中东的概念

根据 Yilmaz Özcan 的课程改编。

Languages

Deutsch English Español Français Italiano 日本語

Português

当代中东：国家、民族和社区

中东的概念 ● 中东地区的语言、宗教和文化 ● 中东地区的帝国和国家 ● 中东地区的政治和宗教潮流

中东地区幅员辽阔，从埃及到伊朗，包括以色列、约旦、黎巴嫩、叙利亚、伊拉克、沙特阿拉伯等国。在地理位置上，该地区是连接欧洲、亚洲和非洲的桥梁，其战略地位决定了其历史和政治。它是古代文明和三大一神教的摇篮： 犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教对其文化和传统产生了深远的影响。历史上，中东一直是强大帝国的中心，如奥斯曼帝国和波斯帝国，奥斯曼帝国一直统治到第一次世界大战后灭亡，波斯帝国以其文化和科学财富而闻名于世。该地区诞生了许多具有影响力的人物，如 12 世纪反抗十字军的代表人物萨拉丁，以及 20 世纪阿拉伯民族主义的核心人物、埃及领导人贾迈勒-阿卜杜勒-纳赛尔。

受欧洲殖民化和世界大国对中东自然资源（主要是石油）利益的影响，中东也一直是地缘政治冲突的主要地区。1916 年签订的《赛克斯-皮科协定》在奥斯曼帝国灭亡后重新划定了该地区的边界，是西方影响中东政治格局的一个突出例子。这一时期也标志着巴勒斯坦问题的开始，该问题至今仍是争论的焦点。在经济方面，石油的发现和开采彻底改变了某些中东国家，如沙特阿拉伯、卡塔尔和阿拉伯联合酋长国，使其成为地区经济大国。然而，这些财富的分配并不均衡，一直是造成内部和外部紧张局势的根源。该地区发生了一些重大的社会运动，如 2011 年的 "阿拉伯之春"，引发了一系列要求民主改革的民众起义。这些事件凸显了许多中东社会面临的挑战，如腐败、失业和政治压迫。在理论方面，政治学和历史学对中东的分析往往包含殖民主义、民族主义、泛阿拉伯主义等概念，最近还包括对恐怖主义和宗教原教旨主义的研究。这些概念有助于理解该地区的复杂动态。

今天的中东仍然是一个不断变化的地区，在传统与现代之间徘徊，并继续在世界舞台上发挥着核心作用，对其边界以外的政治、经济和文化产生着深远的影响。

中东概念

中东 "的概念与欧洲的观点密切相关，反映了西方列强历史上对这一地区的看法和分类方式。1902 年，美国一位颇具影响力的海军战略家阿尔弗雷德-塞耶-马汉（Alfred Thayer Mahan）在一篇讨论印度和印度洋战略问题的文章中首次使用了 "中东 "一词。

马汉用这个词来指对海军和商业利益具有重要战略意义的地理区域，特别是通往当时英国重要殖民地印度的航线。马汉的 "中东 "地区包括从西部的奥斯曼帝国到印度西部边境的领土，包括波斯湾和其他重要的海上和商业控制区。这种中东概念是 20 世纪初地缘政治分析中盛行的欧洲中心主义方法的象征。它反映了殖民国家的视野，殖民国家主要从自身战略和经济利益的角度来看待该地区。这种观点不仅决定了西方话语对中东的理解和表述方式，也决定了该地区边界和政治结构的确立方式，尤其是在奥斯曼帝国灭亡和第一次世界大战结束之后。

中东 "一词早在阿尔弗雷德-塞耶-马汉（Alfred Thayer Mahan）之前就已使用，尽管该词的流行通常归功于他。据说，英国军官兼外交官托马斯-爱德华-戈登爵士早在 1842 年就使用过 "中东 "一词。然而，这一早期的使用在地缘政治和学术界并没有产生与马汉相同的影响或反响。戈登对 "中东 "一词的使用可以看作是欧洲列强开始从帝国利益和战略利益角度对该地区进行概念化和定义的早期迹象。然而，真正让 "中东 "一词成为现代地缘政治术语的是马汉在 1902 年发表的文章。马汉着重强调了该地区对控制海上通道和获取资源的重要性，从而赋予了该术语战略层面的含义，与当时西方列强的利益和关切产生了共鸣。这两种用法在影响和传播上的差异说明，某些思想或概念的影响力如何取决于使用它们的历史和地缘政治背景。戈登的用法仍相对隐晦，而马汉的用法则出现在中东的战略挑战开始被西方列强日益认识到的时候，这促进了这一术语的普及和延续。

