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| Based on a lecture by Michel Oris<ref>[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève]</ref><ref>[http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français]</ref>
| | 根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编<ref>[https://cigev.unige.ch/institution/team/prof/michel-oris/ Page personnelle de Michel Oris sur le site de l'Université de Genève]</ref><ref>[http://cigev.unige.ch/files/4114/3706/0157/cv_oris_fr_20150716.pdf CV de Michel Oris en français]</ref> |
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| |[[Economic and social history of globalisation, 16th-21st centuries]] | | |[[全球化的经济和社会史，16-21 世纪]] |
| |[[Agrarian Structures and Rural Society: Analysis of the Preindustrial European Peasantry]] ● [[The demographic regime of the Ancien Régime: homeostasis]] ● [[Evolution of Socioeconomic Structures in the Eighteenth Century: From the Ancien Régime to Modernity]] ● [[Origins and causes of the English industrial revolution]] ● [[Structural mechanisms of the industrial revolution]] ● [[The spread of the Industrial Revolution in continental Europe]] ● [[The Industrial Revolution beyond Europe: the United States and Japan]] ● [[The social costs of the Industrial Revolution]] ● [[Historical Analysis of the Cyclical Phases of the First Globalisation]] ● [[Dynamics of National Markets and the Globalisation of Product Trade]] ● [[The Formation of Global Migration Systems]] ● [[Dynamics and Impacts of the Globalisation of Money Markets : The Central Role of Great Britain and France]] ● [[The Transformation of Social Structures and Relations during the Industrial Revolution]] ● [[The Origins of the Third World and the Impact of Colonisation]] ● [[Failures and Obstacles in the Third World]] ● [[Changing Methods of Work: Evolving Production Relationships from the End of the Nineteenth to the Middle of the Twentieth Century]] ● [[The Golden Age of the Western Economy: The Thirty Glorious Years (1945-1973)]] ● [[The Changing World Economy: 1973-2007]] ● [[The Challenges of the Welfare State]] ● [[Around colonisation: fears and hopes for development]] ● [[Time of Ruptures: Challenges and Opportunities in the International Economy]] ● [[Globalisation and modes of development in the "third world"]] | | |[[地结构与乡村社会： 前工业化时期欧洲农民分析]] ● [[旧政体的人口制度：平衡状态]] ● [[十八世纪社会经济结构的演变： 从旧制度到现代性]] ● [[英国工业革命的起源和原因]]] ● [[工业革命的结构机制]] ● [[工业革命在欧洲大陆的传播]] ● [[欧洲以外的工业革命：美国和日本]] ● [[工业革命的社会成本]] ● [[第一次全球化周期阶段的历史分析]] ● [[各国市场的动态和产品贸易的全球化]] ● [[全球移民体系的形成]] ● [[货币市场全球化的动态和影响：英国和法国的核心作用]] ● [[工业革命时期社会结构和社会关系的变革]] ● [[第三世界的起源和殖民化的影响]] ● [[第三世界的失败与障碍]] ● [[不断变化的工作方法： 十九世纪末至二十世纪中叶不断演变的生产关系]] ● [[西方经济的黄金时代： 辉煌三十年（1945-1973 年）]] ● [[变化中的世界经济：1973-2007 年]] ● [[福利国家的挑战]] ● [[围绕殖民化：对发展的担忧和希望]] ● [[断裂的时代：国际经济的挑战与机遇]] ● [[全球化与 "第三世界 "的发展模式]] |
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| The Industrial Revolution marked a decisive turning point in human history. In less than a century, this upheaval profoundly altered economic and social structures, initiating an era of change whose scale and speed are unparalleled in the annals of the past.
| | 工业革命标志着人类历史的一个决定性转折点。在不到一个世纪的时间里，这场动荡深刻地改变了经济和社会结构，开启了一个变革时代，其规模和速度都是史无前例的。 |
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| This transformation began on English soil, distinctly before spreading to the whole of Great Britain or the United Kingdom. At the dawn of the 18th century, England, with its 6 million inhabitants, accounted for two-thirds of the British population. It is notable that the Industrial Revolution took root and flourished mainly in England for almost fifty years before its innovations and reforms crossed borders and spread across nations in ways and at a pace specific to each national context.
| | 这场变革始于英国本土，之后才蔓延至整个大不列颠或英国。18 世纪初，英国拥有 600 万居民，占英国人口的三分之二。值得注意的是，工业革命主要在英国生根发芽并蓬勃发展了近 50 年，随后其创新和改革才跨越国界，以各国特有的方式和速度传播到各国。 |
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| At the threshold of this period of metamorphosis, around 1780-1790, England was at an unprecedented technical level. Despite representing only around 1% of the world's population, its contribution to iron production amounted to a tenth of global output, reflecting its industrial lead. The spinning industry, which was particularly labour-intensive, was one of the first to undergo accelerated mechanisation, paving the way for an industrial evolution that would reshape the face of work and society.
| | 在这一蜕变时期的起点，即 1780-1790 年左右，英国的技术水平达到了前所未有的高度。尽管英国人口仅占世界人口的 1%，但其铁产量却占全球产量的十分之一，这反映了英国在工业上的领先地位。纺纱业是劳动密集型产业，也是最早加速机械化的产业之一，为重塑工作和社会面貌的工业演变铺平了道路。 |
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| = What is the Industrial Revolution? = | | = 什么是工业革命？ = |
| The term "Industrial Revolution" embodies the technological and economic transition that transformed the foundations of societies during the 18th century. It marks the beginning of an era in which human ingenuity, coupled with unprecedented industrial advances, began to reshape the natural world with a vigour and scale never before seen. This period of revolution, in the broadest sense of the term, involved a profound modification of social structures by altering pre-existing values and customs. It was characterised by the introduction of massive new production techniques, the emergence of the factory as the principal workplace, and the adoption of the steam engine and other innovations that overturned traditional methods of manufacturing and trading. The Industrial Revolution is not just a period of technological change; it also symbolises a time when social, economic and cultural relationships were redefined, laying the foundations of the modern capitalist economy and having a lasting influence on human history.
| | 工业革命 "一词体现了 18 世纪改变社会基础的技术和经济转型。它标志着一个时代的开始，在这个时代里，人类的智慧加上前所未有的工业进步，开始以前所未有的活力和规模重塑自然世界。从广义上讲，这一时期的革命通过改变原有的价值观和习俗，对社会结构进行了深刻的变革。它的特点是引入了大量新的生产技术，工厂成为主要的工作场所，蒸汽机和其他创新技术的采用颠覆了传统的制造和贸易方式。工业革命不仅仅是一个技术变革时期，它还象征着一个重新定义社会、经济和文化关系的时代，奠定了现代资本主义经济的基础，并对人类历史产生了持久的影响。 |
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| The Industrial Revolution was a powerful engine of demographic growth and economic development, contributing to an unprecedented expansion in population and prosperity. This period of intensive transformation reached its peak in the 19th century with the spread of the Industrial Revolution across Europe, spreading its technological innovations and production models across the continent. The term "Industrial Revolution" was thus adopted by sociology to designate this era of major upheaval, not only in the industrial sector, but also in the very structure of society. The implications of this phenomenon go far beyond technical advances: they involve a radical overhaul of social relations, a new class hierarchy, a redefinition of work and a change in mentalities, with the emergence of values such as efficiency, progress and innovation. This revolution has had knock-on effects in all spheres of daily life, profoundly altering human interactions and prospects for the future. Industrialisation not only shaped the economic landscape, it also reorganised human geography, with a massive shift in population from the countryside to the cities, giving rise to modern urbanisation.
| | 工业革命是人口增长和经济发展的强大引擎，促进了人口的空前增长和繁荣。19 世纪，随着工业革命在欧洲的蔓延，技术创新和生产模式遍及欧洲大陆，这一密集变革时期达到顶峰。因此，"工业革命 "一词被社会学用来指代这个不仅在工业领域，而且在社会结构本身都发生了重大动荡的时代。这一现象的影响远远超出了技术进步的范畴：它涉及到社会关系的彻底变革、新的阶级等级制度、工作的重新定义以及随着效率、进步和创新等价值观的出现而产生的心态变化。这场革命在日常生活的各个领域都产生了连锁反应，深刻改变了人类的互动关系和未来前景。工业化不仅塑造了经济格局，还重组了人文地理，人口从农村大规模转移到城市，从而产生了现代城市化。 |
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| Attempting to pinpoint the start of the Industrial Revolution is a complex exercise, given the gradual and sometimes uneven nature of the process, as well as the lack of reliable and systematic statistical data for the period. Historians commonly place the start of the Industrial Revolution around 1750, when notable changes in production and working methods began to be seen in England. Paul Bairoch has emphasised the importance of the Agricultural Revolution as an essential precursor to the Industrial Revolution. Having led to an improvement in agricultural yields and demographic growth, it created the conditions necessary for the development of industry. However, this perspective is the subject of ongoing debate among scholars, with some suggesting that other factors, such as capital accumulation, technological innovation, or political and economic institutions, played equally crucial roles. The term "industrial revolution" itself was not coined until the 19th century, in particular from 1884 onwards, long after the events it describes had taken place. The word 'revolution' was first used in a modern context with the French Revolution in 1789, and although it suggests a rapid and radical transformation, the Industrial Revolution actually took place over several decades, or even a century or more. This concept of abrupt change was particularly popularised in the 1960s by the economic historian Walt Whitman Rostow with his "take-off" model, which compared economic growth to the rise of an aeroplane. According to Rostow, the Industrial Revolution represented the point at which a society moved from economic stagnation to self-sustained growth. The Industrial Revolution is not a sudden event, but rather an evolution characterised by gradual change and continuous adjustment, fundamentally transforming economic and social structures over a long period.
| | 由于工业革命的进程是渐进的，有时甚至是不均衡的，而且这一时期缺乏可靠和系统的统计数据，因此试图确定工业革命的开始时间是一项复杂的工作。历史学家通常将工业革命的开始时间定为 1750 年左右，当时英国的生产和工作方法开始发生显著变化。Paul Bairoch 强调了农业革命作为工业革命重要先驱的重要性。农业革命提高了农业产量，促进了人口增长，为工业发展创造了必要条件。然而，学者们对这一观点一直争论不休，一些学者认为，资本积累、技术创新或政治经济制度等其他因素也发挥了同样关键的作用。工业革命 "一词本身直到 19 世纪，特别是 1884 年以后才被提出，而此时它所描述的事件早已发生。革命 "一词首次在现代语境中使用是在 1789 年的法国大革命中，虽然它意味着一场迅速而彻底的变革，但工业革命实际上经历了几十年，甚至一个世纪或更长的时间。20 世纪 60 年代，经济史学家沃尔特-惠特曼-罗斯托（Walt Whitman Rostow）提出了 "起飞 "模型，将经济增长比作飞机的崛起，使这一突变概念得到了进一步推广。罗斯托认为，工业革命代表了一个社会从经济停滞转向自我持续增长的节点。工业革命并非突如其来的事件，而是以渐变和不断调整为特征的演变，在很长一段时间内从根本上改变了经济和社会结构。 |
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| =The pillars of the revolution: textiles, iron and steel, coal and mechanical energy= | | =革命的支柱：纺织、钢铁、煤炭和机械能源= |
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| [[Fichier:Spinning jenny.jpg|200px|vignette|right|The Spinning-jenny by James Hargreaves, 1765, museum in Wuppertal, Germany.]] | | [[Fichier:Spinning jenny.jpg|200px|vignette|right|詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）1765 年创作的《纺车》，德国伍珀塔尔博物馆。]] |
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| The textile revolution is emblematic of the industrial transformation that took place in England in the 18th century, providing a perfect illustration of technological change and its economic repercussions. The "flying shuttle", invented in 1733 by John Kay, was a significant improvement in the weaving industry. It doubled the speed of weaving by allowing the shuttle to traverse the loom at high speed without direct manual intervention. This innovation led to an increase in demand for yarn, as looms could now produce fabric much faster than before. In response to this increase in demand for yarn, in 1764 James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny, a revolutionary spinning machine capable of spinning several threads at the same time, far surpassing the output of traditional spinning machines. However, this invention created an imbalance between yarn production and weaving capacity, with yarn production exceeding what weavers could turn into fabric. In response to this surplus of yarn and the need to increase weaving productivity, the mechanical loom was developed. In 1785, Edmund Cartwright patented the first mechanical loom, which, although initially imperfect, laid the foundations for future improvements. This was followed by the adoption of steam power for looms in the 1780s, which enabled even more efficient use to be made of the yarn produced by the "Spinning Jenny" and led to large-scale mechanised weaving. These innovations not only increased productivity, but also transformed the structure of the textile industry, encouraging the transition from cottage industry to industrial production. They also had significant social consequences, such as the concentration of workers in factories and a reduction in the workforce required, foreshadowing the profound social and economic changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.
| | 纺织革命是 18 世纪英国工业转型的象征，它完美地诠释了技术变革及其对经济的影响。约翰-凯于 1733 年发明的 "飞梭 "是对纺织业的重大改进。它使梭子能够高速穿过织布机，无需人工直接干预，从而将织布速度提高了一倍。这一创新导致对纱线的需求增加，因为现在织机生产织物的速度比以前快得多。为了应对纱线需求的增长，1764 年詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯发明了 "珍妮纺纱机"（Spinning Jenny），这是一种革命性的纺纱机，能够同时纺出多根纱线，远远超过了传统纺纱机的产量。然而，这一发明造成了纱线产量和织布能力之间的不平衡，纱线产量超过了织布工能够织成的织物。为了应对纱线过剩和提高织布生产率的需求，机械织布机应运而生。1785 年，埃德蒙-卡特赖特（Edmund Cartwright）为第一台机械织布机申请了专利。随后，在 17 世纪 80 年代，织布机采用了蒸汽动力，使 "珍妮纺纱机 "生产的纱线得到了更有效的利用，并促成了大规模的机械化织布。这些创新不仅提高了生产力，还改变了纺织业的结构，促进了从家庭手工业向工业生产的过渡。它们还产生了重大的社会影响，如工人集中在工厂，所需劳动力减少，这预示着工业革命将带来深刻的社会和经济变革。 |
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| The combination of steel and coal was one of the pillars of the Industrial Revolution, along with the textile sector, literally forging the tools and materials needed to build the industrial age. Abraham Darby's innovation in 1709 was a decisive turning point. By using coke, derived from coal (mineral coal), instead of charcoal to smelt iron ore, Darby not only responded to the energy crisis caused by deforestation, but also laid the foundations for much greater iron and steel production. Charcoal was limited not only by the quantity of wood available, but also by its energy efficiency. The Darby process made it possible to produce iron in greater quantities and at lower cost, as the coke could reach the higher and more constant temperatures required for iron production. In addition, coal deposits were abundant in England, guaranteeing a stable and economical supply. This advance had a huge impact, as iron was essential to many industries of the time, including the construction of machinery, ships, buildings and, later, railways. What's more, as coke became the preferred fuel for iron production, this stimulated coal mining, reinforcing the synergy between the iron and coal industries. This dynamic created a virtuous circle of innovation and production that fuelled Britain's industrial expansion and helped establish its global economic dominance throughout the 19th century.
| | 钢铁和煤炭的结合是工业革命的支柱之一，与纺织业一起，实实在在地锻造了建设工业时代所需的工具和材料。亚伯拉罕-达比在 1709 年的创新是一个决定性的转折点。通过使用从煤炭（矿物煤）中提炼的焦炭代替木炭冶炼铁矿石，达尔比不仅应对了森林砍伐造成的能源危机，还为大幅提高钢铁产量奠定了基础。木炭不仅受到木材数量的限制，还受到能源效率的限制。由于焦炭可以达到炼铁所需的更高和更稳定的温度，达比炼铁法可以更大量、更低成本地生产铁。此外，英国煤炭储量丰富，保证了稳定而经济的煤炭供应。这一进步产生了巨大影响，因为铁对于当时的许多行业都至关重要，包括机械、船舶、建筑以及后来的铁路建设。此外，随着焦炭成为炼铁的首选燃料，这也刺激了煤炭开采，加强了炼铁业和煤炭业之间的协同作用。这种动态创造了创新和生产的良性循环，推动了英国的工业扩张，并帮助英国在整个 19 世纪确立了全球经济霸主地位。 |
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| The use of mechanical energy via the steam engine is another fundamental aspect of the Industrial Revolution. The adaptation of this technology in various industrial sectors led to a quantum leap in production and efficiency. The steam engine, in its primitive form, was developed in the early 18th century, with inventors such as Thomas Newcomen who, in 1712, created a steam engine designed to pump water out of coal mines. Although this machine was a significant advance, it was still inefficient and expensive to operate. The real breakthrough came with James Watt, who in the 1760s and 1770s made decisive improvements to Newcomen's steam engine. In particular, he invented a separate condenser that considerably reduced coal consumption and increased efficiency. Watt went on to develop an engine that converted reciprocating motion into rotation, making it applicable to many industrial processes, far beyond the simple pumping of water. From 1780 onwards, with continuous improvements by Watt and others, the steam engine became the engine of industry. It made it possible to synchronise the work of machines, resulting in more predictable and regular production. Workers could now adjust the machine to optimise their working time, and machines could operate day and night, regardless of weather conditions or human or animal muscle power. The impact of the steam engine on industrial society was colossal, not only improving efficiency and reducing costs, but also radically transforming the way work was done and organised. With the development of steam railways and steamships, the steam engine also revolutionised transport, speeding up trade and communication on a previously unimaginable scale.
| | 通过蒸汽机利用机械能是工业革命的另一个基本方面。这项技术在各个工业部门的应用使生产和效率实现了质的飞跃。蒸汽机的原始形式是在 18 世纪早期发展起来的，发明家托马斯-纽科门（Thomas Newcomen）等人于 1712 年发明了一种用于从煤矿抽水的蒸汽机。虽然这是一项重大进步，但蒸汽机的效率仍然很低，运行成本也很高。真正的突破来自于詹姆斯-瓦特，他在 17 世纪 60 年代和 70 年代对纽科门的蒸汽机进行了决定性的改进。特别是，他发明了一个独立的冷凝器，大大减少了煤的消耗，提高了效率。瓦特接着开发了一种将往复运动转化为旋转运动的发动机，使其适用于许多工业流程，远远超出了简单的抽水。从 1780 年起，随着瓦特和其他人的不断改进，蒸汽机成为了工业的发动机。它使机器同步工作成为可能，从而使生产更可预测、更有规律。现在，工人可以调整机器，优化工作时间，机器可以日夜不停地运转，不受天气条件、人力或畜力的影响。蒸汽机对工业社会的影响是巨大的，它不仅提高了效率、降低了成本，还从根本上改变了工作方式和组织结构。随着蒸汽铁路和蒸汽轮船的发展，蒸汽机还彻底改变了交通运输，以前所未有的规模加快了贸易和通信。 |
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| =The role of innovation= | | =创新的作用= |
| ==The concept of innovation== | | ==创新概念== |
| An invention is the creation of a product or the introduction of a process for the first time. Innovation, however, occurs when this invention is adopted and used to improve existing processes or to create entirely new products or processes, and therefore has an economic or social impact.
