致了适应这些环境的社会和经济组织形式，通常以自给农作、游牧或捕鱼为基础。在奥斯曼帝国的主导影响下，中东是文化和贸易的交汇点。奥斯曼帝国的首都伊斯坦布尔是当时世界上最大、最发达的城市之一，估计人口约 70 万。它是重要的商业、文化和行政中心，拥有令人印象深刻的基础设施和建筑。中东和北非部分地区的经济和技术发展可与同期的欧洲相媲美，有时甚至超过欧洲。这些地区拥有丰富的文化和科学遗产，尤其是在医学、天文学和数学等领域。16 世纪初，马格里布和中东地区都受到奥斯曼帝国一体化的影响，呈现出先进的发展水平。相比之下，撒哈拉以南非洲由于其独特的地理挑战，已经发展出适应其特殊环境条件的经济和社会制度。
-At the beginning of the 16th century, Asia was a continent of great demographic and cultural importance, home to many of the world's greatest civilisations at the time. With a population far greater than that of Europe, Asia was the cradle of ancient and advanced civilisations. Empires and kingdoms in China, India, Japan, Southeast Asia and other regions had developed rich cultures and complex political and economic systems. In India, the emergence of the Mughal Empire in the early 16th century marked the beginning of a period of stability and prosperity. Under the leadership of rulers such as Akbar the Great, the empire unified much of the Indian subcontinent, becoming a major military and political power. The sophistication of Mughal administration, combined with India's cultural and economic wealth, made the region an important global player. India was particularly famous for its cotton industry, which was the largest and most advanced in the world at the time. The quality and finesse of Indian textiles were highly sought-after, and the trade in cotton and other products such as spices played a central role in the world economy. The Indian textile industry was not only an economic engine, but also an example of India's technical sophistication, which in some areas often equalled or surpassed that of Europe. From a technical and industrial point of view, certain regions of Asia, including India, were on a par with or even superior to Europe. This was particularly evident in areas such as metallurgy, textile manufacturing and shipbuilding. Asia in the early 16th century was a dynamic and diverse continent, home to advanced civilisations with sophisticated economies and powerful political systems. India, in particular, stood out as a political, economic and military giant, rivalling and sometimes surpassing Europe in many areas.
+世纪初，亚洲在人口和文化方面都具有重要意义，是当时世界上许多最伟大文明的发源地。亚洲的人口远远超过欧洲，是古代先进文明的摇篮。中国、印度、日本、东南亚和其他地区的帝国和王国发展了丰富的文化和复杂的政治经济制度。在印度，16 世纪初莫卧儿帝国的出现标志着稳定和繁荣时期的开始。在阿克巴大帝等统治者的领导下，帝国统一了印度次大陆的大部分地区，成为一个军事和政治大国。莫卧儿王朝先进的行政管理，加上印度丰富的文化和经济财富，使该地区成为全球的重要角色。印度的棉纺织业尤为著名，是当时世界上最大、最先进的棉纺织业。印度纺织品的质量和精细程度备受追捧，棉花和其他产品（如香料）的贸易在世界经济中发挥着核心作用。印度纺织业不仅是经济引擎，也是印度技术先进性的体现，在某些领域，印度的技术水平往往与欧洲相当，甚至超过欧洲。从技术和工业角度来看，包括印度在内的亚洲某些地区与欧洲不相上下，甚至更胜一筹。这一点在冶金、纺织品制造和造船等领域尤为明显。16 世纪初的亚洲是一个充满活力和多样性的大陆，拥有先进的文明、成熟的经济和强大的政治体系。特别是印度，作为一个政治、经济和军事巨人，在许多领域都可与欧洲相媲美，有时甚至超越欧洲。
-China, in the course of its long and rich history, has been the cradle of many fundamental inventions that have had a profound impact on humanity. In the period leading up to and including the early 16th century, China made significant contributions in various fields of science and technology. The invention of paper is attributed to Cai Lun at the beginning of the 2nd century AD, although forms of paper probably existed before him. Chinese paper, made from plant fibres, was of superior quality and more durable than the writing materials used elsewhere in the world at the time. China also developed high-quality inks, essential to the art of calligraphy and the dissemination of knowledge. China is also credited with the invention of gunpowder. Initially discovered in an alchemical context, gunpowder was first used for military purposes in China. This invention revolutionised warfare tactics the world over. Although the precise details of carbon refining in ancient China are not clearly established, China has historically demonstrated great mastery of metallurgy, including steel production. The compass, another crucial instrument invented in China, was first used for divination before finding applications in navigation. It revolutionised maritime navigation, enabling much more accurate and distant journeys. These Chinese inventions have had a major impact not only in China but throughout the world, shaping the development of many societies and cultures. The transmission of these technologies to other parts of the world, often through the Silk Road and other trade networks, has played a key role in the development of science and technology on a global scale. In this sense, China has been a major source of innovation and a key contributor to humanity's technological progress.