瓦伦丁-奇洛尔（Valentine Chirol）是一位颇具影响力的记者和外交政策评论员，他为 "中东 "概念的历史增添了一个有趣的视角。奇洛尔供职于伦敦《泰晤士报》（而非《纽约时报》），在 20 世纪初该术语的普及和传播方面发挥了关键作用。瓦伦丁-奇洛尔曾是《泰晤士报》的记者，后来担任外交事务主管，撰写了许多关于国际政治的有影响力的文章和书籍，他的文章经常涉及我们现在所说的中东地区。他的分析尤其关注地缘政治动态，包括所谓的 "大博弈"--大英帝国和俄罗斯帝国为争夺中亚控制权而展开的战略竞争。

虽然基罗尔没有严格界定中东的地理边界，但他的著作帮助西方形成了对该地区作为重要战略空间的认识，尤其是与英国和俄罗斯在中亚的利益相关的战略空间。对 "大博弈 "的关注凸显了该地区的重要性，不仅因为其经济潜力（尤其是石油资源），还因为其在地缘政治力量平衡中的作用。事实上，基罗尔对中东问题的讨论是帝国竞争和势力范围重新界定这一更广泛背景的一部分，而帝国竞争和势力范围的重新界定塑造了 19 世纪末 20 世纪初的国际政治。因此，他的著作有助于将中东确立为西方地缘政治话语中的一个关键概念，尽管该地区的确切定义和边界随着时间的推移不断演变。

将 "中东 "概念化为一个独特的地区

中东 "作为一个独特地区的概念与 19 世纪和 20 世纪初在殖民和帝国利益背景下出现 的欧洲中心主义观点密切相关。在这种世界观中，各地区根据其与欧洲的相对接近程度进行分类，从而产生了 "远东"、"近东 "和 "中东 "等术语。

远东包括中国、日本和韩国等国家，这些国家被认为离欧洲最远。这一地区在西方帝国主义时期具有重要意义，其标志事件包括鸦片战争（1839-1842 年）和 1854 年海军准将佩里强迫日本向西方开放贸易。至于 "近东"，最初是指奥斯曼帝国毗邻欧洲的领土，如土耳其、希腊，有时也包括埃及。19 世纪奥斯曼帝国的坦齐马特（Tanzimat）改革和东方问题（欧洲列强与奥斯曼帝国关系中的一个重要外交和文化问题）说明了这一地区在当时欧洲外交政策中的重要性。位于这两个地区之间的 "中东 "的定义较为宽泛。阿尔弗雷德-塞耶-马汉（Alfred Thayer Mahan）在其 1902 年的文章中普及了这一术语，强调了该地区在控制通往亚洲的海上通道和石油资源方面的战略重要性。英俄两国在该地区的竞争（即所谓的 "大博弈"）强化了这一观点。

这些术语的使用反映并强化了以欧洲为中心的世界观，即主要根据地区与欧洲利益的关系来定义和理解地区。这种观点在后殖民论述和现代地区研究中受到批评，因为它缺乏对相关地区内部动力和自主性的认识。在政治学和历史学中，对这些术语的分析凸显了殖民化和帝国主义的复杂性和后果，同时也强调了以更加细致入微和因地制宜的方法来理解世界各地区的必要性。

第一次世界大战对地缘政治术语的重新定义、"近东 "一词的逐渐消失以及 "中东 "概念的普及和巩固起到了至关重要的作用。第一次世界大战期间，奥斯曼帝国与中央列强结盟，而奥斯曼帝国的大部分领土当时被称为近东。事实证明，这一联盟给帝国带来了灾难性的后果，在战争结束时，帝国的领土损失惨重。随着 1920 年《塞夫尔条约》和 1923 年《洛桑条约》的签订，奥斯曼帝国解体，失去了在欧洲和中东的领土。