| | 发明是首次创造一种产品或采用一种工艺。然而，当这项发明被采纳并用于改进现有工艺或创造全新的产品或工艺，并因此产生经济或社会影响时，创新就发生了。 |
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| The "Baghdad battery", an object discovered that resembles an electrochemical cell and probably dates back more than 2000 years, is an example. If it really were a battery, this discovery would be considered a remarkable invention. However, since we have no evidence that this object was used for practical applications in the society that produced it, it is not considered an innovation in the modern sense of the term.
| | 巴格达电池 "就是一个例子，它是一个被发现的类似电化学电池的物体，其历史可能可以追溯到 2000 多年前。如果它真的是电池，这一发现将被视为一项了不起的发明。然而，由于我们没有证据表明这一物品在产生它的社会中得到了实际应用，因此不能将其视为现代意义上的创新。 |
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| In the context of the Industrial Revolution, innovation is a key concept. Many inventions, such as James Watt's improved steam engine or James Hargreaves' "Spinning Jenny", met specific needs (such as the need to pump water from mines more efficiently or to produce textiles more quickly) and were adopted on a large scale. These inventions became innovations because they were widely used, integrated into production processes, and had a significant impact on the economy and society as a whole.
| | 在工业革命的背景下，创新是一个关键概念。许多发明，如詹姆斯-瓦特的改良蒸汽机或詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯的 "珍妮纺纱机"，满足了特定的需求（如更有效地从矿井抽水或更快地生产纺织品），并被大规模采用。这些发明之所以成为创新，是因为它们得到了广泛应用，融入了生产流程，并对整个经济和社会产生了重大影响。 |
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| == The relationship between invention and industrialisation == | | == 发明与工业化之间的关系 == |
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| Before the Industrial Revolution, the increase in demand for manufactured goods led to a shortage of labour in infant industries. This had the effect of increasing the cost of labour, since workers, who were more in demand, had greater bargaining power over their wages. The direct consequence was higher production costs and, consequently, higher prices for consumers. Faced with this situation, entrepreneurs and industrialists had a strong economic interest in finding ways to produce more efficiently. This stimulated innovation and the search for new technologies that could reduce dependence on labour, cut costs and increase production to meet growing demand. Inventions such as the power loom and the steam engine became major innovations in that they were adopted on a large scale, enabling mass production at lower cost. The mechanisation of production processes also enabled goods to be produced in greater quantities and at lower prices, making them accessible to a wider segment of the population, fuelling a virtuous circle of economic growth. This period saw a paradigm shift in which human labour was no longer the main driver of production. Instead, efficiency was achieved through the use of machines, leading to a significant change in the social and economic structures of the time.
| | 工业革命前，制成品需求的增加导致新兴工业劳动力短缺。这导致劳动力成本上升，因为需求量大的工人对工资有更大的讨价还价能力。其直接后果是生产成本上升，进而导致消费者价格上涨。面对这种情况，企业家和工业家在经济上有强烈的兴趣去寻找更有效的生产方式。这刺激了创新和对新技术的探索，以减少对劳动力的依赖，降低成本，提高产量，满足日益增长的需求。动力织布机和蒸汽机等发明成为重大创新，因为它们被大规模采用，从而能够以较低的成本进行大规模生产。生产过程的机械化也使商品的生产量更大、价格更低，使更多的人能够获得这些商品，从而推动了经济增长的良性循环。在这一时期，生产模式发生了转变，人类劳动不再是生产的主要驱动力。取而代之的是通过使用机器来提高效率，从而使当时的社会和经济结构发生了重大变化。 |
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| The selling price equation, PV (selling price) = Sa (wage) + MP (raw materials) + E (earnings expectancy), takes on particular significance when applied to the English Industrial Revolution. During this period, each component of this equation underwent profound transformations as a result of technological advances and social change. As far as wages (Sa) are concerned, the Industrial Revolution had an ambiguous impact. The increased demand for labour in factories may have led to higher wages for some, while mechanisation has reduced the need for specialist craft skills, putting downward pressure on wages for these trades. However, new skills have become necessary to manage and maintain machinery, creating a changing labour market. The cost of raw materials (RM), meanwhile, has been reduced thanks to more efficient production and transport methods. The development of railways and the mechanisation of mining reduced the price of iron and coal, key components of the emerging industry. Expected income (E) reflects the profits expected from sales. With the increase in mass production, companies could expect high profit margins despite the reduction in unit prices, allowing industrial products to be distributed more widely. Beyond these factors, the Industrial Revolution introduced the importance of capital investment in innovative technologies and the economies of scale achieved through volume production. These factors fundamentally altered the way in which production costs were calculated and managed. So, in the effervescent climate of industrialisation, the formula became more complex. Wages were influenced by the migration of rural workers to industrial towns, raw material costs were lowered by new extraction and processing methods, and income expectations were modulated by increased competition and growing demand resulting from lower selling prices. In addition, the increase in capital costs due to investment in expensive machinery has been offset by faster returns due to increased productivity. Ultimately, economies of scale reduced costs per unit, boosting competitiveness and increasing profits, redefining the economy and society of the time.
| | 售价等式：PV（售价）= Sa（工资）+ MP（原材料）+ E（预期收益），应用于英国工业革命具有特别重要的意义。在此期间，由于技术进步和社会变革，该等式的每个组成部分都发生了深刻的变化。就工资（Sa）而言，工业革命的影响模棱两可。工厂对劳动力需求的增加可能导致一些人的工资提高，而机械化则减少了对专业手工技能的需求，给这些行业的工资带来了下降的压力。然而，管理和维护机械需要新的技能，这就造成了劳动力市场的变化。同时，由于生产和运输方式更加高效，原材料（RM）的成本也有所降低。铁路的发展和采矿的机械化降低了铁和煤的价格，而这正是新兴产业的关键组成部分。预期收入 (E) 反映了预期的销售利润。随着大规模生产的增加，尽管单位价格下降，但企业仍可期望获得高利润率，从而使工业产品的销售范围更加广泛。除了这些因素，工业革命还引入了对创新技术的资本投资以及通过批量生产实现规模经济的重要性。这些因素从根本上改变了计算和管理生产成本的方式。因此，在充满活力的工业化氛围中，计算公式变得更加复杂。工资受到农村工人向工业城镇迁移的影响，原材料成本因新的开采和加工方法而降低，收入预期因竞争加剧和销售价格降低导致的需求增长而调整。此外，生产率的提高也加快了回报速度，从而抵消了因投资昂贵的机器而增加的资本成本。最终，规模经济降低了单位成本，提高了竞争力，增加了利润，重新定义了当时的经济和社会。 |
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| In the context of the English Industrial Revolution, if the cost of wages (Sa) and raw materials (MP) is high, companies must either increase the selling price (PV) to maintain their earnings expectation (E), or reduce their profit margin (E) to keep their prices competitive. Since high selling prices can reduce demand for products, companies had a strong incentive to innovate to reduce costs. In the context of the English Industrial Revolution, cost management was crucial for businesses seeking to prosper. High wages and the cost of raw materials posed a dilemma: increase the selling price to preserve profit margins, or reduce those margins to offer competitive prices. Higher prices could have led to lower demand, while lower profit margins could have compromised the viability of the business. Faced with this economic equation, innovation became the key to breaking the deadlock. Technological advances have provided solutions for optimising production. For example, the introduction of new machinery in the textile industry considerably increased production efficiency, reducing dependence on expensive labour and encouraging mass production, which lowered the unit cost of each product. Automation has also played a major role in reducing the need for skilled labour, helping to keep wage costs down. At the same time, improvements in the management and processing of raw materials, such as the replacement of charcoal by coke in iron production, have not only reduced costs but also increased output. These innovations have enabled companies to maintain or lower their selling prices while maintaining an acceptable profit margin. In an increasingly competitive market, with consumers looking for low-cost products, innovation was not only a question of maximising profits but also a necessity for economic survival.
| | 在英国工业革命的背景下，如果工资（Sa）和原材料（MP）成本较高，企业就必须提高售价（PV）以维持盈利预期（E），或者降低利润率（E）以保持价格竞争力。由于高售价会减少对产品的需求，因此企业有强烈的动力进行创新以降低成本。在英国工业革命的背景下，成本管理对寻求繁荣的企业至关重要。高工资和原材料成本带来了一个两难选择：提高售价以保持利润率，还是降低利润率以提供有竞争力的价格。提高价格可能会导致需求下降，而降低利润率则会损害企业的生存能力。面对这一经济等式，创新成为打破僵局的关键。技术进步为优化生产提供了解决方案。例如，纺织业引进的新机器大大提高了生产效率，减少了对昂贵劳动力的依赖，促进了大规模生产，从而降低了每件产品的单位成本。自动化在减少对熟练劳动力的需求方面也发挥了重要作用，有助于降低工资成本。与此同时，原材料管理和加工方面的改进，如炼铁中用焦炭取代木炭，不仅降低了成本，还提高了产量。这些创新使企业能够维持或降低销售价格，同时保持可接受的利润率。在市场竞争日益激烈、消费者追求低成本产品的情况下，创新不仅是利润最大化的问题，也是经济生存的需要。 |
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| ==Acceleration in the pace of technological progress== | | ==加快技术进步的步伐== |
| The evolution of technology during the Industrial Revolution perfectly illustrates the dynamic interplay between innovation and the need to overcome practical obstacles. Each new invention could introduce significant changes to production processes, but often these same changes created unexpected challenges which in turn required innovative solutions. This cascade of successive innovations led to progressive gains in efficiency and productivity.
| | 工业革命期间的技术演变完美地诠释了创新与克服实际障碍的需要之间的动态相互作用。每一项新发明都会给生产流程带来重大变化，但这些变化往往也会带来意想不到的挑战，反过来又需要创新的解决方案。这种一连串的创新使效率和生产率逐步提高。 |
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| For example, improvements in weaving machines increased demand for yarn, leading to the invention of the "spinning Jenny", a machine capable of spinning large quantities of wool quickly. This innovation itself created an excess of yarn that exceeded weaving capacity, leading to the development of more efficient mechanical looms. Each step in this process not only solved the immediate problem but also paved the way for increases in production capacity and reductions in costs.
| | 例如，织布机的改进增加了对纱线的需求，导致了 "珍妮纺纱机 "的发明，这是一种能够快速纺制大量羊毛的机器。这一创新本身就造成了纱线过剩，超过了织布能力，从而导致了更高效的机械织布机的发展。这一过程中的每一步不仅解决了眼前的问题，还为提高生产能力和降低成本铺平了道路。 |
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| The lateral diffusion of innovations is another characteristic phenomenon of this period. Innovations did not remain confined to their field of origin, but crossed industrial sectors, catalysing advances in other areas. The development of the steam engine is a remarkable example. Initially designed to pump water out of mines, the steam engine was adapted to produce rotary motion, paving the way for the design and production of locomotives. This cross-sectoral adaptability of innovations enabled a widespread transformation of industry and transport, changing not only the way products were manufactured and distributed, but also the very structure of the economy and society.
| | 创新的横向扩散是这一时期的另一个特征。创新并不局限于其起源领域，而是跨越工业部门，催化其他领域的进步。蒸汽机的发展就是一个显著的例子。蒸汽机最初是为从矿井中抽水而设计的，后来被改造成可以产生旋转运动，为机车的设计和生产铺平了道路。这种创新的跨部门适应性促成了工业和运输业的广泛变革，不仅改变了产品的制造和销售方式，也改变了经济和社会的结构。 |
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| These cumulative innovations and their cross-fertilisation were essential to the modernisation of industry and the creation of new economic structures that characterised the Industrial Revolution. They not only made processes more efficient but also laid the foundations for an industrial and technological society that would continue to evolve long after the end of the classical industrial period.
| | 这些累积性创新及其相互促进对于工业现代化和新经济结构的建立至关重要，而这正是工业革命的特点。它们不仅提高了生产过程的效率，还为工业和技术社会奠定了基础，这种社会在古典工业时期结束后仍将继续发展。 |
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| =The factory system= | | =工厂系统= |
| The factory system is one of the fundamental changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. This system marked a decisive turning point in production methods by concentrating manpower, raw materials and machines in single, large establishments: factories. In these factories, in contrast to crafts and home production (the "putting-out system"), work was highly specialised and each worker was assigned a specific task in the production process. This organisation of work, known as the division of labour, led to an exponential increase in productivity. Workers no longer needed to be skilled craftsmen capable of making a product from scratch; instead, they could be trained quickly to perform a specific operation.
| | 工厂制度是工业革命带来的根本性变革之一。这种制度将人力、原材料和机器集中在单一的大型机构：工厂中，标志着生产方式的一个决定性转折点。与手工业和家庭生产（"投放系统"）不同，这些工厂的工作高度专业化，每个工人在生产过程中都被分配了特定的任务。这种被称为 "劳动分工 "的工作组织方式使生产率呈指数级增长。工人不再需要是能够从头开始制造产品的能工巧匠；相反，他们可以快速接受培训，以完成特定的操作。 |
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| The factory system also changed the economic face of society. For the first time, production was freed from the constraints of human or animal muscle power. The steam engine, along with other forms of technology, provided a reliable source of energy that enabled uninterrupted, large-scale production. Moreover, with the centralisation of production, factory owners could exercise more rigid control over the production process and workers. This centralisation led to more systematic management and standardisation of products and working practices. However, the factory system was not without its problems. It was associated with difficult working conditions, long and exhausting working days and strict labour discipline. It was also criticised for dehumanising the worker and for having deleterious social consequences, such as the deterioration of workers' health and the exploitation of children.
| | 工厂制度还改变了社会的经济面貌。生产第一次摆脱了人力或畜力的束缚。蒸汽机以及其他形式的技术提供了可靠的能源来源，从而实现了不间断的大规模生产。此外，随着生产的集中化，工厂主可以更严格地控制生产过程和工人。这种集中化带来了更系统化的管理以及产品和工作方式的标准化。然而，工厂制度并非没有问题。它与艰苦的工作条件、漫长疲惫的工作日和严格的劳动纪律联系在一起。它还被批评为对工人非人化，并造成有害的社会后果，如工人健康恶化和剥削儿童。 |
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| ==Structure and operation of the plant== | | ==工厂的结构和运作== |
| The Industrial Revolution marked a radical transformation in the way goods were produced and in the living environment of workers. In the past, people lived and worked mainly in rural areas, producing goods at home or in small workshops. This decentralised model of production, known as the domestic system or the production system, was revolutionised by the introduction and improvement of the steam engine. The first steam engines were used to drain water from mines, but they were soon adapted to supply power to other machines in factories. This innovation meant that production could be centralised in large factories, where machines could operate efficiently using a common energy source. The installation and maintenance of expensive steam engines required production to be concentrated in a single location.
| | 工业革命标志着商品生产方式和工人生活环境的彻底转变。过去，人们主要在农村地区生活和工作，在家里或小作坊里生产产品。蒸汽机的引入和改进彻底改变了这种分散的生产模式，即家庭系统或生产系统。最早的蒸汽机用于从矿井中排水，但很快就被改造成为工厂中的其他机器提供动力。这一创新意味着生产可以集中在大型工厂中，机器可以利用共同的能源高效运转。安装和维护昂贵的蒸汽机需要将生产集中在一个地方。 |
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| This led to a significant transformation in the way work was organised. Workers left their homes and small workshops to work in factories, where they could be supervised more easily and where work was organised in a much more structured way. This centralisation of work in factories led to rapid urbanisation, with workers moving to the towns that grew up around these production centres, which were often located close to energy sources or emerging transport networks. The impact on workers was profound. They had to adapt to a life no longer governed by natural cycles, but by the strict timetables imposed by the operation of the factories. Productivity increased dramatically with the use of steam-powered machines, reducing the time needed to produce goods.
| | 这导致了工作组织方式的重大转变。工人们离开自己的家和小作坊，来到工厂工作，在那里他们可以更容易地接受监督，工作组织也更有条理。工厂工作的集中化导致了快速的城市化，工人们搬到了围绕这些生产中心发展起来的城镇，这些城镇往往靠近能源或新兴的交通网络。这对工人产生了深远的影响。他们必须适应不再受自然周期支配的生活，而必须适应工厂运营所规定的严格时间表。蒸汽机的使用大大提高了生产率，缩短了生产时间。 |
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| These changes were not without their difficulties. Workers faced difficult conditions, public health in overcrowded urban areas deteriorated and cities were often unhealthy. Nevertheless, this concentration of production and labour enabled economies of scale and innovations that transformed the global economy, laying the foundations for contemporary economic growth and prosperity.
| | 这些变化并非没有困难。工人们面临着艰苦的条件，过度拥挤的城市地区公共卫生恶化，城市往往不健康。然而，生产和劳动力的集中带来了规模经济和创新，改变了全球经济，为当代经济增长和繁荣奠定了基础。 |
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| ==Introduction of industrial discipline== | | ==引入行业纪律== |
| The Industrial Revolution brought about a major change in the way work was organised. Under the previous system, workers had a great deal of leeway over their working hours, with a less restrictive structure that allowed them to adapt their work to their personal lives and to the seasons. However, this flexibility was no longer possible with the introduction of factories.
| | 工业革命带来了工作组织方式的重大变革。在以前的制度下，工人在工作时间上有很大的自由度，工作结构的限制较少，工人可以根据个人生活和季节调整工作。然而，随着工厂的出现，这种灵活性已不复存在。 |
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| With the birth of these large industrial facilities, workers had to adapt to a much more rigid working environment. Discipline became a central aspect of production for several key reasons. Firstly, steam engines and other expensive tools needed to be used continuously to be profitable, implying the need for a workforce that was constantly present and operational. Secondly, the factory work process required meticulous coordination of tasks, each worker being a link in a mass production chain. The absence or delay of a single worker could throw the whole system out of balance. Thirdly, mass production depended on uniformity and predictability, which required workers to follow standardised procedures to ensure the homogeneity of the end products.
| | 随着这些大型工业设施的诞生，工人们不得不适应更为严格的工作环境。由于几个主要原因，纪律成为生产的中心环节。首先，蒸汽机和其他昂贵的工具需要持续使用才能盈利，这就意味着需要一支持续存在并可操作的劳动力队伍。其次，工厂的工作流程要求对任务进行细致的协调，每个工人都是大规模生产链中的一个环节。一个工人的缺席或延误都可能使整个系统失去平衡。第三，大规模生产依赖于统一性和可预测性，这就要求工人遵循标准化程序，以确保最终产品的一致性。 |
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| To ensure this discipline, factories introduced strict working hours and precise rules for breaks, with surveillance systems to monitor employees' hours of attendance. Late arrivals and absences were often punished by fines, and the whole working environment was designed to maximise efficiency and output.