+在漫长而丰富的历史进程中，中国是许多对人类产生深远影响的基本发明的摇篮。在 16 世纪早期之前的时期，中国在各个科技领域都做出了重大贡献。公元 2 世纪初，蔡伦发明了纸，尽管纸的形式可能在他之前就已存在。中国的纸由植物纤维制成，质量上乘，比当时世界上其他地方使用的书写材料更耐用。中国还发明了对书法艺术和知识传播至关重要的优质墨水。中国还发明了火药。火药最初是在炼金术中发现的，在中国首次用于军事目的。这一发明彻底改变了全世界的战争战术。虽然中国古代炼碳的确切细节没有明确记载，但中国在历史上展示了冶金（包括钢铁生产）的高超技艺。指南针是中国发明的另一种重要工具，最初用于占卜，后来才应用于航海。它彻底改变了海上航行，使航行更加准确和遥远。中国的这些发明不仅在中国，而且在全世界都产生了重大影响，塑造了许多社会和文化的发展。这些技术通常通过丝绸之路和其他贸易网络传播到世界其他地区，对全球范围内的科技发展起到了关键作用。从这个意义上说，中国一直是创新的主要源泉，也是人类科技进步的重要贡献者。
-At the beginning of the 16th century, the world showed a degree of homogeneity in terms of technological and socio-economic development between different civilisations, despite some disparities. China, for example, was at the forefront in several technological fields, but other regions such as India, the Middle East, parts of Africa and Europe had also developed advanced technologies and socio-economic systems. These regions shared innovations through trade and cultural interaction, facilitating the spread of knowledge and technology. The gaps in technology and development between these civilisations were not extremely pronounced. Regions such as the Ottoman Empire and India had levels of sophistication comparable to China's in areas such as architecture, literature, science and technology. In Europe, despite lagging behind in some respects, major advances were underway, particularly with the Renaissance and the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. The ability to spread innovations from one region to another played a crucial role in global development. Innovations from advanced regions spread to other parts of the world and were often adapted and improved according to local contexts. Towards the end of the 16th century, Europe began to assert itself increasingly on the world stage, largely through colonisation. This European expansion was driven by a range of factors, including advances in maritime navigation, economic and religious motivations, and a desire for political expansion. Europe succeeded in exploiting the world's resources and extending its influence through colonisation and the establishment of overseas empires. Although differences existed between civilisations at the beginning of the 16th century, there was a certain homogeneity in terms of development. This homogeneity facilitated the spread of innovations around the world, paving the way for the global interconnection that accelerated with European expansion and colonisation.