这些事件导致了该地区的 "巴尔干化"。"巴尔干化 "是指分裂成几个小国，通常用来描述巴尔干战争后巴尔干地区的局势，但在这里也适用。在这一时期，出现了新的民族国家，如穆斯塔法-凯末尔-阿塔图尔克领导下的现代土耳其，中东地区的边界也被重新界定。与此同时，国际联盟在前奥斯曼帝国的几个地区建立了委任统治。欧洲列强，主要是法国和英国，被授权管理叙利亚、黎巴嫩、伊拉克和巴勒斯坦等前奥斯曼帝国领土。这一授权对该地区的政治和社会格局产生了深远影响，留下的遗产继续塑造着现代中东。

随着奥斯曼帝国的灭亡和该地区的重组，"近东 "一词失去了意义，因为 "近东 "和 "中东 "之间的区别变得不那么明显。从那时起，"中东 "一词开始被更广泛地用于描述从埃及到伊朗的地区，包括阿拉伯领土、土耳其，有时甚至包括阿富汗和巴基斯坦。因此，这一时期对该地区的地缘政治重新定义具有决定性意义，塑造了至今国际话语中对该地区的看法和分类方式。这些变化不仅反映了当时的权力态势，也凸显了历史事件在塑造地理和政治概念方面的重要性。

第一次世界大战在扩展和重新定义中东概念方面发挥了决定性作用。战前，人们对中东的理解通常围绕印度以及对英国贸易和影响力至关重要的海上航线。然而，战争的后果导致了这一概念的显著扩展，尤其是向西方扩展。其中一个重大转变是将前奥斯曼帝国的阿拉伯领土纳入了中东的定义。随着奥斯曼帝国的灭亡和国际联盟委任统治的建立，叙利亚、伊拉克、黎巴嫩和巴勒斯坦等地区成为现在中东的核心部分。在这些委任统治地重新划定边界并建立新的国家，有助于形成对该地区新的地缘政治认识。

此外，西方列强和国际机构对 "中东 "一词的正式使用和认可，加强了该词在政治和外交语言中的采用和接受程度。这一变化不仅反映了战后的地缘政治现实，也反映了战略和经济利益，特别是该地区的石油储备，因为它在世界政治中开始发挥关键作用。因此，一战后对中东的重新定义对该地区人民和国际政治都产生了深远的影响。它标志着一个新时代的开始，中东成为全球战略利益的焦点，这种情况继续影响着当代世界的国际关系和地区动态。

一战后，英国在中东的政治和领土重组中发挥了主导作用。英国认识到该地区日益增长的战略和经济重要性，组织了一系列会议、交流和大会，并成立了专门的委员会和部门来管理其在该地区的利益和领土。

最早的例子之一是 1917 年成立的中东委员会。该委员会的目的是在战争导致地缘政治动荡之际协调英国在该地区的政策。该委员会的成立反映出英国人日益认识到中东在其全球战略中的重要性。1921 年，时任殖民地事务大臣的温斯顿-丘吉尔在中东部的创建过程中发挥了关键作用。该部门负责管理英国控制的中东领土，包括巴勒斯坦和美索不达米亚（现伊拉克）等国联委任统治地。该部门的成立反映出需要一个集中统一的方法来管理和利用这些领土上的资源和战略地位。

同年，组织召开了中东会议，这是决定法国和英国在肢解奥斯曼帝国后赢得的领土政治未来的关键事件。会议讨论了新委任统治地的边界、行政管理和政策等问题。丘吉尔和劳伦斯（T.E. Lawrence，阿拉伯的劳伦斯）等重要人物参加了这些讨论，这些讨论影响了中东未来几十年的政治格局。英国在该地区的这些举措不仅在地缘政治格局方面，而且在东西方关系方面都产生了持久的影响。它们还为该地区至今面临的许多政治和社会挑战奠定了基础，包括人为边界、民族认同和国家间冲突等问题。

地缘政治术语：中东、近东和大中东地区

The end of the First World War marked a decisive turning point for the Middle East, characterised by the establishment of mandates by the League of Nations over the territories of the former Ottoman Empire. These mandates, entrusted mainly to Great Britain and France, redefined the political landscape of the region, laying the foundations for many contemporary issues.