| | 为了确保这种纪律性，工厂实行了严格的工作时间和精确的休息时间规定，并建立了监视系统来监控员工的出勤时间。迟到和缺勤往往会被罚款，整个工作环境的设计都是为了最大限度地提高效率和产出。 |
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| This transition to strict work discipline was a trial for many workers who were used to greater freedom. Friction between employees and bosses was commonplace, and the adjustment to industrial life was accompanied by tensions and struggles for workers' rights. Adjusting to the new rhythms imposed by industrialisation and the demands of the factories took time and profoundly transformed society.
| | 对于许多习惯了更大自由度的工人来说，这种向严格工作纪律的转变是一种考验。雇员与老板之间的摩擦司空见惯，在适应工业生活的同时，工人们也在为争取权利而紧张和斗争。适应工业化带来的新节奏和工厂的需求需要时间，同时也深刻地改变了社会。 |
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| =Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England= | | =英国工业革命的起源= |
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| The Industrial Revolution, which began in England towards the end of the 18th century, was a major turning point in human history. This period saw the emergence of new technologies that overturned traditional production methods, particularly in sectors such as textiles, metallurgy and later chemicals and transport. Technological innovations were the driving force behind this change. The development of the steam engine by James Watt, the creation of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves, and the introduction of the puddling process for the production of purer iron by Henry Cort are just a few examples of the technological advances that fuelled this transformation. These inventions enabled faster production on a larger scale, reducing the cost of goods and changing working methods. In economic terms, the Industrial Revolution led to the creation of new types of businesses and industries, and to the concentration of production in ever-larger factories, known as the "factory system". This concentration of production led to economies of scale and a spectacular increase in productive efficiency. Socially, it led to a massive displacement of the population. Farm workers and craftsmen, whose trades had been rendered obsolete by the new machines, migrated to the cities to work in the factories, resulting in rapid and often unplanned urbanisation. It also gave rise to a new social class: the working class, who lived in often precarious conditions and worked long hours. The Industrial Revolution also had a major impact on the environment, with increased pollution and greater exploitation of natural resources. It laid the foundations for modern economic growth, but also raised questions about sustainable development and social equity that are still relevant today. The Industrial Revolution was not simply a period of technical change, but a profound transformation of society as a whole that redefined economic, social and even political structures on a scale never before seen.
| | 工业革命始于 18 世纪末的英国，是人类历史上的一个重大转折点。在这一时期，新技术的出现颠覆了传统的生产方式，尤其是在纺织、冶金以及后来的化工和运输等行业。技术创新是这一变革背后的驱动力。詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）发明的蒸汽机、詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）发明的纺纱机以及亨利-科特（Henry Cort）为生产更纯净的铁而引入的水坑工艺，只是推动这一变革的技术进步的几个例子。这些发明加快了大规模生产的速度，降低了商品成本，改变了工作方法。在经济方面，工业革命催生了新型企业和行业，并将生产集中到越来越大的工厂，即所谓的 "工厂体系"。生产的集中带来了规模经济和生产效率的显著提高。在社会方面，它导致了大规模的人口迁移。农场工人和手工业者的行业被新机器淘汰，他们迁移到城市的工厂工作，从而导致了快速且往往无计划的城市化。工业革命还催生了一个新的社会阶层：工人阶级，他们的生活条件往往岌岌可危，工作时间很长。工业革命还对环境产生了重大影响，污染加剧，自然资源的开采量增大。工业革命为现代经济增长奠定了基础，但也提出了可持续发展和社会公平等问题，这些问题在今天仍然具有现实意义。工业革命不仅仅是一个技术变革时期，而是整个社会的一场深刻变革，它以前所未有的规模重新定义了经济、社会甚至政治结构。 |
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| The Industrial Revolution found a particularly favourable breeding ground in England, thanks to a combination of factors that worked harmoniously together to catalyse this radical change. It had abundant reserves of coal and iron, essential for powering new machinery and industrial production. At the same time, a rapidly expanding population provided an abundant workforce for factories and a growing market for manufactured goods. Technological advances were also booming, with a series of inventions transforming industries such as textiles and energy production. This spirit of innovation was underpinned by relatively easy access to capital and a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit, enabling innovations to grow rapidly into successful businesses. Added to this, political stability and a well-established legal system provided a secure environment for investment and protection for innovation through patent systems. The reach of the British Empire, meanwhile, opened up distant markets for manufactured goods while ensuring a steady flow of raw materials. In addition, a culture favourable to scientific progress and the practical application of knowledge further promoted technical innovation. A social structure that allowed a degree of mobility gave rise to a new class of skilled workers and managers, essential to the running of industrial enterprises. Finally, investment in infrastructure such as canal networks and railways greatly improved logistics, making the transport of raw materials and finished goods more efficient. All these elements converged to establish England as the cradle of this revolution, which subsequently spread far beyond its borders.
| | 工业革命在英国找到了一个特别有利的滋生地，这要归功于各种因素的和谐作用，共同催化了这场剧烈的变革。英国拥有丰富的煤炭和钢铁储量，这对新机器的动力和工业生产至关重要。与此同时，快速增长的人口为工厂提供了大量劳动力，制成品市场也在不断扩大。技术进步也在蓬勃发展，一系列发明改变了纺织和能源生产等行业。这种创新精神得益于相对容易获得的资金和充满活力的企业家精神，使创新迅速成长为成功的企业。此外，稳定的政治局面和完善的法律体系也为投资提供了安全的环境，并通过专利制度为创新提供保护。同时，大英帝国的影响力为制成品打开了遥远的市场，同时确保了原材料的稳定供应。此外，有利于科学进步和知识实际应用的文化进一步促进了技术创新。允许一定程度流动的社会结构催生了新的技术工人和管理人员阶层，这对工业企业的运营至关重要。最后，对运河网络和铁路等基础设施的投资极大地改善了物流，提高了原材料和成品的运输效率。所有这些因素汇聚在一起，使英国成为这场革命的摇篮，随后这场革命远远超越了英国的国界。 |
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| ==A consumer revolution in the 18th century: 1700 - 1760== | | ==18 世纪的消费革命：1700 - 1760 年== |
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| ===The emergence of a new desire to consume=== | | ===出现新的消费欲望=== |
| The emergence of a growing desire to consume goods is a phenomenon that accompanied and stimulated the Industrial Revolution. In the 18th century, as the population grew and incomes gradually improved, demand for manufactured goods began to rise.
| | 日益增长的商品消费欲望是伴随和刺激工业革命出现的一种现象。18 世纪，随着人口的增长和收入的逐步提高，对制成品的需求开始上升。 |
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| Before mechanisation transformed production, this increased demand was met by traditional methods of work, such as the "putting-out system", where craftsmen worked in their homes or in small workshops, producing goods that had not yet been rationalised by machines. This economic growth without productivity gains meant that more people were needed to produce the same quantity of goods, since output per worker remained relatively stable without the help of mechanisation. This created pressure on available resources, particularly labour and raw materials. The imbalance between growing demand and stagnant production capacity encouraged investors and entrepreneurs to look for ways to increase productivity. This led to the adoption of new technologies, such as spinning and weaving machines, which could produce far more efficiently than manual methods. As a result, the first innovations of the Industrial Revolution were mainly geared towards satisfying this growing desire for consumption. The mechanisation and centralisation of production in factories made it possible to produce goods in greater quantities and at lower cost, thereby meeting market demand while increasing productivity and stimulating economic growth.
| | 在机械化改变生产之前，这种需求的增长是通过传统的工作方式来满足的，例如 "放工制"，工匠们在家里或小作坊里工作，生产尚未被机器合理化的产品。这种没有提高生产率的经济增长意味着需要更多的人来生产相同数量的产品，因为没有机械化的帮助，每个工人的产量相对稳定。这对现有资源，尤其是劳动力和原材料造成了压力。不断增长的需求与停滞不前的生产能力之间的不平衡，促使投资者和企业家寻找提高生产率的途径。这导致了新技术的采用，如纺纱机和织布机，它们的生产效率远远高于手工方法。因此，工业革命的最初创新主要是为了满足日益增长的消费欲望。工厂生产的机械化和集中化使生产更多数量和更低成本的产品成为可能，从而满足了市场需求，同时提高了生产率并刺激了经济增长。 |
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| The growth in consumption in 18th-century Britain can be seen as the result of the expansion of maritime trade. British naval power provided regular and secure access to a wide range of exotic products. These goods, which had previously been reserved for an elite, began to circulate more widely and stimulate curiosity and desire among the general population. What's more, consumption began to be democratised, extending beyond the upper classes to reach a wider audience. People could now afford to buy objects that symbolised status and membership of a certain social class. Documents such as after-death inventories reveal that people owned more personal items than ever before, including fashion and recent clothing, reflecting a general increase in consumption and interest in material goods. At the same time, the industrial revolution brought with it technological advances that revolutionised the production of goods. Products such as clothing became cheaper and more accessible, encouraging more frequent replacement and increased consumption. These innovations not only made consumption more accessible, but also encouraged further innovation to meet growing demand. The era was also characterised by a shift in social values and individual aspirations. Personal success and the ability to consume became markers of social position, prompting a wide variety of individuals to seek to improve their quality of life through the purchase of goods. In this way, the industrial revolution and consumer culture reinforced each other, creating a virtuous cycle of demand and innovation that contributed to Britain's sustained economic growth during this period.
| | 18 世纪英国消费的增长可以看作是海上贸易扩张的结果。英国的海军力量为人们提供了定期、安全地获取各种外来产品的渠道。这些以前只为精英阶层准备的商品开始更广泛地流通，激发了普通民众的好奇心和欲望。此外，消费开始民主化，从上层阶级扩展到更广泛的受众。人们现在有能力购买象征身份和某一社会阶层的物品。死后清单等文件显示，人们比以往任何时候都拥有更多的个人物品，包括时装和最新服饰，这反映出人们对物质产品的消费和兴趣普遍提高。与此同时，工业革命带来了技术进步，彻底改变了商品生产。服装等产品变得更便宜、更容易获得，从而鼓励了更频繁的更换和更多的消费。这些创新不仅使消费更容易获得，还鼓励了进一步的创新，以满足日益增长的需求。这个时代的另一个特点是社会价值观和个人愿望的转变。个人成功和消费能力成为社会地位的标志，促使许多人通过购买商品来提高生活质量。这样，工业革命和消费文化相互促进，形成了需求和创新的良性循环，促进了这一时期英国经济的持续增长。 |
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| ===Birth of a consumer-driven economy=== | | ===消费者驱动型经济的诞生=== |
| Another interesting facet of the Industrial Revolution is the evolution of commercial practices and the birth of mass consumption in 18th-century England. Traditional trade, based on peddling, which involved itinerant sellers carrying their wares from village to village, began to change. The emergence of the fixed shop and the sedentary commercial space marked a significant turning point in the way we sell and consume. Shops with large windows, which were a novelty at the time, offered an attractive spectacle that captivated the eyes of passers-by. These windows were meticulously organised to present goods in an attractive and aesthetic way, playing on the desires and aspirations of potential customers. This was a departure from the direct, functional approach of peddling, introducing an element of spectacle and desire into the act of buying. Advertising, in its various emerging forms, played a crucial role in this new consumer culture. It began to influence consumers' choices by making them believe they needed products they had not previously considered. Print ads, billboards and even product demonstrations were all used to encourage purchases. At the same time, the emergence of new leisure activities and the structuring of time around moments of relaxation also played a role in changing consumer behaviour. Sunday walks after mass, for example, provided an opportunity to socialise and stroll around, turning a visit to the shops into a pastime in itself. This helped to normalise and further integrate consumerism into people's daily lives. These developments contributed to the birth of a consumer society in England, where the acquisition of goods became an integral part of culture and lifestyle, going far beyond the satisfaction of basic needs to encompass a dimension of pleasure, social status and personal identity.
| | 工业革命的另一个有趣方面是商业惯例的演变和 18 世纪英国大众消费的诞生。以兜售为基础的传统贸易开始发生变化，流动的卖家带着他们的商品从一个村庄到另一个村庄。固定商店和固定商业空间的出现标志着我们销售和消费方式的一个重要转折点。带有大橱窗的商店在当时还是一种新鲜事物，它提供了一种吸引路人眼球的奇观。这些橱窗经过精心组织，以极具吸引力和美感的方式展示商品，迎合了潜在顾客的欲望和愿望。这有别于直接、实用的兜售方式，在购买行为中引入了奇观和欲望元素。各种新兴形式的广告在这种新的消费文化中发挥了至关重要的作用。广告开始影响消费者的选择，让他们相信自己需要以前从未考虑过的产品。平面广告、广告牌甚至产品演示都被用来鼓励购买。与此同时，新休闲活动的出现和围绕放松时刻的时间安排也在改变消费者行为方面发挥了作用。例如，周日弥撒后的散步提供了一个社交和漫步的机会，把逛商店本身变成了一种消遣。这有助于使消费主义常态化，并进一步融入人们的日常生活。这些发展促成了英国消费社会的诞生，在这个社会中，购买商品成为文化和生活方式不可分割的一部分，远远超出了满足基本需求的范畴，还包括了享乐、社会地位和个人身份的层面。 |
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| ===Major social changes in 18th-century Britain=== | | ===18 世纪英国的重大社会变革=== |
| The evolution of values in England during the Industrial Revolution reflects a profound change in social priorities and cultural attitudes. As society was transformed by advances in technology and industry, the notion of progress itself began to be rethought in material terms. The importance attached to traditional religious and moral values began to decline in favour of an appreciation of tangible benefits and material well-being. Economic success and the accumulation of wealth became indicators of progress and social status. In this new framework of values, individual and collective success was often measured by the ability to consume, own and improve the material comforts of life. This association between progress and material well-being had significant implications for society. For example, dressing in fashionable clothes or improving the insulation and comfort of homes were no longer just ways of meeting practical needs, but also symbols of status and personal achievement. This encouraged the adoption of innovative technologies and the constant search for improvements in the production of consumer goods. The consumer mentality that developed during this period was fuelled by the belief that material progress was not only desirable but also a right. This led to a culture where the pursuit of progress was intrinsically linked to the acquisition of material goods, influencing the motivations behind technological innovation and shaping the trajectory of industrial society. Ultimately, this shift in value system played a key role in the dynamics of the Industrial Revolution, motivating economic expansion and profoundly influencing the evolution of social and economic structures in modern England and, by extension, across the globe.
| | 工业革命时期英国价值观的演变反映了社会优先事项和文化态度的深刻变化。随着社会被技术和工业的进步所改变，人们开始从物质角度重新思考进步的概念本身。对传统宗教和道德价值观的重视开始下降，转而重视有形利益和物质福祉。经济上的成功和财富的积累成为衡量进步和社会地位的指标。在这一新的价值观框架中，个人和集体的成功往往以消费、拥有和改善物质生活舒适度的能力来衡量。进步与物质福利之间的联系对社会产生了重大影响。例如，穿着时髦的服装或改善住宅的隔热性和舒适性不再仅仅是满足实际需求的方式，也是地位和个人成就的象征。这鼓励人们采用创新技术，不断寻求消费品生产的改进。在这一时期形成的消费心理，是由于人们相信物质的进步不仅是可取的，而且是一种权利。这导致形成了一种追求进步与获取物质财富有着内在联系的文化，影响了技术创新背后的动机，并塑造了工业社会的发展轨迹。最终，这种价值体系的转变在工业革命的动力中发挥了关键作用，推动了经济扩张，并深刻影响了现代英国乃至全球社会和经济结构的演变。 |
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| The eighteenth century marked a period of significant social transformation, particularly in England where the rigidities of feudal structures began to loosen. The rise of the bourgeoisie, a social class made up of individuals who derived their status from their wealth and their role in commerce and industry, changed the way in which social status was perceived and acquired. In pre-industrial society, the nobility was at the top of the social hierarchy, and status was mainly inherited. However, with the economic upheavals of the Industrial Revolution, the wealth generated by commerce and the new industries began to offer routes up the social ladder that had not been possible before. Successful entrepreneurs, merchants and industrialists began to acquire goods and a lifestyle that had previously been the preserve of the nobility. In England, the nobility also reacted to these changes, as shown by their interest in agricultural improvement and agronomy, investing in areas that contributed to economic development. Increased social fluidity allowed those who succeeded in business to imitate the outward appearances of the nobility, adopting their lifestyle, their clothes and even their hobbies. Social status thus began to be influenced by economic success and the ability to consume and display outward signs of wealth. This trend was even more marked in the American colonies, where class distinctions were less entrenched and economic opportunity was often seen as a means of establishing a new social status. Indeed, in the United States, the promise of democracy and equality of opportunity was rooted in a context where social status could be acquired through individual achievement rather than through birth. The boundaries between social classes were more permeable, allowing for greater social mobility. This led to cases where certain individuals from the nobility were prepared to give up their hereditary title in order to participate in this new world of opportunities based on personal merit and economic success. The fluidity of society was thus a driving force behind social and economic change, contributing to the emergence of a capitalist dynamic where wealth and industrial innovation redefined power structures and hierarchies.
| | 18 世纪标志着一个重大的社会转型时期，尤其是在英国，封建结构的僵化开始松动。资产阶级的崛起改变了人们对社会地位的认识和获取方式。在前工业社会，贵族处于社会等级的顶端，地位主要靠继承。然而，随着工业革命带来的经济动荡，商业和新兴产业所创造的财富开始为社会地位的提升提供了前所未有的途径。成功的企业家、商人和实业家开始获得以前只属于贵族的商品和生活方式。在英国，贵族也对这些变化做出了反应，他们对农业改良和农艺学的兴趣就表明了这一点，他们投资于有助于经济发展的领域。社会流动性的增加使得那些在商业上取得成功的人可以模仿贵族的外表，采用他们的生活方式、服饰甚至爱好。因此，社会地位开始受到经济成功、消费能力和财富外在表现的影响。这种趋势在美洲殖民地更为明显，那里的阶级差别并不那么根深蒂固，经济机会往往被视为确立新社会地位的手段。事实上，在美国，民主和机会平等的承诺植根于这样一种背景，即社会地位可以通过个人成就而非出身来获得。社会阶层之间的界限更易渗透，社会流动性更大。这导致某些贵族准备放弃世袭爵位，以参与这个基于个人功绩和经济成就的新机会世界。因此，社会的流动性是社会和经济变革的推动力，促进了资本主义动态的出现，财富和工业创新重新定义了权力结构和等级制度。 |
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| ===Production up 60% between 1700 and 1760=== | | ===1700 年至 1760 年间，产量增长了 60=== |
| The period from 1700 to 1760 marked the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution in England and was characterised by significant advances that paved the way for the major changes to come. The 60% increase in production during this period illustrates the acceleration of industrial activity and the growing efficiency of manufacturing processes. The adoption of the steam engine, developed by Thomas Newcomen around 1712 and improved by James Watt later in the century, played a crucial role. Although the first steam engines were mainly used to pump water from mines, they laid the foundations for their future use as a source of energy in industrial production. Indeed, the steam engine became an emblematic symbol of the Industrial Revolution, enabling increased automation and the mechanisation of many manufacturing processes. The factory system also contributed to this increase in production. By centralising workers and machines in large complexes, it was possible to specialise and rationalise production, increasing the quantity and consistency of goods produced. This specialisation made it possible to exploit economies of scale and reduce production costs, making products more accessible to a growing population. In addition, improvements in transport infrastructure, such as the construction of canals and the development of roads, facilitated the movement of raw materials to factories and the distribution of finished goods to local and international markets. These innovations in transport have reduced the time and costs associated with distribution, enabling British-made products to become competitive on the world market. These technological and organisational transformations contributed to sustained economic growth in England, laying the foundations for the industrial expansion that would characterise the second half of the 18th century. This period was therefore a pivotal moment when the foundations of a modern industrial economy were laid, marking the beginning of an era of progress and innovation that would transform the world.