+世纪初，尽管存在一些差异，但世界不同文明之间在技术和社会经济发展方面呈现出一定程度的同质性。例如，中国在多个技术领域处于领先地位，但印度、中东、非洲部分地区和欧洲等其他地区也发展了先进的技术和社会经济体系。这些地区通过贸易和文化交流分享创新成果，促进了知识和技术的传播。这些文明之间在技术和发展方面的差距并不十分明显。奥斯曼帝国和印度等地区在建筑、文学、科学和技术等领域的先进程度与中国不相上下。在欧洲，尽管在某些方面落后于中国，但仍取得了重大进步，尤其是文艺复兴和新教改革的开始。创新从一个地区传播到另一个地区的能力在全球发展中发挥着至关重要的作用。先进地区的创新传播到世界其他地区，并往往根据当地情况进行调整和改进。16 世纪末，欧洲开始在世界舞台上日益壮大，主要是通过殖民化。推动欧洲扩张的因素很多，包括航海技术的进步、经济和宗教动机以及政治扩张的愿望。通过殖民和建立海外帝国，欧洲成功地开发了世界资源并扩大了影响力。虽然 16 世纪初不同文明之间存在差异，但在发展方面却存在一定的同质性。这种同质性促进了创新在世界各地的传播，为随着欧洲扩张和殖民化而加速的全球互联铺平了道路。
-== The major stages of European colonisation ==
+== 欧洲殖民化的主要阶段 ==
-==== Colonisation in America: The Dawn of the Colonial Era and its Transformations ====
+==== 美洲的殖民化： 殖民时代的黎明及其变革 ====
-[[Image:Fundacion_de_la_Ciudad_de_Mexico-Extracto_del_codice_Duran.jpg|thumb|300px|Fondation de la ville de Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Codex Durán, 16th century.]]
+[[Image:Fundacion_de_la_Ciudad_de_Mexico-Extracto_del_codice_Duran.jpg|thumb|300px|墨西哥-特诺奇蒂特兰城的建立。杜兰法典》，16 世纪。]]
-The period between 1520 and 1540 marks a crucial phase in the history of the Americas, characterised by the rapid and brutal conquest of pre-Columbian civilisations by the Spanish conquistadors. This conquest, which began less than thirty years after the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492, had devastating consequences for the continent's indigenous peoples. The conquistadors, led by figures such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, targeted advanced and organised civilisations such as the Aztecs and the Incas. Despite the sophistication and complexity of these societies, they were quickly crushed by the European invaders. Several factors contributed to this rapid outcome, including the military superiority of the Spanish, the use of tactics and diplomacy, and the exploitation of internal divisions within the native empires. The conquest of these empires was also marked by a terrifying human cost. In addition to the direct violence of the conquest, the indigenous population was decimated by diseases imported from Europe, such as smallpox, to which the native peoples had no immunity. By 1650, the population of the Americas had fallen dramatically, from around 60 million to around 10 million. This demographic fall was one of the biggest in human history. The relative ease with which the conquistadors overthrew these advanced civilisations contributed to a superiority complex among Europeans. This perception of superiority, coupled with the wealth derived from the New World, reinforced Europe's power and influence on the world stage. The conquest of the Americas by the Spanish conquistadors not only radically transformed the American continent, but also had profound repercussions on the global balance of power and on cultural and racial perceptions that had persisted for centuries.
+年至 1540 年是美洲历史的关键时期，西班牙征服者对哥伦布之前的文明进行了迅速而残酷的征服。这场征服始于 1492 年克里斯托弗-哥伦布抵达美洲后不到 30 年的时间，给美洲大陆的原住民带来了毁灭性的后果。由埃尔南-科尔特斯（Hernán Cortés）和弗朗西斯科-皮萨罗（Francisco Pizarro）等人领导的征服者将目标对准了阿兹特克人和印加人等先进而有组织的文明。尽管这些社会先进而复杂，但很快就被欧洲入侵者击溃。造成这一迅速结果的因素有很多，包括西班牙人的军事优势、战术和外交手段的运用，以及对土著帝国内部分裂的利用。在征服这些帝国的过程中，人类也付出了可怕的代价。除了直接的暴力征服，从欧洲传入的疾病（如天花）也使土著人口锐减，而土著人对这些疾病毫无免疫力。到 1650 年，美洲人口急剧下降，从大约 6000 万下降到大约 1000 万。这次人口下降是人类历史上最大的一次。征服者相对轻松地推翻了这些先进文明，这助长了欧洲人的优越感。这种优越感加上从新大陆获得的财富，增强了欧洲在世界舞台上的实力和影响力。西班牙征服者对美洲的征服不仅从根本上改变了美洲大陆，而且对全球力量平衡以及延续了几个世纪的文化和种族观念产生了深远影响。
-The tragic decline in the indigenous population of the Americas following the European conquest can be attributed to two main causes: the introduction of infectious diseases and direct violence in the form of massacres and forced labour. The meeting of the European, African and American worlds led to what is known as "microbial unification". The Europeans, later accompanied by Africans deported as slaves, brought with them to America diseases unknown to the indigenous populations. These diseases, such as smallpox, typhus, leprosy, dysentery and yellow fever, were particularly devastating. The indigenous population, having no natural immunity to these diseases, suffered massive losses. Smallpox, in particular, wreaked immeasurable havoc, decimating entire communities. At the same time, the conquistadors perpetrated large-scale direct violence against the indigenous peoples. This violence included systematic massacres and the enslavement of many communities. Forced labour, often in inhumane conditions such as in the mines, not only took the lives of many indigenous people but also destroyed the very foundations of their social and cultural organisation. These two factors, combined, led to a dramatic reduction in the indigenous population of the Americas. This dark period in history has had a profound impact on American societies and continues to resonate in the collective memory and history of the indigenous peoples. The conquest of the Americas remains one of the most tragic and transformative events in human history.