Great Britain, with its imperial experience in India, played a pre-eminent role in the new configuration of the Middle East. Among the mandates granted, that of Mesopotamia, now Iraq, was particularly significant. Rich in oil, this territory was crucial to British economic and strategic interests. The British administration in Iraq was marked by attempts to merge various ethnic and religious entities under a single state, a complex undertaking that sowed the seeds of future tensions. The British Mandate in Palestine also had profound implications. Incorporating the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which promised the creation of a "national home for the Jewish people", the Mandate laid the foundations for the Arab-Israeli conflict, which continues to shape regional geopolitics. British management of the Mandate was a delicate undertaking, juggling Zionist aspirations with the demands of the indigenous Arab populations. France, for its part, received the mandates over Syria and Lebanon, where it set up administrations that profoundly influenced the cultural and political development of these countries. French policy in these regions often favoured certain communities, such as the Maronite Christians in Lebanon, helping to shape the fragmented political landscape we know today.

These mandates, although initially designed to prepare the territories for autonomy and independence, often functioned more like colonial administrations. The borders drawn by the mandating powers did not always take account of ethnic, religious and cultural realities, leading to the creation of states with complex and sometimes conflicting national identities. The repercussions of these mandates are still being felt today. The artificial borders and nation-states created during this period have often been the breeding ground for internal conflicts and inter-state tensions. These historical events not only reshaped the Middle East, but also influenced theories in political science and history, highlighting the long-term consequences of colonisation and imperialism, as well as the challenges of nation-building in multi-ethnic and multi-faith contexts.

The Second World War played a crucial role in the consolidation of the use of the term 'Middle East' and the obsolescence of the term 'Near East'. This period of global conflict saw fighting in many areas, including the Balkans and North Africa, which were gradually subsumed under the broader definition of the Middle East.

During the Second World War, the Middle East theatre of operations was not limited to the countries traditionally associated with the region, such as Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It also encompassed areas of conflict in North Africa, notably the North African campaign which saw major clashes between the Axis forces, mainly Italian and German, and the Allies, comprising British, French and later American troops. Figures such as British General Bernard Montgomery and German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel became famous for their roles in these battles. The increased use of the term "Middle East" to refer to these various theatres of operation reflected a broader and more flexible understanding of the region. This geographical extension was also influenced by the strategic and logistical needs of the belligerent powers, for whom control of sea routes and resources, particularly oil, was crucial.

As a result, the term "Near East", which had traditionally referred to the parts of the Ottoman Empire closest to Europe, gradually fell into disuse. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the redefinition of borders and political entities in the region, the distinction between "Near East" and "Middle East" became increasingly irrelevant. Thus, the Second World War was not only a catalyst for geopolitical and territorial change, but also influenced the terminology and conceptualisation of the world's regions. The gradual disappearance of the expression 'Near East' and the predominance of the term 'Middle East' in political and academic discourse are emblematic of these changes.

The growing involvement of the United States in the Middle East during and after the Second World War strengthened and solidified the concept of 'Middle East' in international discourse. A significant milestone in this growing interest was the establishment of the Middle East Institute in Washington, D.C., which played a crucial role in promoting the study and understanding of the region in the United States. Founded in 1946, the Middle East Institute was established against a background of growing strategic and economic interest in the Middle East on the part of the United States. This period saw America emerge as a global superpower, seeking to extend its influence in strategically important regions, not least because of the presence of vast oil reserves. The Middle East, with its energy resources and key geopolitical position, became a central focus of American foreign policy.

The Middle East Institute's role has been to provide analysis, information and advice on the region, helping to shape US foreign policy as well as academic and public understanding of the Middle East. By bringing together experts, diplomats, academics and practitioners, the Institute has contributed to a better appreciation of the political, cultural, economic and social complexities of the region. Increased US involvement in the Middle East after the Second World War was also marked by key events such as the Truman Doctrine in 1947, which aimed to contain Soviet expansion and involved increased support for countries in the region, and the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, a development that profoundly affected regional dynamics. The emergence of the Middle East Institute and the growing involvement of the United States in the region not only reinforced the concept of the Middle East in geopolitical discourse, but also signalled an era of significant change in international politics, where the Middle East became a focal point of American interest and intervention.

The Cold War period saw the emergence of the concept of the 'Greater Middle East', a geographical extension of the traditional term 'Middle East'. This redefinition was influenced by the geopolitical strategies and interests of the superpowers of the time, the United States and the Soviet Union, in the context of their global rivalry. The "Greater Middle East" encompasses a much wider region than the one traditionally referred to as the "Middle East". It stretches from the Western Sahara in North Africa to India in South Asia, including sub-Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia. This extension reflects a broader understanding of strategic issues and zones of influence that go beyond the traditional borders of the Middle East. During the Cold War, this wider region was a key battleground in the struggle for influence between the USA and the USSR. The superpowers engaged in a series of proxy conflicts and supported various regimes and movements according to their strategic and ideological interests. Countries such as Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan and others have played significant roles in this dynamic.