| | 1700 年至 1760 年是英国工业革命的开端，这一时期的重大进步为未来的重大变革铺平了道路。这一时期的产量增长了 60%，说明工业活动加速，制造流程的效率不断提高。托马斯-纽科曼（Thomas Newcomen）于 1712 年左右发明了蒸汽机，詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）在本世纪晚些时候对其进行了改进，蒸汽机的采用起到了至关重要的作用。虽然第一批蒸汽机主要用于从矿井中抽水，但它们为日后在工业生产中用作能源奠定了基础。事实上，蒸汽机已成为工业革命的标志性象征，它使许多生产流程更加自动化和机械化。工厂系统也促进了生产的增长。通过将工人和机器集中在大型综合企业中，可以实现生产的专业化和合理化，提高产品的数量和一致性。这种专业化生产可以利用规模经济，降低生产成本，使日益增长的人口更容易获得产品。此外，运输基础设施的改善，如运河的修建和公路的发展，促进了原材料向工厂的运输以及成品向本地和国际市场的分销。这些运输方面的创新减少了与分销相关的时间和成本，使英国制造的产品在世界市场上更具竞争力。这些技术和组织变革促进了英国经济的持续增长，为 18 世纪下半叶的工业扩张奠定了基础。因此，这一时期是奠定现代工业经济基础的关键时刻，标志着一个改变世界的进步和创新时代的开始。 |
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| ==High salaries== | | ==高薪== |
| The increase in production during the English Industrial Revolution was accompanied by a growth in the workforce employed in the new industrial sectors. This increased demand for workers put upward pressure on wages due to the principles of supply and demand: a high demand for workers in a context of limited supply naturally tends to drive up wages. As wages rose, workers and their families had more means to consume, contributing to the gradual enrichment of the "little people" or working classes. This increased consumption in turn fuelled demand for manufactured goods, stimulating production and industrial innovation. However, this rise in wages had a secondary effect: it encouraged factory owners and entrepreneurs to look for ways to reduce production costs in order to maintain or increase their profit margins. Mechanisation appeared to be the obvious solution for achieving this objective. By replacing manual labour, which was becoming increasingly expensive, with machines, companies could produce goods faster, in greater quantities and at a lower cost. This substitution of capital (machines) for labour led to what is often referred to as the 'second phase' of the Industrial Revolution, which was marked by an even greater rise in mechanisation and automation in production. This had long-term consequences for the structure of employment and the skills required of the workforce. Workers had to adapt to new working methods, often more rigorous and repetitive, in an industrial environment. These changes also led to social tensions, as while some sectors of society became richer as a result of industrialisation, others saw their traditional way of life disrupted, with increased competition and downward pressure on wages in some manual trades as a result of automation.
| | 英国工业革命期间，随着生产的增加，新工业部门雇用的劳动力也随之增加。由于供求关系的原理，对工人需求的增加给工资带来了上涨的压力：在供应有限的情况下，对工人的高需求自然会推动工资的上涨。随着工资的上涨，工人及其家庭有了更多的消费能力，从而使 "小人物 "或工人阶级逐渐富裕起来。消费的增加反过来又刺激了对制成品的需求，刺激了生产和工业创新。然而，工资的增长也产生了副作用：它鼓励工厂主和企业家寻找降低生产成本的方法，以维持或提高利润率。机械化似乎是实现这一目标的不二法门。用机器代替日益昂贵的体力劳动，企业可以更快、更多、更低成本地生产商品。资本（机器）对劳动力的这种替代，导致了通常所说的工业革命的 "第二阶段"，其特点是生产中的机械化和自动化程度进一步提高。这对就业结构和劳动力所需的技能产生了长期影响。工人必须适应新的工作方法，这些方法往往更加严格和重复，而且是在工业环境中进行。这些变化也导致了社会紧张局势，因为工业化使一些社会阶层变得更加富裕，而另一些社会阶层则看到他们的传统生活方式被打破，竞争加剧，一些手工行业的工资因自动化而面临下降的压力。 |
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| =Why did the Industrial Revolution take root in Europe?= | | =工业革命为何在欧洲扎根？= |
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| The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in Europe can be attributed to a number of interrelated factors. Firstly, access to abundant resources such as coal and iron was essential, as these materials provided the basis for the creation and improvement of new technologies, propelling industrial development. In addition, Europe benefited from a steadily growing population, an inexhaustible source of labour for fledgling factories and a market for manufactured goods. Europe also had a rich tradition of innovation and a thriving entrepreneurial spirit, elements that have always stimulated the discovery and application of new techniques and knowledge. This fertile atmosphere for progress was reinforced by dynamic educational and research institutions. Finally, a stable political and economic framework has fostered the industrial revolution by providing an environment conducive to business and investment. Stable governments, well-established legal systems and a business-friendly environment enabled infant industries to develop and take risks, often with the support of government policies and dedicated infrastructure. In this way, Europe became the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, laying the foundations for a profound and long-lasting change in industrial production, work and society as a whole.
| | 欧洲工业革命的兴起可归因于若干相互关联的因素。首先，获得煤和铁等丰富资源至关重要，因为这些材料为创造和改进新技术提供了基础，推动了工业发展。此外，欧洲得益于稳定增长的人口、新兴工厂取之不尽的劳动力以及制成品市场。欧洲还拥有丰富的创新传统和蓬勃发展的企业家精神，这些因素一直激励着新技术和新知识的发现和应用。充满活力的教育和研究机构进一步强化了这一进步的沃土。最后，稳定的政治和经济框架为商业和投资提供了有利环境，从而促进了工业革命。稳定的政府、完善的法律体系和有利于商业的环境使新兴产业得以发展并承担风险，通常还能得到政府政策和专用基础设施的支持。因此，欧洲成为工业革命的摇篮，为工业生产、工作和整个社会的深刻而持久的变革奠定了基础。 |
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| === Sense of superiority and open-mindedness === | | === 优越感和开放意识 === |
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| Karl Marx's historical analysis of Asian and European societies is complex and forms part of a wider set of theories on socio-economic development and historical change. Marx addressed the issue of ethnocentrism and feelings of superiority in the European context, examining how these attitudes might have influenced European behaviour during the colonial era and imperial expansion. It is true that for much of European history, Christianity provided a homogenising cultural and ideological framework, particularly during the period when the Catholic Church dominated religiously and politically. This may have contributed to a sense of superiority and a strong sense of collective identity, particularly in relation to other civilisations. The expulsion of Jews and Muslims during and after the Middle Ages (as in Spain at the end of the 15th century), for example, was partly due to a desire for religious and political unity that ultimately fuelled the ideology of Christian 'purity'. Nevertheless, Europe was far from monolithic, and denominational differences, particularly after the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century, led to centuries of religious conflict and diversity within Europe itself. These conflicts and competition between nation states and denominational powers may also have stimulated innovation and expansion overseas, as each sought to extend its influence and wealth. European openness - the curiosity and desire to discover and exploit new territories and resources - was another key factor in European expansion and the development of the Industrial Revolution. This combination of ethnocentrism and the desire to explore led European nations to sail to new continents, establish colonies and begin the process of global trade that would be a precursor to the modern world economy. Marx's thesis of Christian unity as the basis for a sense of superiority is therefore part of a much wider analysis and should not be seen as a complete or exclusive explanation of the historical complexities of the time.
| | 卡尔-马克思对亚洲和欧洲社会的历史分析是复杂的，是一套更广泛的社会经济发展和历史变迁理论的组成部分。马克思探讨了欧洲背景下的种族中心主义和优越感问题，研究了这些态度可能如何影响欧洲人在殖民时代和帝国扩张时期的行为。诚然，在欧洲历史的大部分时间里，基督教提供了一个同质化的文化和意识形态框架，特别是在天主教会在宗教和政治上占主导地位的时期。这可能助长了一种优越感和强烈的集体认同感，尤其是相对于其他文明而言。例如，中世纪期间和之后对犹太人和穆斯林的驱逐（如 15 世纪末在西班牙），部分原因是对宗教和政治统一的渴望，这种渴望最终助长了基督教 "纯洁 "的意识形态。然而，欧洲远非铁板一块，教派之间的分歧，尤其是 16 世纪新教改革之后，导致了欧洲内部几个世纪的宗教冲突和多样性。民族国家和教派势力之间的冲突和竞争也可能刺激了创新和海外扩张，因为每个国家都在寻求扩大自己的影响力和财富。欧洲的开放性--发现和开发新领土和新资源的好奇心和愿望--是欧洲扩张和工业革命发展的另一个关键因素。这种民族中心主义与探索欲望的结合，促使欧洲国家扬帆远航，前往新大陆，建立殖民地，并开始了全球贸易进程，而这正是现代世界经济的先驱。因此，马克思关于基督教统一性是优越感基础的论述是更广泛分析的一部分，不应被视为对当时历史复杂性的完整或排他性解释。 |
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| In his work, David Landes has put forward the idea that certain cultural and technological elements, such as the alphabet, may have played a role in Europe's ability to progress technologically and economically. According to this view, the phonetic alphabet, which required the memorisation of a relatively small number of characters compared with the ideographic systems used in East Asia, facilitated the spread of reading and writing skills, thereby contributing to a wider dissemination of knowledge and innovation. As for the influence of Protestantism, thinkers such as Max Weber have suggested that certain forms of Protestantism, in particular the Calvinist ethic, encouraged literacy and a certain form of asceticism conducive to the accumulation of capital, which would have favoured the development of entrepreneurship and modern capitalism. The situation in Japan is different, but not necessarily an insurmountable obstacle to industrialisation. The Japanese writing system is complex, combining three sets of characters: kanji (characters borrowed from Chinese), hiragana and katakana (two syllabaries unique to Japanese). However, the basic teaching of these characters was systematised from an early age in Japan, enabling widespread literacy. In addition, the Meiji era in Japan (1868-1912) was marked by a series of reforms aimed at modernising the country along Western lines, which included extensive educational reforms. Japan's industrialisation occurred rapidly thanks to a series of deliberate state policies, the adoption of foreign technologies, and heavy investment in education and workforce training. The Meiji government encouraged the learning and practice of Western technical and scientific skills, while retaining and adapting aspects of Japan's traditional culture and systems, leading to a unique blend that fostered industrialisation. It is therefore important to recognise that while certain cultural factors can influence the development of a society, they do not in themselves determine the success or failure of industrialisation. Strategic government policies, adaptive institutions, and the ability to assimilate and innovate from foreign technologies and ideas are also essential factors.
| | 戴维-兰德斯（David Landes）在其著作中提出了这样一种观点，即某些文化和技术元素，如字母表，可能在欧洲的技术和经济进步能力中发挥了作用。根据这一观点，与东亚使用的表意文字系统相比，拼音文字需要记忆的字符数量相对较少，它促进了阅读和书写技能的传播，从而推动了知识和创新的广泛传播。至于新教的影响，马克斯-韦伯（Max Weber）等思想家认为，某些形式的新教，特别是加尔文教伦理，鼓励扫盲和某种形式的禁欲主义，有利于资本积累，这将有利于企业家精神和现代资本主义的发展。日本的情况有所不同，但不一定是工业化不可逾越的障碍。日本的书写系统非常复杂，由三套字符组成：汉字（借用自中国的字符）、平假名和片假名（日本特有的两种音节）。不过，这些汉字的基础教学在日本很早就已系统化，从而使识字率得以普及。此外，日本明治时代（1868-1912 年）进行了一系列改革，旨在按照西方的思路实现国家现代化，其中包括广泛的教育改革。由于一系列深思熟虑的国家政策、外国技术的采用以及对教育和劳动力培训的大量投资，日本的工业化迅速发展。明治政府鼓励学习和实践西方的技术和科学技能，同时保留和调整日本传统文化和制度的各个方面，从而形成了一种独特的融合，促进了工业化的发展。因此，我们必须认识到，虽然某些文化因素会影响社会的发展，但它们本身并不能决定工业化的成败。战略性的政府政策、适应性强的机构以及吸收和创新外国技术和理念的能力也是至关重要的因素。 |
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| ===Access to energy sources=== | | ===获取能源=== |
| The availability and use of reliable and powerful energy sources undoubtedly played a pivotal role in Europe's industrial revolution. Indeed, before the industrial era, economies were primarily based on agriculture and human or animal labour. With the Industrial Revolution, there was a fundamental change in the way energy was obtained and used, enabling mass production and unprecedented efficiency. Water was one of the first sources of energy used to industrialise production, thanks to the invention of water mills and water wheels. These technologies used the kinetic energy of running water to power various machines in the textile industries, for example. The steam engine then revolutionised this energy paradigm. Invented in the early 18th century and perfected by engineers such as James Watt, the steam engine made it possible to harness the energy of coal, a resource that was abundant in Europe at the time, particularly in Great Britain. This source of energy allowed greater flexibility in the location of factories, because unlike waterwheels, steam engines did not need to be located near a source of running water. As the Industrial Revolution developed, coal became the fuel of choice, not only for steam engines, but also for the new heating and power generation technologies that were developed in the late 19th century. Later, with the discovery and exploitation of oil, another dense and transportable energy source became available, supporting the continuing expansion of industrialisation. Access to these energy sources, and the ability to harness them efficiently, were key to keeping Europe at the forefront of industrial innovation for several centuries. The energy revolution that accompanied the industrial era not only facilitated mass production, but also stimulated the development of new industries and transport, and had a profound impact on the social and economic structures of European societies.
| | 可靠而强大的能源的供应和使用无疑在欧洲工业革命中发挥了关键作用。事实上，在工业时代之前，经济主要依靠农业和人力或畜力。随着工业革命的到来，获取和使用能源的方式发生了根本性的变化，实现了大规模生产和前所未有的效率。由于水磨和水轮的发明，水成为工业化生产最早使用的能源之一。例如，这些技术利用流水的动能为纺织业的各种机器提供动力。蒸汽机随后彻底改变了这种能源模式。蒸汽机发明于 18 世纪初，并由詹姆斯-瓦特等工程师加以完善，蒸汽机使得利用煤炭能源成为可能，而煤炭资源在当时的欧洲，尤其是英国非常丰富。这种能源使工厂的选址更具灵活性，因为与水车不同，蒸汽机不需要靠近自来水。随着工业革命的发展，煤炭不仅成为蒸汽机的首选燃料，也成为 19 世纪晚期开发的新型供热和发电技术的首选燃料。后来，随着石油的发现和开采，又出现了另一种高密度、可运输的能源，为工业化的持续发展提供了支持。这些能源的获取以及有效利用这些能源的能力，是欧洲几个世纪以来一直处于工业创新前沿的关键所在。伴随工业时代而来的能源革命不仅促进了大规模生产，还刺激了新兴工业和运输业的发展，并对欧洲社会的社会和经济结构产生了深远影响。 |
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| ===Climatic and geographical influences=== | | ===气候和地理影响=== |
| The Industrial Revolution unfolded differently across Europe, shaped by the unique geographical, economic and cultural conditions of each region. In Britain, France, Switzerland and Germany, a variety of factors played a part in the development of industry. Britain is often regarded as the cradle of the Industrial Revolution, largely due to its vast coal reserves and easy access to iron. For example, the coal mines of Wales and the north of England provided the essential fuel for James Watt's steam engine. The iron deposits of the Midlands enabled steel to be produced in large quantities, thanks in particular to the puddling process improved by Henry Cort. In addition, the country's island geography stimulated a flourishing shipbuilding industry, supported by advances such as Robert Fulton's steamship. This mastery of the seas facilitated not only foreign trade but also the ability to import raw materials and export finished products.
| | 工业革命在欧洲各地以不同的方式展开，每个地区都有其独特的地理、经济和文化条件。在英国、法国、瑞士和德国，各种因素在工业发展中发挥了作用。英国通常被视为工业革命的摇篮，这主要得益于其丰富的煤炭储量和便捷的铁矿开采。例如，威尔士和英格兰北部的煤矿为詹姆斯-瓦特的蒸汽机提供了基本燃料。中部地区的铁矿使钢铁得以大量生产，这主要归功于亨利-科特改进的水坑工艺。此外，英国的岛屿地理位置也促进了造船业的蓬勃发展，罗伯特-富尔顿（Robert Fulton）的蒸汽船等先进技术为造船业提供了支持。对海洋的掌控不仅促进了对外贸易，也提高了进口原材料和出口成品的能力。 |
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| In France, the industrial revolution was more gradual. Although it also had coal reserves, such as those in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais coalfield, and iron reserves in Lorraine, its industrial development was held back by the political upheavals of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Nevertheless, regions such as Normandy saw the emergence of textile industries, and Lyon became an important centre for silk. The invention of the Jacquard loom by Joseph Marie Jacquard modernised textile production, demonstrating France's technical ingenuity. Switzerland, despite its lack of natural resources compared with its neighbours, has excelled in fields requiring great technical skill and little need for raw resources. Watchmaking, for example, has become a renowned industry in the cantons of Neuchâtel and Geneva. The precision and quality of Swiss watches was unrivalled, reflecting the emphasis placed on technical training and precision craftsmanship. Germany experienced a later industrial revolution, but was notable for its emphasis on scientific research and development. The Ruhr coal deposits fuelled a powerful steel industry, and the chemical industry also took off with companies like BASF. Germany's technical universities (Technische Universitäten) produced a generation of engineers and inventors who contributed to rapid mechanisation and technological innovation.