+欧洲征服美洲后，美洲土著人口锐减的悲剧可归咎于两个主要原因：传染病的传入以及以屠杀和强迫劳动为形式的直接暴力。欧洲、非洲和美洲世界的相遇导致了所谓的 "微生物统一"。欧洲人，后来还有被当作奴隶驱逐的非洲人，把原住民不知道的疾病带到了美洲。这些疾病，如天花、斑疹伤寒、麻风病、痢疾和黄热病，尤其具有毁灭性。原住民对这些疾病没有天然免疫力，因此遭受了巨大损失。尤其是天花，它造成了无法估量的灾难，使整个社区人口锐减。与此同时，征服者还对土著人实施了大规模的直接暴力。这种暴力包括有计划的屠杀和奴役许多社区。强迫劳动（通常是在矿井等非人条件下）不仅夺走了许多土著人的生命，还摧毁了他们的社会和文化组织基础。这两个因素加在一起，导致美洲土著人口急剧减少。这段黑暗的历史对美洲社会产生了深远的影响，并继续在土著人民的集体记忆和历史中产生共鸣。征服美洲仍然是人类历史上最悲惨和最具变革性的事件之一。
-The European conquest of the Americas gave rise to an economy based primarily on the exploitation of both natural resources and the indigenous population. This economy evolved in several phases, marked by the intensity and nature of the exploitation. Initially, gold and silver were the main targets of the European conquerors, giving rise to an economy of plunder. The riches of the Inca and Maya empires, among others, were systematically stolen. Considerable treasures were transferred to Europe, disrupting both American and European economies. Once the easily accessible riches had been exhausted, attention turned to mining, particularly in places like the Potosí mines in what is now Bolivia. These mines, among the largest and richest in the world, were exploited primarily for their silver, using the forced labour of indigenous populations in extremely difficult conditions. From the mid-sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the plantation system began to take shape. This system was adapted to the geological and climatic differences between America and Europe. In Latin America, the tropical climate was ideal for growing crops such as sugar and coffee. These crops were destined for export to the European metropolises and were grown on large farms. The workforce on these plantations consisted mainly of Indian slaves and, later, African slaves brought over via the transatlantic slave trade. Working conditions on these plantations were often brutal and inhumane, with little regard for the lives or welfare of the slaves. The economy of the Americas under European rule was characterised by intense exploitation of natural and human resources. Gold and silver were first plundered and then mined, before the economy turned to plantation agriculture, intensively exploiting both the soil and slave labour. This period left deep scars on the continent, the effects of which are still felt today.