The notion of a "Greater Middle East" has also been associated with more recent political initiatives, notably the post-9/11 American vision for a democratic and economic transformation of the region. This vision, promoted under the George W. Bush administration, envisaged a reshaping of politics and social structures in a vast area encompassing not only the traditional Middle East but also parts of North Africa and South Asia. The use of the term "Greater Middle East" therefore reflects changes in the perception and political engagement of world powers in the region. It also highlights how geopolitical concepts can evolve and adapt in line with global political and strategic realities.

The popularisation and expansion of the concept of the 'Middle East' has given rise to debate and reflection, with figures such as Winston Churchill expressing reservations about the sometimes vague and expansive use of the term. Churchill, as a central figure in the redefinition of borders and policies in the Middle East after the First World War, was particularly aware of the complexities and regional specificities that risked being obscured by an overly generic use of the term "Middle East". At the UN, the use of the term "Western Asia" to designate part of what many consider to be the Middle East is an example of these attempts at more precise and geographically oriented categorisation. It aims to define the region more geographically than politically or culturally, offering an alternative to the more loaded and ambiguous terminology of "Middle East".

At the same time, traditional and historical names for different sub-regions and geographical areas have not disappeared and continue to be used. Terms such as "Maghreb" (North-West Africa), "Mashreq" (Arab Near East), "Anatolia" (Asian part of Turkey), "Mesopotamia" (historically used for Iraq until 1921), and "Fertile Crescent" (region encompassing the Levant and parts of Mesopotamia) have a specific historical and cultural richness. These terms reflect not only a particular geography, but also distinct histories, cultures and identities. The persistence of these names underlines the diversity and complexity of the Middle East as a region. It highlights the difficulty of capturing the multitude of its characteristics under a single label. It also reflects a crucial aspect of geopolitical and cultural study: the need to recognise and respect local and historical specificities while addressing regional and international issues.

The three strategic areas of the Muslim world

Les trois espaces stratégiques du monde musulman.

This map represents a strategic vision of the Muslim world, divided into three distinct regions that highlight the political, economic and cultural diversity and complexities within Islam. The first region, the traditional heartland of the Middle East, stretches from Egypt to the Gulf states and on to Iran and Yemen. This area is steeped in history, having been the cradle of civilisation and the scene of major conflicts such as the Arab-Israeli wars, the Iranian revolution of 1979 and the Gulf wars. These territories are at the heart of the world's geopolitical concerns, notably because of their vast hydrocarbon reserves, which have attracted the attention of world powers for decades. The second region, the Maghreb, which includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, presents a mosaic of identities influenced by the Berber, Arab and European heritages. Events such as the Algerian war for independence and the Arab Spring, which began in Tunisia in 2010, bear witness to the ongoing quest for autonomy and democracy. The Maghreb's proximity to Europe also makes it a crucial region for migration and security issues. The third region, Central Asia and the Caucasus, is often overlooked in discussions of the Middle East but is essential to understanding trans-regional relations. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, states such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan gained in strategic importance due to their natural resources and their position in the 'new geopolitical games' involving Russia, China and the United States. The war in Afghanistan, which saw the intervention of foreign powers from the Soviet period to the post-9/11 era, illustrates the complexity and instability that can emanate from this region.

Each of these regions, although sharing the Muslim faith, has its own historical trajectory and contemporary challenges. From the Ottoman Empire to the modern Arab revolutions, via the Cold War and contemporary conflicts, the histories of these regions are intertwined with the great movements of world history. The borders and identities of these regions have been shaped by a combination of internal factors and foreign interventions, reflecting power dynamics and issues that go far beyond their immediate geographies. For political science and history, such a map is a reminder of the importance of the regional approach, while recognising the interconnections that define contemporary international relations.