| | 在法国，工业革命更为渐进。虽然法国也有煤炭储量（如北加来海峡煤田）和洛林的铁矿储量，但法国大革命和拿破仑战争的政治动荡阻碍了法国的工业发展。然而，诺曼底等地区出现了纺织业，里昂成为重要的丝绸中心。约瑟夫-玛丽-雅克（Joseph Marie Jacquard）发明的提花织机使纺织生产现代化，展示了法国的技术智慧。与邻国相比，瑞士虽然缺乏自然资源，但在需要高超技术而对原材料需求不大的领域却表现出色。例如，制表业已成为纳沙泰尔州和日内瓦州的著名产业。瑞士钟表的精度和质量无与伦比，体现了对技术培训和精密工艺的重视。德国经历的工业革命较晚，但其对科学研究和发展的重视却引人注目。鲁尔区的煤矿为强大的钢铁工业提供了燃料，化学工业也因巴斯夫等公司的出现而腾飞。德国的技术大学（Technische Universitäten）培养了一代又一代的工程师和发明家，为快速机械化和技术创新做出了贡献。 |
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| In each of these regions, the unique combination of resources, skills, innovations and economic conditions shaped the development of the Industrial Revolution. The ability of these countries to adapt, invest and innovate was crucial to their respective industrial transformations.
| | 在这些地区中，资源、技能、创新和经济条件的独特组合塑造了工业革命的发展。这些国家的适应、投资和创新能力对其各自的工业转型至关重要。 |
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| ===Political fragmentation and competition=== | | ===政治分裂和竞争=== |
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| [[Fichier:Monumento a Colón (Madrid) 02b.jpg|thumb|Columbus and Queen Isabella I of Castile depicted on a monument in the Plaza de Colón in Madrid.]] | | [[Fichier:Monumento a Colón (Madrid) 02b.jpg|thumb|哥伦布和卡斯蒂利亚女王伊莎贝拉一世在马德里科隆广场的纪念碑上。]] |
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| The late Middle Ages and the Renaissance saw Europe fragment into a patchwork of political territories, leading to intense rivalry between the emerging nations. This competition served as a catalyst for exploration and innovation, laying the foundations for what would become the Industrial Revolution and European colonial expansion.
| | 中世纪晚期和文艺复兴时期，欧洲的政治版图四分五裂，导致新兴国家之间的激烈竞争。这种竞争成为探索和创新的催化剂，为后来的工业革命和欧洲殖民扩张奠定了基础。 |
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| Karl Marx, in his historical analysis, often discussed the limitations inherent in autocratic and centralised societies, such as those found in the Chinese Empire. He postulated that these rigid political structures stifled innovation and inevitably led to their own decline. In contrast, he saw the competitive dynamism of European states as a driver of change and progress. This competition was evident in the field of geographical discovery, where monarchs were keen to fund expeditions to increase their prestige and extend their influence. The case of Christopher Columbus is exemplary: after being rejected by Portugal, he won the support of Isabella the Catholic of Spain. Isabella's intention was not only to extend the domain of the Spanish crown, but also to gain a strategic and economic advantage over her European rivals, notably Portugal, which had already established a sea route to India around Africa.
| | 卡尔-马克思在其历史分析中经常讨论专制和中央集权社会固有的局限性，例如中华帝国的专制和中央集权社会。他认为，这些僵化的政治结构扼杀了创新，并不可避免地导致了自身的衰落。相比之下，他认为欧洲国家的竞争活力是变革和进步的动力。这种竞争体现在地理发现领域，君主们热衷于资助探险，以提高自己的威望，扩大自己的影响力。克里斯托弗-哥伦布（Christopher Columbus）就是一个例子：在被葡萄牙拒绝后，他赢得了西班牙天主教伊莎贝拉（Isabella the Catholic）的支持。伊莎贝拉的意图不仅在于扩大西班牙王室的领地，还在于获得战略和经济上的优势，战胜她在欧洲的竞争对手，尤其是已经建立了绕非洲通往印度的海上航线的葡萄牙。 |
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| The desire to outdo rivals also stimulated technological development. European armies were constantly evolving, seeking more effective weapons and better fortifications. This climate of competition also spurred research in the fields of navigation and cartography, essential to maritime exploration and domination. The competitive dynamics of nation-states also led to the establishment of trading companies with royal monopolies, such as the British East India Company or the Dutch East India Company, both of which played crucial roles in establishing global trade networks and accumulating wealth, propelling their respective countries into a new era of industrial and colonial expansion. This inter-state competition was a key factor in Europe's emergence as a global power centre in the modern period, profoundly shaping the economic and political trajectories of the region and the world as a whole.
| | 超越对手的愿望也刺激了技术的发展。欧洲军队不断发展，寻求更有效的武器和更好的防御工事。这种竞争氛围也促进了航海和制图领域的研究，这对海上探索和统治至关重要。民族国家之间的竞争态势也导致了拥有皇家垄断权的贸易公司的建立，如英国东印度公司或荷兰东印度公司，这两家公司在建立全球贸易网络和积累财富方面发挥了至关重要的作用，推动各自国家进入工业和殖民扩张的新时代。这种国家间的竞争是欧洲在近代成为全球权力中心的关键因素，深刻影响了该地区乃至整个世界的经济和政治发展轨迹。 |
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| ===Impact of colonial expansion=== | | ===殖民扩张的影响=== |
| The great maritime discoveries, which began at the end of the 15th century, paved the way for an era of early globalisation, often characterised by triangular trade. This proved to be a powerful engine for the economic development of Europe. The triangular trade involved three main regions: Europe, Africa and the Americas. European ships sailed to Africa where they traded manufactured goods for slaves. These slaves were then transported across the Atlantic in inhumane conditions to the Americas as part of the sinister "Middle Passage". In the New World, slaves were sold and the products of their forced labour, such as sugar, cotton, tobacco and later coffee, were transported to Europe. The profits from these sales were often reinvested in the production of manufactured goods, fuelling the growth of European industry. This period also saw the introduction to Europe of agricultural crops from the Americas, such as potatoes, tomatoes and maize, which transformed European diets and contributed to an increase in population. In return, the Europeans introduced horses, cattle and diseases to which the native populations had no immunity, causing demographic disasters.
| | 始于 15 世纪末的海洋大发现为早期全球化时代铺平了道路，其特点往往是三角贸易。事实证明，这是欧洲经济发展的强大动力。三角贸易涉及三个主要地区：欧洲、非洲和美洲： 欧洲、非洲和美洲。欧洲船只航行到非洲，用制成品换取奴隶。然后，作为罪恶的 "中间航程 "的一部分，这些奴隶在不人道的条件下横跨大西洋被运往美洲。在新大陆，奴隶被贩卖，他们被迫劳动的产品，如糖、棉花、烟草以及后来的咖啡，被运往欧洲。这些销售利润往往被重新投资于制成品的生产，推动了欧洲工业的发展。这一时期，欧洲还从美洲引进了马铃薯、西红柿和玉米等农作物，改变了欧洲人的饮食习惯，促进了人口增长。作为回报，欧洲人引进了马、牛和当地人没有免疫力的疾病，造成了人口灾难。 |
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| The triangular trade had a considerable impact on the development of Europe. Not only did it generate enormous profits for European traders and financiers, it also stimulated the development of key sectors such as shipbuilding, banking, insurance and, in some regions, manufacturing. In addition, the accumulated capital financed technological advances and provided the means for industrial expansion. However, it is essential to recognise the immense human cost of this period. The slave trade brought incalculable suffering and death to millions of Africans, and European colonisation of the Americas led to the systematic destruction of indigenous cultures and the disappearance of entire populations. The prosperity gained through these unequal exchanges laid the foundations for Europe's economic and industrial ascendancy, but it also left a legacy of injustice and division that continues to influence international relations and world politics today.
| | 三角贸易对欧洲的发展产生了相当大的影响。它不仅为欧洲商人和金融家带来了巨额利润，还刺激了造船、银行、保险等关键行业的发展，在一些地区还促进了制造业的发展。此外，积累的资本还为技术进步提供了资金，并为工业扩张提供了手段。然而，必须认识到这一时期巨大的人力成本。奴隶贸易给数百万非洲人带来了无法估量的痛苦和死亡，欧洲人在美洲的殖民统治则导致了土著文化的系统性毁灭和整个人口的消失。这些不平等交流带来的繁荣为欧洲经济和工业的崛起奠定了基础，但也留下了不公正和分裂的后遗症，至今仍影响着国际关系和世界政治。 |
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| The industrialisation of Switzerland provides a fascinating example that challenges some common assumptions about the preconditions for the Industrial Revolution. With no colonial empire and no direct access to the sea, Switzerland nevertheless managed to position itself as one of the most developed economies in Europe thanks to several key factors. Switzerland's political stability and policy of neutrality have enabled it to avoid the excessive costs associated with conflict and to concentrate on economic development. This has been complemented by a commitment to education and training, creating a highly skilled and innovative workforce. Swiss innovations in fields such as precision engineering and watchmaking laid the foundations for what was to become a tradition of high technology. In terms of resources, Switzerland was able to harness its water resources for energy, which was essential in the early stages of its industrial development. Its strategic position at the heart of Europe also facilitated dynamic trade relations with powerful neighbouring nations. Switzerland's financial sector also became a pillar of the economy, providing the capital needed for industrial investment both inside and outside the country. This capital helped to finance not only domestic industry but also to create international opportunities. Finally, Switzerland has intelligently targeted niche industrial sectors, focusing on quality and cutting-edge technology rather than raw materials or production volume. Swiss watchmaking, for example, has become synonymous with precision and quality, reaffirming that industrial success can be achieved through specialisation rather than colonial expansion or maritime trade. The history of Swiss industrialisation thus demonstrates that the path to industrial development can take many forms, and is influenced by a unique mix of social, economic and political factors tailored to the particular context of each country.
| | 瑞士的工业化提供了一个引人入胜的例子，挑战了一些关于工业革命先决条件的常见假设。瑞士没有殖民帝国，也没有直接出海口，但却能成为欧洲最发达的经济体之一，这要归功于几个关键因素。瑞士的政治稳定和中立政策使其能够避免冲突带来的过高成本，并专注于经济发展。此外，瑞士还致力于教育和培训，培养了一支技术精湛、勇于创新的劳动力队伍。瑞士在精密工程和制表等领域的创新为后来的高科技传统奠定了基础。在资源方面，瑞士能够利用水资源获取能源，这在其工业发展的早期阶段至关重要。瑞士地处欧洲中心的战略地位也促进了与强大邻国之间活跃的贸易关系。瑞士的金融业也成为经济的支柱，为国内外的工业投资提供了所需的资本。这些资本不仅为国内工业提供了资金，而且创造了国际机遇。最后，瑞士明智地瞄准了利基工业部门，注重质量和尖端技术，而不是原材料或产量。例如，瑞士制表业已成为精密和优质的代名词，再次证明工业的成功可以通过专业化而非殖民扩张或海上贸易来实现。因此，瑞士工业化的历史表明，工业发展的道路可以有多种形式，并受到适合每个国家特殊国情的社会、经济和政治因素的独特影响。 |
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| ===Is the industrial revolution inevitable?=== | | ===工业革命不可避免吗？=== |
| The Industrial Revolution, the beginning of which can be seen in England, occurred as a result of a convergence of favourable circumstances. Eighteenth-century England enjoyed remarkable political stability and robust financial institutions, notably its established central bank, which created an environment conducive to investment and enterprise. The enclosure movement had also reshaped the agricultural landscape, freeing up a workforce that would feed the cities and the first factories. This transformation was underpinned by the abundance of resources such as coal and iron, which were crucial to the manufacture of machinery and the emergence of the railways. Technical advances, such as James Watt's improvement of the steam engine, reinforced this dynamic by enabling mechanised production. Investment in industrialisation was also stimulated by the wealth derived from England's colonial empire and the supremacy of its merchant navy. England also benefited from legislation conducive to business development, a vast domestic market, and an ever-improving transport network that facilitated internal trade. At the same time, a tenacious entrepreneurial culture, supported by a patent system that encouraged innovation and a tradition of economic freedom, paved the way for major advances. By contrast, Spain at the same time faced a number of obstacles that held back its industrial momentum. The abundance of gold and silver from the colonies paradoxically distracted attention from the need for internal innovation and industrial investment. Agricultural productivity stagnated and did not drive people to the cities as it did in England. Periods of political instability and conflict also hampered the long-term investment essential for successful industrialisation. What's more, a strict mercantilist framework often limited private initiative and free trade, which were essential to the entrepreneurial spirit. Thus, the Industrial Revolution in England was not a historical certainty, but rather the result of a complex tangle of socio-economic and political factors that shaped a particularly fertile path for industrial change, a path that was not so clear for Spain or other European nations at the time.
| | 工业革命的开端可以在英国看到，它的发生是各种有利环境交织在一起的结果。18 世纪的英格兰政治稳定，金融机构健全，尤其是中央银行的建立，为投资和企业创造了有利环境。圈地运动也重塑了农业格局，解放了为城市和第一批工厂提供食物的劳动力。煤和铁等资源的丰富为这一转变提供了支撑，这些资源对于机械制造和铁路的出现至关重要。詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）对蒸汽机的改进等技术进步使机械化生产成为可能，从而加强了这一动力。英国殖民帝国带来的财富及其商船海军的优势也刺激了对工业化的投资。英国还受益于有利于商业发展的立法、广阔的国内市场以及不断完善的交通网络，这些都为国内贸易提供了便利。同时，在鼓励创新的专利制度和经济自由传统的支持下，顽强的创业文化为重大进步铺平了道路。与此形成鲜明对比的是，西班牙同时也面临着许多阻碍其工业发展势头的障碍。来自殖民地的大量黄金和白银分散了人们对内部创新和工业投资需求的注意力。农业生产力停滞不前，没有像英国那样推动人们向城市迁移。政治动荡和冲突时期也阻碍了成功工业化所必需的长期投资。此外，严格的重商主义框架往往限制了对企业家精神至关重要的私人倡议和自由贸易。因此，英国的工业革命并非历史必然，而是社会经济和政治因素复杂纠结的结果，这些因素为工业变革塑造了一条特别肥沃的道路，而当时的西班牙或其他欧洲国家并不清楚这条道路。 |
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| Towards the second half of the 18th century, England underwent a meteoric economic metamorphosis, often referred to as the Industrial Revolution. This transformation, which began around 1760, became firmly established in the space of a few decades. By 1800, England had not only reshaped its own industrial and economic landscape, but had also laid the foundations for a phenomenon that would spread to the rest of Europe. British industrialisation, with its host of technological innovations, began to be exported to neighbouring nations such as France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. Each country adapted these new methods to its particular context, resulting in a period of significant economic growth and social change across the continent. However, the first wave of the Industrial Revolution did not immediately spread beyond Europe to other parts of the world. Societies in Asia, Africa and the Americas were affected differently, often indirectly, by European colonial empires. Europe, with its technological advances and increased economic power, established a dominance that was to widen the gap with other regions of the globe. This divide has had profound repercussions on global development, influencing the economic, political and social trajectories of societies far beyond Europe's borders. The consequences of this dynamic are complex and still visible in contemporary international relations. Industrialisation has created an increasingly interconnected world, while accentuating the disparities between industrialised and non-industrialised nations.
| | 18 世纪下半叶，英国经历了一场史无前例的经济蜕变，这就是人们常说的工业革命。这场变革始于 1760 年前后，在短短几十年间就已稳固扎根。到 1800 年，英国不仅重塑了自己的工业和经济版图，还为后来蔓延到欧洲其他国家的工业革命奠定了基础。英国的工业化及其大量技术创新开始向法国、比利时、德国和瑞士等邻国输出。每个国家都根据本国的具体情况对这些新方法进行了调整，从而在整个欧洲大陆形成了一个经济大幅增长和社会变革的时期。然而，工业革命的第一波浪潮并没有立即从欧洲蔓延到世界其他地区。亚洲、非洲和美洲的社会受到了欧洲殖民帝国的不同影响，而且往往是间接影响。欧洲凭借其技术进步和不断增强的经济实力，确立了主导地位，从而拉大了与全球其他地区的差距。这种鸿沟对全球发展产生了深远的影响，影响了远在欧洲边界之外的社会的经济、政治和社会轨迹。这种态势的后果错综复杂，在当代国际关系中依然清晰可见。工业化创造了一个日益相互联系的世界，同时也加剧了工业化国家与非工业化国家之间的差距。 |
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| ==Debated theory: a pioneering agricultural revolution?== | | ==有争议的理论：开创性的农业革命？== |
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| To some extent, the Industrial Revolution can be seen as an agricultural revolution. The Industrial Revolution was marked by a shift from manual labour to machine production, and this had a major impact on agriculture too. The development of new technologies, such as mechanised ploughs and threshers, increased the productivity and efficiency of agriculture. The growth of the transport network, including the construction of roads, canals and railways, has also made it easier to transport agricultural produce to market, helping to boost agricultural trade. In addition, the population growth that accompanied the Industrial Revolution created a greater demand for food, which further stimulated the development of agriculture. Overall, the Industrial Revolution had a significant impact on agriculture, and can be considered an agricultural revolution in this sense.
| | 在某种程度上，工业革命可以被视为一场农业革命。工业革命的标志是从手工劳动转向机器生产，这对农业也产生了重大影响。机械化犁和脱粒机等新技术的发展提高了农业的生产力和效率。交通网络的发展，包括公路、运河和铁路的建设，也使农产品更容易运往市场，有助于促进农产品贸易。此外，伴随着工业革命而来的人口增长对粮食产生了更大的需求，这进一步刺激了农业的发展。总体而言，工业革命对农业产生了重大影响，从这个意义上讲，工业革命可以被视为一场农业革命。 |
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| ===Gradual disappearance of fallow land=== | | ===休耕地逐渐消失=== |
| The Industrial Revolution is intrinsically linked to parallel changes in agriculture, which has led some historians to refer to it as the 'Agricultural Revolution'. Technological innovation led to considerable improvements in agricultural production methods, increasing productivity and reducing the need for a large workforce in the countryside. One example of this is the improvement of agricultural implements such as the plough, which has been enhanced by the use of new materials such as iron and steel. Inventions such as Jethro Tull's mechanical seed drill, combine harvesters and crop rotation systems also played a key role in this transformation. Improvements in animal husbandry through the systematic selection of species also helped to increase the availability of meat, milk and wool. In addition, the agricultural revolution freed up part of the rural population, who migrated to the cities to work in factories, fuelling urban and industrial growth. The development of more efficient transport infrastructures also facilitated the transport of agricultural surpluses to urban markets, encouraging the development of trade and the expansion of the economy. However, this transition was not without negative consequences. It has led to the enclosure of communal land, forcing many small farmers to abandon their land and seek work in the city. What's more, the transition to more intensive farming also sometimes degraded the environment, a phenomenon that continued and intensified with the agricultural modernisation of the twentieth century. The industrial revolution and the agricultural revolution were two facets of the same modernisation process, which reshaped society, the economy and the environment in profound and lasting ways.