+欧洲人对美洲的征服催生了一种主要以对自然资源和土著居民的剥削为基础的经济。这种经济的发展经历了几个阶段，以开采的强度和性质为标志。最初，金银是欧洲征服者的主要目标，由此产生了掠夺经济。印加帝国和玛雅帝国等的财富被有计划地掠夺。大量财宝被转移到欧洲，扰乱了美洲和欧洲的经济。一旦容易获取的财富被耗尽，人们的注意力就转向了采矿业，特别是位于现在的玻利维亚的波托西（Potosí）矿区。这些矿山是世界上最大和最富有的矿山之一，主要开采银矿，强迫土著居民在极其艰苦的条件下劳动。从 16 世纪中叶到 17 世纪初，种植园制度开始形成。这种制度适应了美洲和欧洲在地质和气候方面的差异。拉丁美洲的热带气候非常适合种植糖和咖啡等作物。这些作物主要出口到欧洲大都市，在大农场种植。这些种植园的劳动力主要是印第安奴隶，后来还有通过跨大西洋奴隶贸易带来的非洲奴隶。这些种植园的工作条件往往是残酷和不人道的，几乎不考虑奴隶的生命和福利。在欧洲人统治下，美洲经济的特点是对自然资源和人力资源的大力开发。金银先是被掠夺，然后被开采，之后经济转向种植园农业，对土壤和奴隶劳动力进行密集开发。这一时期给非洲大陆留下了深深的伤痕，其影响至今仍可感受到。
-Bartholomé de Las Casas, a Spanish Dominican, played a crucial role in the history of colonisation in the Americas, particularly in defending the rights of indigenous peoples. During the period of intensive colonisation and exploitation, it became clear to contemporaries that the local population was dwindling drastically, partly as a result of exploitation and imported diseases. De Las Casas was one of the first and most fervent defenders of the indigenous peoples. As a priest, he pleaded before the Spanish judicial authorities for the protection of the Indians, arguing that their conversion to Catholicism made their enslavement unacceptable. His argument was based on moral and religious principles, asserting that the Indians, as converts or potential converts to Christianity, had spiritual and human rights that should be respected. However, de Las Casas faced strong opposition from plantation owners and other colonial interests, who were heavily dependent on slave labour for their farms. These groups did not want to give up their source of cheap labour and vigorously opposed de Las Casas' efforts. Although de Las Casas did not succeed in convincing the Spanish authorities to abolish Indian slavery immediately, his work helped to raise awareness of their plight and influenced subsequent policies. A few decades after his efforts, Indian slavery was gradually abandoned, although many forms of exploitation and forced labour persisted. The work of Bartholomé de Las Casas is an important testimony to the resistance to injustice in this period of history. Although his successes were limited in his time, he remains a significant historical figure for his advocacy of the rights of indigenous peoples.
+西班牙多米尼加人巴托洛梅-德-拉斯卡萨斯在美洲殖民史上发挥了至关重要的作用，尤其是在捍卫土著人民权利方面。在密集的殖民化和开发时期，同时代的人们清楚地看到，当地人口正在急剧减少，部分原因是开发和外来疾病。德拉斯-卡萨斯是最早也是最狂热的土著人捍卫者之一。作为一名牧师，他向西班牙司法当局恳求保护印第安人，认为印第安人皈依天主教使他们遭受奴役是不可接受的。他的论点基于道德和宗教原则，主张印第安人作为基督教的皈依者或潜在皈依者，其精神和人权应得到尊重。然而，德拉斯卡萨斯遭到了种植园主和其他殖民利益集团的强烈反对，他们的农场严重依赖奴隶劳动力。这些集团不愿放弃廉价劳动力，极力反对 de Las Casas 的努力。虽然 de Las Casas 没有成功说服西班牙当局立即废除印第安奴隶制，但他的工作有助于提高人们对印第安人困境的认识，并影响了后来的政策。在他的努力下，几十年后，印第安奴隶制逐渐被废除，但许多形式的剥削和强迫劳动依然存在。巴塞洛缪-德-拉斯卡萨斯的工作是这一历史时期反抗不公正的重要见证。虽然他在当时取得的成就有限，但他仍是一位倡导土著人民权利的重要历史人物。
-The demographic collapse of the Amerindian populations had a major impact on the development of the transatlantic slave trade. Faced with a drastic reduction in the indigenous workforce due to disease, massacres and inhumane working conditions, the European colonisers looked for alternatives to maintain their economic activities, particularly on the large sugar and coffee plantations. To compensate for the loss of labour due to the demographic collapse of the indigenous populations, the Europeans turned to Africa. This was the start of a massive trade in African slaves, marking the explosion of the transatlantic slave trade. Captured Africans were forcibly transported across the Atlantic in extremely difficult and inhumane conditions, a crossing known as the "Middle Passage". This influx of African slaves into the Americas was a direct response to the need for labour in the colonies. Slaves were mainly employed on plantations, but also in other sectors such as mining and domestic service. The living and working conditions of African slaves were brutal, characterised by extreme violence and systematic dehumanisation. The transatlantic slave trade became one of the most tragic and inhuman features of this period of world history. Not only did it have devastating consequences for the millions of displaced Africans and their descendants, it also had a profound impact on the economic, social and cultural development of the Americas. The demographic collapse of the Amerindian populations was a determining factor in the emergence and explosion of the transatlantic slave trade, a dark episode that indelibly shaped the history and society of the Americas.