Governance in the regions shown on the map is marked by substantial complexity, resulting from ethnic, cultural and political diversity. Xinjiang, for example, is an autonomous region in north-west China, inhabited mainly by the Uyghurs, a Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic group. The region has become a focal point of international human rights debate because of Chinese policies, which are seen as attempts to forcibly assimilate and repress distinct cultural and religious identities. Xinjiang illustrates how governance in geopolitically sensitive regions can involve complex state strategies that interact with issues of national security, economic development and minority rights. China justifies its actions in Xinjiang by the need to combat extremism and separatism, while international critics see it as a violation of minority rights and religious freedom.

Beyond Xinjiang, the map also shows that the dynamics of governance in the 'Greater Middle East' are influenced by a variety of factors, including sectarian tensions, inter-state conflicts, foreign intervention and popular protest movements. The region is a complex chessboard of local, regional and international powers, where nation-states, non-governmental organisations, rebel groups and foreign powers clash and cooperate in a variety of configurations. This complexity is particularly apparent in countries such as Syria and Iraq, where foreign intervention, sectarian conflict and terrorism have led to humanitarian crises and national reconstruction challenges. In North Africa, countries such as Libya show how the absence of stable governance can lead to political fragmentation and civil wars. At the same time, states such as Iran and Turkey are playing influential regional roles, both as economic and military powers and as cultural and political players. In this way, the map serves as a reminder that governance strategies in the Greater Middle East cannot be understood without taking into account the richness and complexity of regional identities, strategic alliances, economic stakes and political aspirations. These elements shape domestic politics and international relations in dynamic and often unpredictable ways.

Key geographical features of the Middle East

Moyen-Orient - principales caractéristiques géographiques.

This map highlights the main geographical features of the Middle East and surrounding regions, an area that has historically been a crossroads of civilisations and continues to be a centre of strategic geopolitical interest.

The Maghreb: a crossroads of civilisations and terrains

The Maghreb region, located in north-west Africa, is a unique area at the intersection of several worlds. It is defined by remarkable geographical features, including the Atlas mountain ranges that stretch across several of its countries, notably Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. These mountains are not only a striking feature of the natural landscape, but have also shaped lifestyles and trade routes in the region. The Sahara, bordering the Maghreb to the south, is the world's largest hot desert and acts as both a barrier and a bridge between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean shores of the Maghreb. This arid vastness has been crossed for millennia by trade caravans carrying goods such as salt, gold and cloth, linking the Maghreb to sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. Historically, the Maghreb has been an area of intense cultural and commercial exchange. Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines and later Arabs and Europeans left their mark on the region, resulting in a rich cultural and architectural heritage. The Arab influence is particularly notable from the seventh century onwards with the introduction of Islam, which had a profound influence on the region's culture, language and identity.

Over the centuries, the Maghreb has seen centres of knowledge and culture flourish, such as the city of Fez in Morocco and the Qarawiyyin, one of the oldest universities in the world still in operation. The region has also been the scene of major battles and conflicts, including resistance campaigns against French and Spanish colonisation, ultimately leading to the independence of the Maghreb nations in the mid-twentieth century. Today, the Maghreb continues to play a strategic role due to its geographical position at the gateway to Europe, its natural resources, particularly hydrocarbons in Algeria and Libya, and its contemporary challenges such as migratory movements and regional security issues. Understanding the geography of the Maghreb is therefore essential to grasping the current dynamics shaping the region and its interaction with the rest of the world.

The Sahara: A desert connecting worlds

To the east of the Maghreb lies the Sahara, a vast desert that runs through many African countries. This vast expanse of arid land represents one of the most imposing natural barriers on Earth, profoundly affecting settlement patterns, trade routes and cultural exchanges. The Sahara is more than a desert; it is an ecological frontier, a space that has historically separated the verdant north of Africa from its wetter sub-Saharan regions. The "Libyan Desert" refers to the part of the Sahara that lies in Libya and Egypt. This region is particularly well known for its extreme landscapes and geological formations, such as the Akakus mountain massifs in Libya or the scattered oases that have served as vital stopping points for caravans throughout the ages. These oases, such as Siwa in Egypt, were centres of trade and cultural contact, linking North Africa to the Nile Valley and beyond.

Trans-Saharan dynamics, influenced by the Libyan Desert and the Sahara as a whole, have been crucial throughout history. Trans-Saharan trade routes facilitated the trade of precious goods, including gold, salt and slaves, between sub-Saharan Africa and Mediterranean markets. These exchanges also enabled the spread of Islam and other cultural traditions, weaving a complex web of influences that continue to shape the identity of Saharan and Sahelian societies.