| | 工业革命与同时发生的农业变革有着内在联系，因此一些历史学家将其称为 "农业革命"。技术创新极大地改进了农业生产方式，提高了生产力，减少了农村对大量劳动力的需求。其中一个例子就是犁等农具的改进，铁和钢等新材料的使用提高了犁的性能。杰特罗-图尔的机械播种机、联合收割机和轮作系统等发明也在这一转变中发挥了关键作用。通过系统地选择物种来改进畜牧业，也有助于增加肉类、牛奶和羊毛的供应。此外，农业革命解放了部分农村人口，他们迁移到城市的工厂工作，推动了城市和工业的发展。效率更高的交通基础设施的发展也促进了农业剩余产品向城市市场的运输，鼓励了贸易的发展和经济的扩张。然而，这种转型并非没有负面影响。它导致公有土地被圈占，迫使许多小农放弃土地，到城市找工作。更重要的是，向集约化耕作的转型有时也会造成环境退化，这种现象随着二十世纪的农业现代化而持续和加剧。工业革命和农业革命是同一个现代化进程的两个方面，以深刻而持久的方式重塑了社会、经济和环境。 |
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| ===Advances in agronomy and technical innovations in agriculture=== | | ===农艺进步和农业技术创新=== |
| The nobility's interest in agronomy during the Industrial Revolution was a key factor in agricultural innovation. This period was marked by a scientific and practical drive to improve agricultural productivity. Progressive nobles and landowners began to adopt and develop new agricultural techniques and practices. This included not only improved tools and machinery, but also the application of science to the selection and breeding of farm animals. In England, for example, this was the era of the "agricultural improvers" or "gentlemen farmers", who were noblemen or wealthy men who took a personal interest in the advancement of agriculture. Robert Bakewell (1725-1795) is a prominent example of one of these improvers. He was one of the first to apply systematic selection methods to improve livestock breeds. In particular, he developed the Leicester Longwool breed of sheep, which produced more meat and wool than traditional breeds. He also worked on cattle, creating more productive breeds for milk and meat. This kind of innovation had major economic and social repercussions. The increased availability of cheap meat and wool fuelled trade and industry, such as the woolen mills that were essential to the burgeoning textile industry. Similarly, increased milk production had an impact on the diets of growing urban populations. These agronomic experiments were part of a wider 'Enclosure' movement, where common land was fenced off and converted into more productive, privately managed farms. This often had devastating effects on the peasants who lost their traditional rights to the land, but it also boosted the efficiency of agricultural production, helping to fuel the Industrial Revolution.
| | 工业革命时期贵族对农学的兴趣是农业创新的关键因素。这一时期的特点是以科学和实践为动力来提高农业生产力。进步的贵族和地主开始采用和发展新的农业技术和实践。这不仅包括改进工具和机械，还包括将科学应用于农场动物的选育。例如，在英国，这是一个 "农业改良者 "或 "绅士农民 "的时代，他们都是贵族或富人，对农业的发展有着浓厚的个人兴趣。罗伯特-贝克韦尔（Robert Bakewell，1725-1795 年）就是这些改良者中的杰出代表。他是最早应用系统选育方法改良牲畜品种的人之一。特别是，他培育出了莱斯特长毛绵羊品种，这种绵羊比传统品种能产更多的肉和羊毛。他还致力于牛的改良，培育出产量更高的奶牛和肉牛品种。这种创新产生了重大的经济和社会影响。廉价肉类和羊毛供应的增加推动了贸易和工业的发展，例如对蓬勃发展的纺织业至关重要的毛纺厂。同样，牛奶产量的增加也对不断增长的城市人口的饮食产生了影响。这些农艺试验是更广泛的 "圈地 "运动的一部分，在圈地运动中，普通土地被围起来，改造成生产力更高的私人管理农场。这往往会对失去传统土地权的农民造成破坏性影响，但同时也提高了农业生产效率，为工业革命推波助澜。 |
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| ===Elite transformation and peasant evolution=== | | ===精英转型与农民进化=== |
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| ====The age of the gentleman farmer==== | | ====绅士农民的时代==== |
| Gentleman farmers were an essential part of the evolution of agriculture during the Industrial Revolution, and their influence often extended far beyond their own estates. Their approach to farming often combined a passion for innovation and improvement with the resources to experiment with and implement new techniques. These wealthy landowners played a pioneering role by investing in the research and development of improved farming practices, such as land sanitation, crop rotation and selective breeding. Their experiments led to a significant increase in agricultural productivity, which in turn helped free up labour for the rapidly growing factories in the cities, a central feature of the Industrial Revolution. However, this period of change was not without its critics. The enclosure movement, for example, has often been associated with gentlemen farmers. This practice involved transforming common land, over which many small farmers had grazing and cultivation rights, into private property for more intensive farming. Although this increased the efficiency of agricultural production, it also displaced many farmers, contributing to rural distress and forced urbanisation. Over time, with the advent of scientific agriculture and large-scale commercial farming in the 19th and 20th centuries, the gentleman farming tradition lost its importance as a driving force for agricultural innovation. Nevertheless, the legacy of gentleman farming remains in modern farming practices, and its role in the agricultural revolution that accompanied and supported the Industrial Revolution remains an important subject of study for economic historians.
| | 绅士农场主是工业革命期间农业发展的重要组成部分，他们的影响力往往远远超出自己的庄园。他们的耕作方式往往将创新和改良的热情与试验和实施新技术的资源结合在一起。这些富有的地主通过投资研究和开发改良耕作方法，如土地卫生、轮作和选择性育种，发挥了先锋作用。他们的试验大大提高了农业生产率，而农业生产率的提高又有助于为城市中迅速发展的工厂释放劳动力，这是工业革命的一个核心特征。然而，这一时期的变革并非没有批评者。例如，圈地运动常常与绅士农民联系在一起。这种做法是将许多小农拥有放牧和耕种权的公有土地转化为私有财产，以进行更密集的耕作。虽然这提高了农业生产的效率，但也使许多农民流离失所，造成了农村的困境和被迫城市化。随着时间的推移，随着 19 世纪和 20 世纪科学农业和大规模商业耕作的出现，绅士农耕传统失去了其作为农业创新推动力的重要性。然而，绅士农耕的遗产仍保留在现代农业实践中，其在伴随和支持工业革命的农业革命中所扮演的角色仍是经济史学家研究的重要课题。 |
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| Proto-industrialisation refers to a phase prior to the Industrial Revolution proper, characterised by a type of small-scale, dispersed production, often carried out within the framework of the so-called "domestic system" or "putting-out system". In this system, craftsmen, who could be weavers, spinners, blacksmiths or workers in other traditional trades, carried out part of the industrial production from their homes or small-scale workshops. These proto-industrial craftsmen often lived in rural areas and farmed at a subsistence level or slightly above, supplementing their income with their industrial work. They were not solely dependent on agriculture for their livelihood, which made them less vulnerable to crop failures and variations in agricultural prices. However, they were not entirely dependent on income from industrial work either, giving them a degree of economic resilience. Their industrial work often involved the production of textile goods, which were in high demand at the time. Merchants or entrepreneurs supplied the raw materials - wool, linen, cotton - and placed orders with craftsmen, who transformed them into textile products in their homes. The merchants then collected the finished products to sell on local markets or for export. This model facilitated the transition to industrialisation by creating a skilled workforce and getting merchants used to investing in production and managing complex distribution networks. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the introduction of machinery, many proto-industrial practices were integrated into larger, more mechanised production systems. Factories gradually replaced home-based work, radically transforming the European economy and society.
| | 原工业化指的是工业革命之前的一个阶段，其特点是一种小规模的分散生产，通常在所谓的 "家庭系统 "或 "投放系统 "的框架内进行。在这种体系中，手工业者可以是纺织工、纺纱工、铁匠或其他传统行业的工人，他们在自己的家中或小型作坊中进行部分工业生产。这些原工业手工业者通常居住在农村地区，从事自给自足或略高于自给自足水平的耕作，通过工业劳动来补充收入。他们并不完全依赖农业为生，这使他们不易受到农作物歉收和农产品价格变动的影响。不过，他们也不完全依赖工业工作的收入，这使他们具有一定程度的经济弹性。他们的工业工作通常涉及当时需求量很大的纺织品生产。商人或企业家提供原材料（羊毛、亚麻、棉花），然后向工匠下订单，工匠在家中将原材料加工成纺织品。然后，商人收集成品，在当地市场销售或出口。这种模式培养了一支熟练的劳动力队伍，并使商人习惯于投资生产和管理复杂的分销网络，从而促进了向工业化的过渡。随着工业革命的到来和机器的引进，许多原工业化的做法被整合到规模更大、机械化程度更高的生产系统中。工厂逐渐取代了家庭工作，从根本上改变了欧洲的经济和社会。 |
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| The Jenny spinning machine, invented by James Hargreaves in 1764, marked a decisive turning point in the history of textile production. This manual spinning machine could do the work of several traditional spinners at once, radically transforming the efficiency and economy of yarn production. With the introduction of the spinning Jenny and other technological innovations such as Richard Arkwright's water frame and Samuel Crompton's mule-jenny, textile production capacity increased dramatically. These machines could produce finer, stronger yarns much more quickly than hand spinners. This increase in efficiency lowered production costs and increased the amount of fabric available on the market. The craftsmen and spinners who worked at home as part of the domestic system simply couldn't compete with the machines that produced more and at lower cost. Many went bankrupt or were forced to find work in the new factories in order to survive. These changes contributed to the migration of workers from the countryside to the cities, giving rise to an urban working class and large-scale industrialisation. This socio-economic upheaval was not without consequences. It led to a period of hardship and social unrest for many former craftsmen and their families. Resistance to these changes manifested itself in movements such as the Luddites, who were craftsmen who destroyed the machines they believed were responsible for the loss of their jobs. However, despite the resistance, industrialisation continued, leading to the modern age of industry and technology.
| | 詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）于 1764 年发明的珍妮纺纱机标志着纺织生产史上的一个决定性转折点。这种手动纺纱机可以同时完成几个传统纺纱工人的工作，从根本上改变了纱线生产的效率和经济性。随着珍妮纺纱机以及理查德-阿克莱特（Richard Arkwright）的水车和塞缪尔-克朗普顿（Samuel Crompton）的骡式珍妮纺纱机等其他技术创新的引入，纺织生产能力大幅提高。与手工纺纱机相比，这些机器能更快地生产出更细、更结实的纱线。效率的提高降低了生产成本，增加了市场上的织物供应量。作为家用系统的一部分，在家工作的工匠和纺纱工人根本无法与生产量更大、成本更低的机器竞争。为了生存，许多人破产或被迫到新工厂找工作。这些变化促使工人从农村向城市迁移，催生了城市工人阶级和大规模工业化。这种社会经济动荡并非没有后果。它导致许多前手工业者及其家庭陷入困境和社会动荡。对这些变化的抵制体现在一些运动中，如 "卢德分子"（Luddites）运动，这些手工业者摧毁了他们认为导致其失业的机器。然而，尽管有反抗，工业化仍在继续，从而导致了现代工业和技术时代的到来。 |
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| ====The enclosure process==== | | ====封闭过程==== |
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| [[Image:Enclosure.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A deed of enclosure dating from 1793.]] | | [[Image:Enclosure.jpg|thumb|right|150px|一份 1793 年的圈地契约。]] |
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| The phenomenon known as enclosures in England was particularly marked in the 18th and 19th centuries and had a profound effect on the social and economic structure of the English countryside. The enclosure movement involved the consolidation of common land, previously open to all members of a parish for grazing and cultivation, into separate private holdings. The nobility and large landowners, often taking advantage of the Enclosure Acts, 'enclosed' these lands, establishing their exclusive right of ownership and using them for more intensive and commercial farming. This process led to the expropriation of many small farmers, who lost not only their land but also their traditional means of subsistence. The social consequences of this movement were dramatic. Many of these landless peasants, deprived of their traditional means of subsistence, were forced to migrate to the cities in search of work, thus supplying the workforce needed for the nascent industrial revolution. The influx of these workers into urban areas greatly increased the supply of labour, allowing factory owners to charge low wages as demand for jobs far exceeded supply. This also led to precarious working conditions and the creation of urban slums where workers often lived in miserable conditions. The Prince of Wales, and later other members of the British Royal Family, accumulated large tracts of land during this period, which became a significant part of the Crown's wealth. These lands, managed today by the Duchy of Cornwall and the Duchy of Lancaster, are still important sources of income for the Royal Family. The enclosure of common land was a key factor in the acceleration of industrialisation, as it freed up labour for factories, changed farming practices and transformed the social structure of the British countryside.
| | 英国的圈地现象在 18 世纪和 19 世纪尤为明显，对英国乡村的社会和经济结构产生了深远影响。圈地运动涉及将以前向教区所有成员开放用于放牧和耕种的公有土地合并为独立的私人土地。贵族和大土地所有者往往利用《圈地法》，"圈占 "这些土地，确立其专属所有权，并将其用于更密集的商业耕作。这一过程导致许多小农被征用，他们不仅失去了土地，还失去了传统的生存手段。这场运动造成了巨大的社会后果。许多被剥夺了传统生存手段的失地农民被迫迁徙到城市寻找工作，从而为新生的工业革命提供了所需的劳动力。这些工人涌入城市地区，大大增加了劳动力的供应，使工厂主可以收取低廉的工资，因为工作岗位的需求远远超过供应。这也导致了不稳定的工作条件和城市贫民窟的形成，工人们通常生活在悲惨的环境中。威尔士亲王以及后来的其他英国皇室成员在此期间积累了大量土地，成为王室财富的重要组成部分。这些土地如今由康沃尔公国和兰开斯特公国管理，仍然是王室收入的重要来源。圈占公有土地是加速工业化的关键因素，因为它为工厂解放了劳动力，改变了耕作方式，并改变了英国农村的社会结构。 |
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| Will Kymlicka, in his 1999 book Theories of Justice: An Introduction, notes that "In seventeenth-century England, there was a movement towards the enclosure (private appropriation) of land formerly held by the community and accessible to all. On these lands (the "commons"), anyone could exercise the right to graze, gather wood, etc. Private appropriation of the commons led to the fortunes of some and the loss of resources of others, who were now deprived of any means of subsistence". The practice of enclosure, which accelerated during the agricultural revolution that preceded the industrial revolution, brought about profound changes in the structures of property ownership and in the organisation of English society at the time. The "commons" were lands on which members of a community could rely for essential resources. When these lands were enclosed and turned into private property, it often benefited those in positions of power or wealth, who could afford to buy and enclose the land, while the small peasants and rural workers who depended on these commons for their survival were left destitute. The effects of enclosures were not limited to the deprivation of resources for the poor. It also changed the dynamics of work in England, forcing many people to become agricultural wage labourers for the new landowners or to move to the cities, becoming the workforce for the factories and businesses of the industrial age. This displacement also played a role in the creation of an urban working class, and by extension, in the political and social changes that accompanied the Industrial Revolution.