+美洲印第安人人口的崩溃对跨大西洋奴隶贸易的发展产生了重大影响。由于疾病、屠杀和不人道的工作条件，土著劳动力急剧减少，面对这种情况，欧洲殖民者寻找其他办法来维持他们的经济活动，特别是大型蔗糖和咖啡种植园。为了弥补土著人口崩溃造成的劳动力损失，欧洲人将目光转向了非洲。这是大规模非洲奴隶贸易的开始，标志着跨大西洋奴隶贸易的爆发。被俘虏的非洲人在极端困难和不人道的条件下被强行运过大西洋，这一跨越被称为 "中间航程"。非洲奴隶大量涌入美洲，直接满足了殖民地对劳动力的需求。奴隶主要受雇于种植园，但也从事采矿和家政服务等其他行业。非洲奴隶的生活和工作条件十分残酷，其特点是极端暴力和系统性的非人化。跨大西洋贩卖奴隶成为这段世界历史上最悲惨、最不人道的特征之一。它不仅对数百万流离失所的非洲人及其后裔造成了毁灭性的后果，也对美洲的经济、社会和文化发展产生了深远的影响。美洲印第安人人口的崩溃是跨大西洋奴隶贸易出现和爆发的决定性因素，这一黑暗事件不可磨灭地塑造了美洲的历史和社会。
-==== Colonial expansion in North America ====
+==== 北美殖民扩张 ====
-The initial colonisation of North America by Europeans differed from that of Latin America, partly because of differences in climate and perceptions of economic opportunity. North America, with its temperate climate, is more like Europe. However, unlike Latin America, which offered immediate wealth in the form of gold and silver as well as climatic conditions favourable to the cultivation of highly profitable products such as sugar and coffee, North America did not seem to offer the same immediate economic opportunities to the first European colonisers. In Latin America, the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadors quickly discovered civilisations rich in gold and silver, such as the Inca and Aztec empires, which stimulated intense interest and rapid colonisation. In North America, on the other hand, the first European explorers found no such instant riches. Moreover, the indigenous societies of North America were less centralised and monumental than those of Latin America, making conquest and exploitation less obvious and immediately lucrative. As a result, early colonisation efforts in North America were relatively limited and focused on activities such as the fur trade, fishing and agriculture, rather than the extraction of valuable minerals. It was only later, with the recognition of North America's agricultural and commercial potential, that European settlement expanded. The initial economic interests in North America were less obvious than those in Latin America, which influenced the approach and intensity of European colonisation in these regions. The logic of exploitation, focused on immediate wealth and quick economic gains, led to an initially lesser focus on North America.