In addition, the desert has been and remains a theatre for security issues and conflicts. The region has seen cross-border tensions and the activities of militant groups, exacerbated by the vastness of the terrain and the challenges of governance. In the contemporary context, the Libyan desert has become a transit point for migrants seeking to reach Europe, placing the region at the heart of discussions on migration policies and international security. Understanding the geography of the Sahara and the Libyan desert is therefore essential for grasping the political, economic and social issues that characterise these regions and their impact on wider African and Mediterranean dynamics.

Anatolia: a land of empire and topographical diversity

Anatolia, or Asia Minor, which makes up most of modern Turkey, is a region of exceptional historical and cultural wealth. Its geographical position, straddling two continents, has made Anatolia a crossroads of civilisations since ancient times. Ancient empires such as the Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and, later, the Ottomans left their mark on the peninsula, making it a mosaic of cultures and historical legacies. Geologically, Anatolia lies at the meeting point of several tectonic plates, which explains its significant seismic activity. This activity has helped to shape the region's diverse topography, with mountain ranges such as the Taurus and Pontic mountains, and inland plateaux containing salt lakes and fertile basins. The latter were the scene of the rise of agriculture and the development of the first city-states. Anatolia's mountains and plateaux also play an important role in determining the region's climate, with coastal areas enjoying a Mediterranean climate and inland areas experiencing more continental conditions. These climatic variations, combined with the richness of the soils, have enabled the development of varied agriculture and supported dense populations throughout history.

The Byzantine and Ottoman empires, with their capitals in what is now Istanbul, took advantage of Anatolia's strategic position, controlling crucial trade routes between East and West and exerting a major cultural and political influence on neighbouring regions. Anatolia is dotted with the remains of these flourishing periods, including palaces, mosques, churches and citadels, which continue to attract scholars and tourists from all over the world. Today, Anatolia continues to play a central geopolitical role, not only for Turkey but also for the Middle East and Europe. Its geographical location, cultural wealth and natural resources make it a pivotal region in discussions of security, economics and diplomacy in the wider Middle East.

The Fertile Crescent: the cradle of agriculture and civilisation

The Fertile Crescent is a historically rich strip of land stretching from the Levant to Iraq. This area is central to the history of mankind, recognised as the place where agriculture first developed due to its exceptionally rich soils and access to water provided by major rivers such as the Tigris and Euphrates. Conditions conducive to agriculture enabled sedentary societies to establish themselves and were the foundation of the first urban civilisations.

Syria and Iraq, in particular, are lands where ancient Mesopotamian civilisations such as the Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians emerged and prospered, creating complex cities, writing systems and legal codes that shaped the early stages of human development. Mesopotamia is often referred to as the "cradle of civilisation" for this reason. In the Levant, which includes Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine, the Phoenicians were renowned for their maritime navigation and trade, establishing colonies and trading networks across the Mediterranean. The cities of the Levant, thanks to their strategic location, have been centres of exchange and cultural interaction between various empires and cultures throughout history.

Today, the Fertile Crescent remains of vital importance to the region, despite the challenges posed by modernisation, conflict and the management of water resources. Syria and Iraq, for example, are facing difficulties linked to the over-exploitation and pollution of their water resources. Tensions over water resources are exacerbated by regional conflicts and demographic pressure, making regional cooperation on water management all the more crucial. The region continues to be a hotbed of agricultural activity, supporting local economies and providing livelihoods for millions of people. However, agriculture in the Fertile Crescent is subject to the vagaries of climate change, requiring adaptation and innovative strategies to preserve soil fertility and the sustainability of farming practices. The current challenges facing the Fertile Crescent reflect the interaction between its rich past and the complex realities of the present.

The Arabian Peninsula: the nerve centre of religion and resources

The Arabian Peninsula is a particularly significant geographical region, both culturally and economically. It is the cradle of Islam, with holy cities such as Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia attracting millions of Muslim faithful from all over the world for the annual Hajj pilgrimage, one of the five pillars of Islam. The spiritual dimension of these places gives the peninsula an undeniable importance in the collective identity and consciousness of the Muslim world.