| | 威尔-基姆利卡（Will Kymlicka）在其 1999 年出版的《正义理论导论》（Theories of Justice： 导言》一书中指出："在 17 世纪的英国，出现了一种将以前由社区拥有、所有人都可以使用的土地圈地（私人占有）的运动。在这些土地（"公地"）上，任何人都可以行使放牧、拾柴等权利。私人占有公地导致一些人发财，另一些人失去资源，他们现在被剥夺了任何生存手段"。圈地运动在工业革命之前的农业革命期间加速发展，给当时的财产所有权结构和英国社会组织带来了深刻的变化。公地 "是社区成员赖以获取基本资源的土地。当这些土地被圈占并变为私有财产时，受益的往往是那些有能力购买和圈占土地的权贵，而依赖这些公地生存的小农和农村工人却一贫如洗。圈地的影响不仅限于剥夺穷人的资源。它还改变了英格兰的工作动态，迫使许多人成为新土地所有者的农业雇佣劳动者，或迁移到城市，成为工业时代工厂和企业的劳动力。这种迁移在城市工人阶级的形成过程中也发挥了作用，进而推动了伴随工业革命而来的政治和社会变革。 |
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| =Annexes= | | =附件= |
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| =References= | | =参考资料= |
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根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编[1][2]
工业革命标志着人类历史的一个决定性转折点。在不到一个世纪的时间里，这场动荡深刻地改变了经济和社会结构，开启了一个变革时代，其规模和速度都是史无前例的。
这场变革始于英国本土，之后才蔓延至整个大不列颠或英国。18 世纪初，英国拥有 600 万居民，占英国人口的三分之二。值得注意的是，工业革命主要在英国生根发芽并蓬勃发展了近 50 年，随后其创新和改革才跨越国界，以各国特有的方式和速度传播到各国。
在这一蜕变时期的起点，即 1780-1790 年左右，英国的技术水平达到了前所未有的高度。尽管英国人口仅占世界人口的 1%，但其铁产量却占全球产量的十分之一，这反映了英国在工业上的领先地位。纺纱业是劳动密集型产业，也是最早加速机械化的产业之一，为重塑工作和社会面貌的工业演变铺平了道路。
工业革命 "一词体现了 18 世纪改变社会基础的技术和经济转型。它标志着一个时代的开始，在这个时代里，人类的智慧加上前所未有的工业进步，开始以前所未有的活力和规模重塑自然世界。从广义上讲，这一时期的革命通过改变原有的价值观和习俗，对社会结构进行了深刻的变革。它的特点是引入了大量新的生产技术，工厂成为主要的工作场所，蒸汽机和其他创新技术的采用颠覆了传统的制造和贸易方式。工业革命不仅仅是一个技术变革时期，它还象征着一个重新定义社会、经济和文化关系的时代，奠定了现代资本主义经济的基础，并对人类历史产生了持久的影响。
工业革命是人口增长和经济发展的强大引擎，促进了人口的空前增长和繁荣。19 世纪，随着工业革命在欧洲的蔓延，技术创新和生产模式遍及欧洲大陆，这一密集变革时期达到顶峰。因此，"工业革命 "一词被社会学用来指代这个不仅在工业领域，而且在社会结构本身都发生了重大动荡的时代。这一现象的影响远远超出了技术进步的范畴：它涉及到社会关系的彻底变革、新的阶级等级制度、工作的重新定义以及随着效率、进步和创新等价值观的出现而产生的心态变化。这场革命在日常生活的各个领域都产生了连锁反应，深刻改变了人类的互动关系和未来前景。工业化不仅塑造了经济格局，还重组了人文地理，人口从农村大规模转移到城市，从而产生了现代城市化。
由于工业革命的进程是渐进的，有时甚至是不均衡的，而且这一时期缺乏可靠和系统的统计数据，因此试图确定工业革命的开始时间是一项复杂的工作。历史学家通常将工业革命的开始时间定为 1750 年左右，当时英国的生产和工作方法开始发生显著变化。Paul Bairoch 强调了农业革命作为工业革命重要先驱的重要性。农业革命提高了农业产量，促进了人口增长，为工业发展创造了必要条件。然而，学者们对这一观点一直争论不休，一些学者认为，资本积累、技术创新或政治经济制度等其他因素也发挥了同样关键的作用。工业革命 "一词本身直到 19 世纪，特别是 1884 年以后才被提出，而此时它所描述的事件早已发生。革命 "一词首次在现代语境中使用是在 1789 年的法国大革命中，虽然它意味着一场迅速而彻底的变革，但工业革命实际上经历了几十年，甚至一个世纪或更长的时间。20 世纪 60 年代，经济史学家沃尔特-惠特曼-罗斯托（Walt Whitman Rostow）提出了 "起飞 "模型，将经济增长比作飞机的崛起，使这一突变概念得到了进一步推广。罗斯托认为，工业革命代表了一个社会从经济停滞转向自我持续增长的节点。工业革命并非突如其来的事件，而是以渐变和不断调整为特征的演变，在很长一段时间内从根本上改变了经济和社会结构。
詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）1765 年创作的《纺车》，德国伍珀塔尔博物馆。
纺织革命是 18 世纪英国工业转型的象征，它完美地诠释了技术变革及其对经济的影响。约翰-凯于 1733 年发明的 "飞梭 "是对纺织业的重大改进。它使梭子能够高速穿过织布机，无需人工直接干预，从而将织布速度提高了一倍。这一创新导致对纱线的需求增加，因为现在织机生产织物的速度比以前快得多。为了应对纱线需求的增长，1764 年詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯发明了 "珍妮纺纱机"（Spinning Jenny），这是一种革命性的纺纱机，能够同时纺出多根纱线，远远超过了传统纺纱机的产量。然而，这一发明造成了纱线产量和织布能力之间的不平衡，纱线产量超过了织布工能够织成的织物。为了应对纱线过剩和提高织布生产率的需求，机械织布机应运而生。1785 年，埃德蒙-卡特赖特（Edmund Cartwright）为第一台机械织布机申请了专利。随后，在 17 世纪 80 年代，织布机采用了蒸汽动力，使 "珍妮纺纱机 "生产的纱线得到了更有效的利用，并促成了大规模的机械化织布。这些创新不仅提高了生产力，还改变了纺织业的结构，促进了从家庭手工业向工业生产的过渡。它们还产生了重大的社会影响，如工人集中在工厂，所需劳动力减少，这预示着工业革命将带来深刻的社会和经济变革。
钢铁和煤炭的结合是工业革命的支柱之一，与纺织业一起，实实在在地锻造了建设工业时代所需的工具和材料。亚伯拉罕-达比在 1709 年的创新是一个决定性的转折点。通过使用从煤炭（矿物煤）中提炼的焦炭代替木炭冶炼铁矿石，达尔比不仅应对了森林砍伐造成的能源危机，还为大幅提高钢铁产量奠定了基础。木炭不仅受到木材数量的限制，还受到能源效率的限制。由于焦炭可以达到炼铁所需的更高和更稳定的温度，达比炼铁法可以更大量、更低成本地生产铁。此外，英国煤炭储量丰富，保证了稳定而经济的煤炭供应。这一进步产生了巨大影响，因为铁对于当时的许多行业都至关重要，包括机械、船舶、建筑以及后来的铁路建设。此外，随着焦炭成为炼铁的首选燃料，这也刺激了煤炭开采，加强了炼铁业和煤炭业之间的协同作用。这种动态创造了创新和生产的良性循环，推动了英国的工业扩张，并帮助英国在整个 19 世纪确立了全球经济霸主地位。
通过蒸汽机利用机械能是工业革命的另一个基本方面。这项技术在各个工业部门的应用使生产和效率实现了质的飞跃。蒸汽机的原始形式是在 18 世纪早期发展起来的，发明家托马斯-纽科门（Thomas Newcomen）等人于 1712 年发明了一种用于从煤矿抽水的蒸汽机。虽然这是一项重大进步，但蒸汽机的效率仍然很低，运行成本也很高。真正的突破来自于詹姆斯-瓦特，他在 17 世纪 60 年代和 70 年代对纽科门的蒸汽机进行了决定性的改进。特别是，他发明了一个独立的冷凝器，大大减少了煤的消耗，提高了效率。瓦特接着开发了一种将往复运动转化为旋转运动的发动机，使其适用于许多工业流程，远远超出了简单的抽水。从 1780 年起，随着瓦特和其他人的不断改进，蒸汽机成为了工业的发动机。它使机器同步工作成为可能，从而使生产更可预测、更有规律。现在，工人可以调整机器，优化工作时间，机器可以日夜不停地运转，不受天气条件、人力或畜力的影响。蒸汽机对工业社会的影响是巨大的，它不仅提高了效率、降低了成本，还从根本上改变了工作方式和组织结构。随着蒸汽铁路和蒸汽轮船的发展，蒸汽机还彻底改变了交通运输，以前所未有的规模加快了贸易和通信。
发明是首次创造一种产品或采用一种工艺。然而，当这项发明被采纳并用于改进现有工艺或创造全新的产品或工艺，并因此产生经济或社会影响时，创新就发生了。
巴格达电池 "就是一个例子，它是一个被发现的类似电化学电池的物体，其历史可能可以追溯到 2000 多年前。如果它真的是电池，这一发现将被视为一项了不起的发明。然而，由于我们没有证据表明这一物品在产生它的社会中得到了实际应用，因此不能将其视为现代意义上的创新。
在工业革命的背景下，创新是一个关键概念。许多发明，如詹姆斯-瓦特的改良蒸汽机或詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯的 "珍妮纺纱机"，满足了特定的需求（如更有效地从矿井抽水或更快地生产纺织品），并被大规模采用。这些发明之所以成为创新，是因为它们得到了广泛应用，融入了生产流程，并对整个经济和社会产生了重大影响。
工业革命前，制成品需求的增加导致新兴工业劳动力短缺。这导致劳动力成本上升，因为需求量大的工人对工资有更大的讨价还价能力。其直接后果是生产成本上升，进而导致消费者价格上涨。面对这种情况，企业家和工业家在经济上有强烈的兴趣去寻找更有效的生产方式。这刺激了创新和对新技术的探索，以减少对劳动力的依赖，降低成本，提高产量，满足日益增长的需求。动力织布机和蒸汽机等发明成为重大创新，因为它们被大规模采用，从而能够以较低的成本进行大规模生产。生产过程的机械化也使商品的生产量更大、价格更低，使更多的人能够获得这些商品，从而推动了经济增长的良性循环。在这一时期，生产模式发生了转变，人类劳动不再是生产的主要驱动力。取而代之的是通过使用机器来提高效率，从而使当时的社会和经济结构发生了重大变化。
售价等式：PV（售价）= Sa（工资）+ MP（原材料）+ E（预期收益），应用于英国工业革命具有特别重要的意义。在此期间，由于技术进步和社会变革，该等式的每个组成部分都发生了深刻的变化。就工资（Sa）而言，工业革命的影响模棱两可。工厂对劳动力需求的增加可能导致一些人的工资提高，而机械化则减少了对专业手工技能的需求，给这些行业的工资带来了下降的压力。然而，管理和维护机械需要新的技能，这就造成了劳动力市场的变化。同时，由于生产和运输方式更加高效，原材料（RM）的成本也有所降低。铁路的发展和采矿的机械化降低了铁和煤的价格，而这正是新兴产业的关键组成部分。预期收入 (E) 反映了预期的销售利润。随着大规模生产的增加，尽管单位价格下降，但企业仍可期望获得高利润率，从而使工业产品的销售范围更加广泛。除了这些因素，工业革命还引入了对创新技术的资本投资以及通过批量生产实现规模经济的重要性。这些因素从根本上改变了计算和管理生产成本的方式。因此，在充满活力的工业化氛围中，计算公式变得更加复杂。工资受到农村工人向工业城镇迁移的影响，原材料成本因新的开采和加工方法而降低，收入预期因竞争加剧和销售价格降低导致的需求增长而调整。此外，生产率的提高也加快了回报速度，从而抵消了因投资昂贵的机器而增加的资本成本。最终，规模经济降低了单位成本，提高了竞争力，增加了利润，重新定义了当时的经济和社会。
在英国工业革命的背景下，如果工资（Sa）和原材料（MP）成本较高，企业就必须提高售价（PV）以维持盈利预期（E），或者降低利润率（E）以保持价格竞争力。由于高售价会减少对产品的需求，因此企业有强烈的动力进行创新以降低成本。在英国工业革命的背景下，成本管理对寻求繁荣的企业至关重要。高工资和原材料成本带来了一个两难选择：提高售价以保持利润率，还是降低利润率以提供有竞争力的价格。提高价格可能会导致需求下降，而降低利润率则会损害企业的生存能力。面对这一经济等式，创新成为打破僵局的关键。技术进步为优化生产提供了解决方案。例如，纺织业引进的新机器大大提高了生产效率，减少了对昂贵劳动力的依赖，促进了大规模生产，从而降低了每件产品的单位成本。自动化在减少对熟练劳动力的需求方面也发挥了重要作用，有助于降低工资成本。与此同时，原材料管理和加工方面的改进，如炼铁中用焦炭取代木炭，不仅降低了成本，还提高了产量。这些创新使企业能够维持或降低销售价格，同时保持可接受的利润率。在市场竞争日益激烈、消费者追求低成本产品的情况下，创新不仅是利润最大化的问题，也是经济生存的需要。
工业革命期间的技术演变完美地诠释了创新与克服实际障碍的需要之间的动态相互作用。每一项新发明都会给生产流程带来重大变化，但这些变化往往也会带来意想不到的挑战，反过来又需要创新的解决方案。这种一连串的创新使效率和生产率逐步提高。
例如，织布机的改进增加了对纱线的需求，导致了 "珍妮纺纱机 "的发明，这是一种能够快速纺制大量羊毛的机器。这一创新本身就造成了纱线过剩，超过了织布能力，从而导致了更高效的机械织布机的发展。这一过程中的每一步不仅解决了眼前的问题，还为提高生产能力和降低成本铺平了道路。
创新的横向扩散是这一时期的另一个特征。创新并不局限于其起源领域，而是跨越工业部门，催化其他领域的进步。蒸汽机的发展就是一个显著的例子。蒸汽机最初是为从矿井中抽水而设计的，后来被改造成可以产生旋转运动，为机车的设计和生产铺平了道路。这种创新的跨部门适应性促成了工业和运输业的广泛变革，不仅改变了产品的制造和销售方式，也改变了经济和社会的结构。
这些累积性创新及其相互促进对于工业现代化和新经济结构的建立至关重要，而这正是工业革命的特点。它们不仅提高了生产过程的效率，还为工业和技术社会奠定了基础，这种社会在古典工业时期结束后仍将继续发展。
工厂制度是工业革命带来的根本性变革之一。这种制度将人力、原材料和机器集中在单一的大型机构：工厂中，标志着生产方式的一个决定性转折点。与手工业和家庭生产（"投放系统"）不同，这些工厂的工作高度专业化，每个工人在生产过程中都被分配了特定的任务。这种被称为 "劳动分工 "的工作组织方式使生产率呈指数级增长。工人不再需要是能够从头开始制造产品的能工巧匠；相反，他们可以快速接受培训，以完成特定的操作。
工厂制度还改变了社会的经济面貌。生产第一次摆脱了人力或畜力的束缚。蒸汽机以及其他形式的技术提供了可靠的能源来源，从而实现了不间断的大规模生产。此外，随着生产的集中化，工厂主可以更严格地控制生产过程和工人。这种集中化带来了更系统化的管理以及产品和工作方式的标准化。然而，工厂制度并非没有问题。它与艰苦的工作条件、漫长疲惫的工作日和严格的劳动纪律联系在一起。它还被批评为对工人非人化，并造成有害的社会后果，如工人健康恶化和剥削儿童。
工业革命标志着商品生产方式和工人生活环境的彻底转变。过去，人们主要在农村地区生活和工作，在家里或小作坊里生产产品。蒸汽机的引入和改进彻底改变了这种分散的生产模式，即家庭系统或生产系统。最早的蒸汽机用于从矿井中排水，但很快就被改造成为工厂中的其他机器提供动力。这一创新意味着生产可以集中在大型工厂中，机器可以利用共同的能源高效运转。安装和维护昂贵的蒸汽机需要将生产集中在一个地方。
这导致了工作组织方式的重大转变。工人们离开自己的家和小作坊，来到工厂工作，在那里他们可以更容易地接受监督，工作组织也更有条理。工厂工作的集中化导致了快速的城市化，工人们搬到了围绕这些生产中心发展起来的城镇，这些城镇往往靠近能源或新兴的交通网络。这对工人产生了深远的影响。他们必须适应不再受自然周期支配的生活，而必须适应工厂运营所规定的严格时间表。蒸汽机的使用大大提高了生产率，缩短了生产时间。
这些变化并非没有困难。工人们面临着艰苦的条件，过度拥挤的城市地区公共卫生恶化，城市往往不健康。然而，生产和劳动力的集中带来了规模经济和创新，改变了全球经济，为当代经济增长和繁荣奠定了基础。
工业革命带来了工作组织方式的重大变革。在以前的制度下，工人在工作时间上有很大的自由度，工作结构的限制较少，工人可以根据个人生活和季节调整工作。然而，随着工厂的出现，这种灵活性已不复存在。
随着这些大型工业设施的诞生，工人们不得不适应更为严格的工作环境。由于几个主要原因，纪律成为生产的中心环节。首先，蒸汽机和其他昂贵的工具需要持续使用才能盈利，这就意味着需要一支持续存在并可操作的劳动力队伍。其次，工厂的工作流程要求对任务进行细致的协调，每个工人都是大规模生产链中的一个环节。一个工人的缺席或延误都可能使整个系统失去平衡。第三，大规模生产依赖于统一性和可预测性，这就要求工人遵循标准化程序，以确保最终产品的一致性。
为了确保这种纪律性，工厂实行了严格的工作时间和精确的休息时间规定，并建立了监视系统来监控员工的出勤时间。迟到和缺勤往往会被罚款，整个工作环境的设计都是为了最大限度地提高效率和产出。
对于许多习惯了更大自由度的工人来说，这种向严格工作纪律的转变是一种考验。雇员与老板之间的摩擦司空见惯，在适应工业生活的同时，工人们也在为争取权利而紧张和斗争。适应工业化带来的新节奏和工厂的需求需要时间，同时也深刻地改变了社会。
工业革命始于 18 世纪末的英国，是人类历史上的一个重大转折点。在这一时期，新技术的出现颠覆了传统的生产方式，尤其是在纺织、冶金以及后来的化工和运输等行业。技术创新是这一变革背后的驱动力。詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）发明的蒸汽机、詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）发明的纺纱机以及亨利-科特（Henry Cort）为生产更纯净的铁而引入的水坑工艺，只是推动这一变革的技术进步的几个例子。这些发明加快了大规模生产的速度，降低了商品成本，改变了工作方法。在经济方面，工业革命催生了新型企业和行业，并将生产集中到越来越大的工厂，即所谓的 "工厂体系"。生产的集中带来了规模经济和生产效率的显著提高。在社会方面，它导致了大规模的人口迁移。农场工人和手工业者的行业被新机器淘汰，他们迁移到城市的工厂工作，从而导致了快速且往往无计划的城市化。工业革命还催生了一个新的社会阶层：工人阶级，他们的生活条件往往岌岌可危，工作时间很长。工业革命还对环境产生了重大影响，污染加剧，自然资源的开采量增大。工业革命为现代经济增长奠定了基础，但也提出了可持续发展和社会公平等问题，这些问题在今天仍然具有现实意义。工业革命不仅仅是一个技术变革时期，而是整个社会的一场深刻变革，它以前所未有的规模重新定义了经济、社会甚至政治结构。