+欧洲人最初对北美洲的殖民统治不同于对拉丁美洲的殖民统治，部分原因是气候和对经济机会的认识不同。北美洲气候温和，更像欧洲。然而，拉丁美洲提供了金银等直接财富以及有利于种植糖和咖啡等高利润产品的气候条件，而北美洲则不同，它似乎并没有为第一批欧洲殖民者提供同样直接的经济机会。在拉丁美洲，西班牙和葡萄牙征服者很快就发现了盛产金银的文明，如印加帝国和阿兹台克帝国，这激发了他们的浓厚兴趣，殖民活动迅速展开。而在北美洲，第一批欧洲探险家却没有发现这样的即时财富。此外，与拉丁美洲相比，北美洲的原住民社会没有那么中央集权，也没有那么宏伟壮观，因此征服和剥削并不那么明显，也不那么有利可图。因此，北美洲早期的殖民活动相对有限，主要集中在毛皮贸易、渔业和农业等活动上，而不是开采有价值的矿产。后来，随着人们认识到北美洲的农业和商业潜力，欧洲人才扩大了定居范围。北美洲最初的经济利益不如拉丁美洲明显，这影响了欧洲在这些地区殖民的方式和力度。剥削的逻辑注重眼前的财富和快速的经济收益，导致欧洲人最初对北美洲的关注较少。
-European colonisation of North America, which intensified later than in Latin America, had distinct motivations and characteristics. It was largely based on settlement, i.e. the establishment of permanent communities rather than immediate economic exploitation. Religious conflicts in Europe, particularly between Catholics and Protestants, were a major driving force behind migration to North America. Many Europeans sought refuge from religious persecution and political unrest in their home countries. The Mayflower, which reached what is now Massachusetts in 1620, is an emblematic example of this migration. It carried Puritans, a group of English Protestants seeking religious freedom, establishing one of the first permanent settlements in North America. As transport costs fell and news of opportunities in North America spread, more and more Europeans were attracted by the prospect of a better life. These immigrants were motivated not only by religious reasons, but also by the promise of land, wealth and a new life. Unlike the Latin American colonies, where indigenous labour was often exploited for resource extraction, the North American colonies were predominantly agricultural, with settlers working the land themselves. This settlement dynamic had a profound impact on the development of North America, leading to the creation of societies with political and social structures distinct from those of Latin America. Over time, these settlements evolved into complex societies with their own cultural and political identities, laying the foundations for what would later become the United States and Canada.
+欧洲在北美洲的殖民化晚于在拉丁美洲的殖民化，其动机和特点也截然不同。它主要以定居为基础，即建立永久性社区，而不是立即进行经济开发。欧洲的宗教冲突，尤其是天主教徒和新教徒之间的冲突，是移民北美的主要动力。许多欧洲人为躲避本国的宗教迫害和政治动乱而寻求避难。1620 年抵达现在的马萨诸塞州的 "五月花号 "就是这种移民的典型代表。这艘船载着一群寻求宗教自由的英国新教徒--清教徒，在北美建立了最早的永久定居点之一。随着运输成本的降低和北美机遇的传播，越来越多的欧洲人被美好生活的前景所吸引。这些移民的动机不仅仅是宗教原因，还有土地、财富和新生活的承诺。与拉美殖民地不同的是，北美殖民地以农业为主，定居者自己耕种土地，当地的劳动力往往被用来开采资源。这种定居动态对北美的发展产生了深远的影响，导致建立了不同于拉丁美洲的政治和社会结构的社会。随着时间的推移，这些定居点逐渐演变成具有自身文化和政治特征的复杂社会，为后来的美国和加拿大奠定了基础。
-==== The European Footprint in Asia: Trade and Protectorates ====
+==== 欧洲在亚洲的足迹： 贸易与保护国 ====
-[[Image:Clive.jpg|thumb|Meeting between Lord Clive and Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey, by Francis Hayman (c. 1762).]]
+[[Image:Clive.jpg|thumb|普拉西战役后克莱夫勋爵与米尔-贾法尔的会面，弗朗西斯-海曼（约 1762 年）绘制。]]
 The period from the late 15th century to the mid-18th century marked an era of European maritime dominance, with significant implications for India and other parts of Asia. This era began with Vasco da Gama's arrival in India in 1498, paving the way for growing European influence in the region. The arrival of Europeans in India and other parts of Asia coincided with a period when European ships, armed with cannons and other advanced naval technology, dominated the seas. This naval superiority enabled European powers, notably Portugal, the Netherlands, Great Britain and France, to control key sea routes and dominate maritime trade. In India, the European presence transformed the dynamics of trade. The European powers established trading posts and colonies along the coasts, controlling key points of maritime trade. Local merchants were often forced to sell their products, particularly spices, to these European powers, who then exported them to Europe and other markets. Although the spice trade represented only a small fraction (0.02-0.05%) of Asia's GNP, it generated enormous profits for the Europeans. European domination of the seas also had the effect of limiting the development of Asian fleets. The national navies of countries like India were outmatched by European naval power, hindering their ability to engage in maritime trade on an equal footing. This period of European domination had profound and lasting effects on India and other parts of Asia. It not only redirected trade flows and economic relations, but also paved the way for more direct European political and colonial influence in these regions, particularly evident with the rise of the British East India Company and Britain's subsequent colonisation of India.

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