In geological terms, the Arabian Peninsula is famous for its vast oil and gas reserves, making it one of the richest energy regions on the planet. The discovery of oil in the 20th century transformed the economies of the countries of the peninsula, in particular Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Bahrain, propelling them onto the world stage as key players in the energy economy. The abundance of these resources has led to major investment in infrastructure and generated huge revenues, enabling these states to play an influential role in international politics and finance.

Yemen and Oman, while rich in history and culture, have economies that are not as dependent on hydrocarbons. Yemen, in particular, faces significant development challenges and a difficult humanitarian situation exacerbated by protracted conflict. The Arabian Peninsula is also a region of great strategic importance due to its geographical position, controlling key maritime routes such as the Strait of Hormuz and the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. These crossings are essential for the global transport of oil, and their security is a major concern for energy-consuming countries around the world.

The Arabian Peninsula is an area that combines deep religious significance, an abundance of natural resources and a crucial strategic position, making it a pivotal point in the global economy and international politics. The countries of the peninsula navigate between preserving their cultural and religious heritage and adapting to contemporary economic and political dynamics, in a balance that continues to influence the region and beyond.

Ethiopia and its historical links with the Middle East

Ethiopia, located in the Horn of Africa, has deep ties with the Middle East that transcend geographical borders. These links are rooted in a shared history of trade, religion and cultural exchange. Historically, Ethiopia was known as the Kingdom of Abyssinia, an empire that maintained relations with the Arab kingdoms and the Middle East since antiquity.

Ethiopia is home to one of the world's oldest Christian traditions, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which, according to tradition, was established in the fourth century AD. This religious tradition shares certain roots with Middle Eastern religious traditions, notably Eastern Christianity and Judaism. Ethiopian history is also closely linked to Islam, with one of the first hijras (exodus) of persecuted Muslims from Mecca to Abyssinia, seeking the protection of the Ethiopian Christian king of the time, an event respected in Islamic tradition.

Ethiopia's position as a crossroads between Africa and the Middle East is reinforced by its proximity to the Arabian Peninsula, separated only by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Trade has long traversed these waters, carrying spices, gold and other precious commodities, facilitating a rich intermingling of cultures and peoples. In geopolitical terms, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa have become increasingly relevant to the security and politics of the Middle East, not least because of regional conflicts and maritime security issues. In addition, Ethiopia is a key player in the management of the Nile's water resources, a major concern for downstream countries such as Egypt and Sudan. In the current context, Ethiopia faces its own internal challenges, including ethnic and political tensions, but its role in the region continues to be influenced by its historical and contemporary links with the Middle East. These connections underline the interconnected nature of the region and how the histories of various nations are intertwined across time and space.

The map of the Middle East and its surrounding regions depicts an area of the world where geography has played a key role in shaping human history. The vast, arid deserts, such as the Sahara and the Arabian Desert, have served as natural barriers but also as corridors for communication and cultural exchange, influencing caravan routes and exchanges between civilisations. The fertile valleys of the Fertile Crescent, irrigated by the legendary Tigris and Euphrates river systems, saw the birth of agriculture and the first great cities in human history. These rich lands not only fostered the development of the first urban civilisations, but were also the scene of many historic conflicts due to their great agricultural and strategic value. Mountains, such as the Atlas Mountains in North Africa and the Taurus Mountains in Anatolia, have served as refuges and natural fortresses throughout history, offering protection and isolating peoples and cultures, allowing the development of unique languages and traditions. At the same time, they have acted as obstacles to advancing armies, shaping military strategies and the boundaries of empires. As for the historic urban centres that dot this region, from Baghdad to Damascus, from Jerusalem to Istanbul, they are living witnesses to bygone eras. These cities, often established because of their strategic geographical location or their proximity to water and fertile land, have been centres of power, trade and culture, greatly influencing the evolution of the region.

Today, these same geographical features continue to influence contemporary issues. Water resources have become crucial points of contention in international relations, fertile land is at the heart of environmental concerns, and historic trade routes are taken up in debates on globalisation and security. The geography of the Middle East and adjacent regions, with its diversity and complexity, remains a determining factor in political, economic and social dynamics.

Appendices

• Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton. A history of the modern Middle East. Hachette UK, 2016.
• Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur, and Aomar Boum. A concise history of the Middle East. Hachette UK, 2015.
• Lewis, Bernard. The multiple identities of the Middle East. New York: Schocken Books, 1998.
• Little, Douglas. American orientalism: the United States and the Middle East since 1945. Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008.