工业革命在英国找到了一个特别有利的滋生地，这要归功于各种因素的和谐作用，共同催化了这场剧烈的变革。英国拥有丰富的煤炭和钢铁储量，这对新机器的动力和工业生产至关重要。与此同时，快速增长的人口为工厂提供了大量劳动力，制成品市场也在不断扩大。技术进步也在蓬勃发展，一系列发明改变了纺织和能源生产等行业。这种创新精神得益于相对容易获得的资金和充满活力的企业家精神，使创新迅速成长为成功的企业。此外，稳定的政治局面和完善的法律体系也为投资提供了安全的环境，并通过专利制度为创新提供保护。同时，大英帝国的影响力为制成品打开了遥远的市场，同时确保了原材料的稳定供应。此外，有利于科学进步和知识实际应用的文化进一步促进了技术创新。允许一定程度流动的社会结构催生了新的技术工人和管理人员阶层，这对工业企业的运营至关重要。最后，对运河网络和铁路等基础设施的投资极大地改善了物流，提高了原材料和成品的运输效率。所有这些因素汇聚在一起，使英国成为这场革命的摇篮，随后这场革命远远超越了英国的国界。
日益增长的商品消费欲望是伴随和刺激工业革命出现的一种现象。18 世纪，随着人口的增长和收入的逐步提高，对制成品的需求开始上升。
在机械化改变生产之前，这种需求的增长是通过传统的工作方式来满足的，例如 "放工制"，工匠们在家里或小作坊里工作，生产尚未被机器合理化的产品。这种没有提高生产率的经济增长意味着需要更多的人来生产相同数量的产品，因为没有机械化的帮助，每个工人的产量相对稳定。这对现有资源，尤其是劳动力和原材料造成了压力。不断增长的需求与停滞不前的生产能力之间的不平衡，促使投资者和企业家寻找提高生产率的途径。这导致了新技术的采用，如纺纱机和织布机，它们的生产效率远远高于手工方法。因此，工业革命的最初创新主要是为了满足日益增长的消费欲望。工厂生产的机械化和集中化使生产更多数量和更低成本的产品成为可能，从而满足了市场需求，同时提高了生产率并刺激了经济增长。
18 世纪英国消费的增长可以看作是海上贸易扩张的结果。英国的海军力量为人们提供了定期、安全地获取各种外来产品的渠道。这些以前只为精英阶层准备的商品开始更广泛地流通，激发了普通民众的好奇心和欲望。此外，消费开始民主化，从上层阶级扩展到更广泛的受众。人们现在有能力购买象征身份和某一社会阶层的物品。死后清单等文件显示，人们比以往任何时候都拥有更多的个人物品，包括时装和最新服饰，这反映出人们对物质产品的消费和兴趣普遍提高。与此同时，工业革命带来了技术进步，彻底改变了商品生产。服装等产品变得更便宜、更容易获得，从而鼓励了更频繁的更换和更多的消费。这些创新不仅使消费更容易获得，还鼓励了进一步的创新，以满足日益增长的需求。这个时代的另一个特点是社会价值观和个人愿望的转变。个人成功和消费能力成为社会地位的标志，促使许多人通过购买商品来提高生活质量。这样，工业革命和消费文化相互促进，形成了需求和创新的良性循环，促进了这一时期英国经济的持续增长。
工业革命的另一个有趣方面是商业惯例的演变和 18 世纪英国大众消费的诞生。以兜售为基础的传统贸易开始发生变化，流动的卖家带着他们的商品从一个村庄到另一个村庄。固定商店和固定商业空间的出现标志着我们销售和消费方式的一个重要转折点。带有大橱窗的商店在当时还是一种新鲜事物，它提供了一种吸引路人眼球的奇观。这些橱窗经过精心组织，以极具吸引力和美感的方式展示商品，迎合了潜在顾客的欲望和愿望。这有别于直接、实用的兜售方式，在购买行为中引入了奇观和欲望元素。各种新兴形式的广告在这种新的消费文化中发挥了至关重要的作用。广告开始影响消费者的选择，让他们相信自己需要以前从未考虑过的产品。平面广告、广告牌甚至产品演示都被用来鼓励购买。与此同时，新休闲活动的出现和围绕放松时刻的时间安排也在改变消费者行为方面发挥了作用。例如，周日弥撒后的散步提供了一个社交和漫步的机会，把逛商店本身变成了一种消遣。这有助于使消费主义常态化，并进一步融入人们的日常生活。这些发展促成了英国消费社会的诞生，在这个社会中，购买商品成为文化和生活方式不可分割的一部分，远远超出了满足基本需求的范畴，还包括了享乐、社会地位和个人身份的层面。
工业革命时期英国价值观的演变反映了社会优先事项和文化态度的深刻变化。随着社会被技术和工业的进步所改变，人们开始从物质角度重新思考进步的概念本身。对传统宗教和道德价值观的重视开始下降，转而重视有形利益和物质福祉。经济上的成功和财富的积累成为衡量进步和社会地位的指标。在这一新的价值观框架中，个人和集体的成功往往以消费、拥有和改善物质生活舒适度的能力来衡量。进步与物质福利之间的联系对社会产生了重大影响。例如，穿着时髦的服装或改善住宅的隔热性和舒适性不再仅仅是满足实际需求的方式，也是地位和个人成就的象征。这鼓励人们采用创新技术，不断寻求消费品生产的改进。在这一时期形成的消费心理，是由于人们相信物质的进步不仅是可取的，而且是一种权利。这导致形成了一种追求进步与获取物质财富有着内在联系的文化，影响了技术创新背后的动机，并塑造了工业社会的发展轨迹。最终，这种价值体系的转变在工业革命的动力中发挥了关键作用，推动了经济扩张，并深刻影响了现代英国乃至全球社会和经济结构的演变。
18 世纪标志着一个重大的社会转型时期，尤其是在英国，封建结构的僵化开始松动。资产阶级的崛起改变了人们对社会地位的认识和获取方式。在前工业社会，贵族处于社会等级的顶端，地位主要靠继承。然而，随着工业革命带来的经济动荡，商业和新兴产业所创造的财富开始为社会地位的提升提供了前所未有的途径。成功的企业家、商人和实业家开始获得以前只属于贵族的商品和生活方式。在英国，贵族也对这些变化做出了反应，他们对农业改良和农艺学的兴趣就表明了这一点，他们投资于有助于经济发展的领域。社会流动性的增加使得那些在商业上取得成功的人可以模仿贵族的外表，采用他们的生活方式、服饰甚至爱好。因此，社会地位开始受到经济成功、消费能力和财富外在表现的影响。这种趋势在美洲殖民地更为明显，那里的阶级差别并不那么根深蒂固，经济机会往往被视为确立新社会地位的手段。事实上，在美国，民主和机会平等的承诺植根于这样一种背景，即社会地位可以通过个人成就而非出身来获得。社会阶层之间的界限更易渗透，社会流动性更大。这导致某些贵族准备放弃世袭爵位，以参与这个基于个人功绩和经济成就的新机会世界。因此，社会的流动性是社会和经济变革的推动力，促进了资本主义动态的出现，财富和工业创新重新定义了权力结构和等级制度。
1700 年至 1760 年是英国工业革命的开端，这一时期的重大进步为未来的重大变革铺平了道路。这一时期的产量增长了 60%，说明工业活动加速，制造流程的效率不断提高。托马斯-纽科曼（Thomas Newcomen）于 1712 年左右发明了蒸汽机，詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）在本世纪晚些时候对其进行了改进，蒸汽机的采用起到了至关重要的作用。虽然第一批蒸汽机主要用于从矿井中抽水，但它们为日后在工业生产中用作能源奠定了基础。事实上，蒸汽机已成为工业革命的标志性象征，它使许多生产流程更加自动化和机械化。工厂系统也促进了生产的增长。通过将工人和机器集中在大型综合企业中，可以实现生产的专业化和合理化，提高产品的数量和一致性。这种专业化生产可以利用规模经济，降低生产成本，使日益增长的人口更容易获得产品。此外，运输基础设施的改善，如运河的修建和公路的发展，促进了原材料向工厂的运输以及成品向本地和国际市场的分销。这些运输方面的创新减少了与分销相关的时间和成本，使英国制造的产品在世界市场上更具竞争力。这些技术和组织变革促进了英国经济的持续增长，为 18 世纪下半叶的工业扩张奠定了基础。因此，这一时期是奠定现代工业经济基础的关键时刻，标志着一个改变世界的进步和创新时代的开始。
英国工业革命期间，随着生产的增加，新工业部门雇用的劳动力也随之增加。由于供求关系的原理，对工人需求的增加给工资带来了上涨的压力：在供应有限的情况下，对工人的高需求自然会推动工资的上涨。随着工资的上涨，工人及其家庭有了更多的消费能力，从而使 "小人物 "或工人阶级逐渐富裕起来。消费的增加反过来又刺激了对制成品的需求，刺激了生产和工业创新。然而，工资的增长也产生了副作用：它鼓励工厂主和企业家寻找降低生产成本的方法，以维持或提高利润率。机械化似乎是实现这一目标的不二法门。用机器代替日益昂贵的体力劳动，企业可以更快、更多、更低成本地生产商品。资本（机器）对劳动力的这种替代，导致了通常所说的工业革命的 "第二阶段"，其特点是生产中的机械化和自动化程度进一步提高。这对就业结构和劳动力所需的技能产生了长期影响。工人必须适应新的工作方法，这些方法往往更加严格和重复，而且是在工业环境中进行。这些变化也导致了社会紧张局势，因为工业化使一些社会阶层变得更加富裕，而另一些社会阶层则看到他们的传统生活方式被打破，竞争加剧，一些手工行业的工资因自动化而面临下降的压力。
欧洲工业革命的兴起可归因于若干相互关联的因素。首先，获得煤和铁等丰富资源至关重要，因为这些材料为创造和改进新技术提供了基础，推动了工业发展。此外，欧洲得益于稳定增长的人口、新兴工厂取之不尽的劳动力以及制成品市场。欧洲还拥有丰富的创新传统和蓬勃发展的企业家精神，这些因素一直激励着新技术和新知识的发现和应用。充满活力的教育和研究机构进一步强化了这一进步的沃土。最后，稳定的政治和经济框架为商业和投资提供了有利环境，从而促进了工业革命。稳定的政府、完善的法律体系和有利于商业的环境使新兴产业得以发展并承担风险，通常还能得到政府政策和专用基础设施的支持。因此，欧洲成为工业革命的摇篮，为工业生产、工作和整个社会的深刻而持久的变革奠定了基础。
卡尔-马克思对亚洲和欧洲社会的历史分析是复杂的，是一套更广泛的社会经济发展和历史变迁理论的组成部分。马克思探讨了欧洲背景下的种族中心主义和优越感问题，研究了这些态度可能如何影响欧洲人在殖民时代和帝国扩张时期的行为。诚然，在欧洲历史的大部分时间里，基督教提供了一个同质化的文化和意识形态框架，特别是在天主教会在宗教和政治上占主导地位的时期。这可能助长了一种优越感和强烈的集体认同感，尤其是相对于其他文明而言。例如，中世纪期间和之后对犹太人和穆斯林的驱逐（如 15 世纪末在西班牙），部分原因是对宗教和政治统一的渴望，这种渴望最终助长了基督教 "纯洁 "的意识形态。然而，欧洲远非铁板一块，教派之间的分歧，尤其是 16 世纪新教改革之后，导致了欧洲内部几个世纪的宗教冲突和多样性。民族国家和教派势力之间的冲突和竞争也可能刺激了创新和海外扩张，因为每个国家都在寻求扩大自己的影响力和财富。欧洲的开放性--发现和开发新领土和新资源的好奇心和愿望--是欧洲扩张和工业革命发展的另一个关键因素。这种民族中心主义与探索欲望的结合，促使欧洲国家扬帆远航，前往新大陆，建立殖民地，并开始了全球贸易进程，而这正是现代世界经济的先驱。因此，马克思关于基督教统一性是优越感基础的论述是更广泛分析的一部分，不应被视为对当时历史复杂性的完整或排他性解释。
戴维-兰德斯（David Landes）在其著作中提出了这样一种观点，即某些文化和技术元素，如字母表，可能在欧洲的技术和经济进步能力中发挥了作用。根据这一观点，与东亚使用的表意文字系统相比，拼音文字需要记忆的字符数量相对较少，它促进了阅读和书写技能的传播，从而推动了知识和创新的广泛传播。至于新教的影响，马克斯-韦伯（Max Weber）等思想家认为，某些形式的新教，特别是加尔文教伦理，鼓励扫盲和某种形式的禁欲主义，有利于资本积累，这将有利于企业家精神和现代资本主义的发展。日本的情况有所不同，但不一定是工业化不可逾越的障碍。日本的书写系统非常复杂，由三套字符组成：汉字（借用自中国的字符）、平假名和片假名（日本特有的两种音节）。不过，这些汉字的基础教学在日本很早就已系统化，从而使识字率得以普及。此外，日本明治时代（1868-1912 年）进行了一系列改革，旨在按照西方的思路实现国家现代化，其中包括广泛的教育改革。由于一系列深思熟虑的国家政策、外国技术的采用以及对教育和劳动力培训的大量投资，日本的工业化迅速发展。明治政府鼓励学习和实践西方的技术和科学技能，同时保留和调整日本传统文化和制度的各个方面，从而形成了一种独特的融合，促进了工业化的发展。因此，我们必须认识到，虽然某些文化因素会影响社会的发展，但它们本身并不能决定工业化的成败。战略性的政府政策、适应性强的机构以及吸收和创新外国技术和理念的能力也是至关重要的因素。
可靠而强大的能源的供应和使用无疑在欧洲工业革命中发挥了关键作用。事实上，在工业时代之前，经济主要依靠农业和人力或畜力。随着工业革命的到来，获取和使用能源的方式发生了根本性的变化，实现了大规模生产和前所未有的效率。由于水磨和水轮的发明，水成为工业化生产最早使用的能源之一。例如，这些技术利用流水的动能为纺织业的各种机器提供动力。蒸汽机随后彻底改变了这种能源模式。蒸汽机发明于 18 世纪初，并由詹姆斯-瓦特等工程师加以完善，蒸汽机使得利用煤炭能源成为可能，而煤炭资源在当时的欧洲，尤其是英国非常丰富。这种能源使工厂的选址更具灵活性，因为与水车不同，蒸汽机不需要靠近自来水。随着工业革命的发展，煤炭不仅成为蒸汽机的首选燃料，也成为 19 世纪晚期开发的新型供热和发电技术的首选燃料。后来，随着石油的发现和开采，又出现了另一种高密度、可运输的能源，为工业化的持续发展提供了支持。这些能源的获取以及有效利用这些能源的能力，是欧洲几个世纪以来一直处于工业创新前沿的关键所在。伴随工业时代而来的能源革命不仅促进了大规模生产，还刺激了新兴工业和运输业的发展，并对欧洲社会的社会和经济结构产生了深远影响。
工业革命在欧洲各地以不同的方式展开，每个地区都有其独特的地理、经济和文化条件。在英国、法国、瑞士和德国，各种因素在工业发展中发挥了作用。英国通常被视为工业革命的摇篮，这主要得益于其丰富的煤炭储量和便捷的铁矿开采。例如，威尔士和英格兰北部的煤矿为詹姆斯-瓦特的蒸汽机提供了基本燃料。中部地区的铁矿使钢铁得以大量生产，这主要归功于亨利-科特改进的水坑工艺。此外，英国的岛屿地理位置也促进了造船业的蓬勃发展，罗伯特-富尔顿（Robert Fulton）的蒸汽船等先进技术为造船业提供了支持。对海洋的掌控不仅促进了对外贸易，也提高了进口原材料和出口成品的能力。
在法国，工业革命更为渐进。虽然法国也有煤炭储量（如北加来海峡煤田）和洛林的铁矿储量，但法国大革命和拿破仑战争的政治动荡阻碍了法国的工业发展。然而，诺曼底等地区出现了纺织业，里昂成为重要的丝绸中心。约瑟夫-玛丽-雅克（Joseph Marie Jacquard）发明的提花织机使纺织生产现代化，展示了法国的技术智慧。与邻国相比，瑞士虽然缺乏自然资源，但在需要高超技术而对原材料需求不大的领域却表现出色。例如，制表业已成为纳沙泰尔州和日内瓦州的著名产业。瑞士钟表的精度和质量无与伦比，体现了对技术培训和精密工艺的重视。德国经历的工业革命较晚，但其对科学研究和发展的重视却引人注目。鲁尔区的煤矿为强大的钢铁工业提供了燃料，化学工业也因巴斯夫等公司的出现而腾飞。德国的技术大学（Technische Universitäten）培养了一代又一代的工程师和发明家，为快速机械化和技术创新做出了贡献。
在这些地区中，资源、技能、创新和经济条件的独特组合塑造了工业革命的发展。这些国家的适应、投资和创新能力对其各自的工业转型至关重要。
哥伦布和卡斯蒂利亚女王伊莎贝拉一世在马德里科隆广场的纪念碑上。
中世纪晚期和文艺复兴时期，欧洲的政治版图四分五裂，导致新兴国家之间的激烈竞争。这种竞争成为探索和创新的催化剂，为后来的工业革命和欧洲殖民扩张奠定了基础。
卡尔-马克思在其历史分析中经常讨论专制和中央集权社会固有的局限性，例如中华帝国的专制和中央集权社会。他认为，这些僵化的政治结构扼杀了创新，并不可避免地导致了自身的衰落。相比之下，他认为欧洲国家的竞争活力是变革和进步的动力。这种竞争体现在地理发现领域，君主们热衷于资助探险，以提高自己的威望，扩大自己的影响力。克里斯托弗-哥伦布（Christopher Columbus）就是一个例子：在被葡萄牙拒绝后，他赢得了西班牙天主教伊莎贝拉（Isabella the Catholic）的支持。伊莎贝拉的意图不仅在于扩大西班牙王室的领地，还在于获得战略和经济上的优势，战胜她在欧洲的竞争对手，尤其是已经建立了绕非洲通往印度的海上航线的葡萄牙。
超越对手的愿望也刺激了技术的发展。欧洲军队不断发展，寻求更有效的武器和更好的防御工事。这种竞争氛围也促进了航海和制图领域的研究，这对海上探索和统治至关重要。民族国家之间的竞争态势也导致了拥有皇家垄断权的贸易公司的建立，如英国东印度公司或荷兰东印度公司，这两家公司在建立全球贸易网络和积累财富方面发挥了至关重要的作用，推动各自国家进入工业和殖民扩张的新时代。这种国家间的竞争是欧洲在近代成为全球权力中心的关键因素，深刻影响了该地区乃至整个世界的经济和政治发展轨迹。
始于 15 世纪末的海洋大发现为早期全球化时代铺平了道路，其特点往往是三角贸易。事实证明，这是欧洲经济发展的强大动力。三角贸易涉及三个主要地区：欧洲、非洲和美洲： 欧洲、非洲和美洲。欧洲船只航行到非洲，用制成品换取奴隶。然后，作为罪恶的 "中间航程 "的一部分，这些奴隶在不人道的条件下横跨大西洋被运往美洲。在新大陆，奴隶被贩卖，他们被迫劳动的产品，如糖、棉花、烟草以及后来的咖啡，被运往欧洲。这些销售利润往往被重新投资于制成品的生产，推动了欧洲工业的发展。这一时期，欧洲还从美洲引进了马铃薯、西红柿和玉米等农作物，改变了欧洲人的饮食习惯，促进了人口增长。作为回报，欧洲人引进了马、牛和当地人没有免疫力的疾病，造成了人口灾难。
三角贸易对欧洲的发展产生了相当大的影响。它不仅为欧洲商人和金融家带来了巨额利润，还刺激了造船、银行、保险等关键行业的发展，在一些地区还促进了制造业的发展。此外，积累的资本还为技术进步提供了资金，并为工业扩张提供了手段。然而，必须认识到这一时期巨大的人力成本。奴隶贸易给数百万非洲人带来了无法估量的痛苦和死亡，欧洲人在美洲的殖民统治则导致了土著文化的系统性毁灭和整个人口的消失。这些不平等交流带来的繁荣为欧洲经济和工业的崛起奠定了基础，但也留下了不公正和分裂的后遗症，至今仍影响着国际关系和世界政治。
瑞士的工业化提供了一个引人入胜的例子，挑战了一些关于工业革命先决条件的常见假设。瑞士没有殖民帝国，也没有直接出海口，但却能成为欧洲最发达的经济体之一，这要归功于几个关键因素。瑞士的政治稳定和中立政策使其能够避免冲突带来的过高成本，并专注于经济发展。此外，瑞士还致力于教育和培训，培养了一支技术精湛、勇于创新的劳动力队伍。瑞士在精密工程和制表等领域的创新为后来的高科技传统奠定了基础。在资源方面，瑞士能够利用水资源获取能源，这在其工业发展的早期阶段至关重要。瑞士地处欧洲中心的战略地位也促进了与强大邻国之间活跃的贸易关系。瑞士的金融业也成为经济的支柱，为国内外的工业投资提供了所需的资本。这些资本不仅为国内工业提供了资金，而且创造了国际机遇。最后，瑞士明智地瞄准了利基工业部门，注重质量和尖端技术，而不是原材料或产量。例如，瑞士制表业已成为精密和优质的代名词，再次证明工业的成功可以通过专业化而非殖民扩张或海上贸易来实现。因此，瑞士工业化的历史表明，工业发展的道路可以有多种形式，并受到适合每个国家特殊国情的社会、经济和政治因素的独特影响。
工业革命的开端可以在英国看到，它的发生是各种有利环境交织在一起的结果。18 世纪的英格兰政治稳定，金融机构健全，尤其是中央银行的建立，为投资和企业创造了有利环境。圈地运动也重塑了农业格局，解放了为城市和第一批工厂提供食物的劳动力。煤和铁等资源的丰富为这一转变提供了支撑，这些资源对于机械制造和铁路的出现至关重要。詹姆斯-瓦特（James Watt）对蒸汽机的改进等技术进步使机械化生产成为可能，从而加强了这一动力。英国殖民帝国带来的财富及其商船海军的优势也刺激了对工业化的投资。英国还受益于有利于商业发展的立法、广阔的国内市场以及不断完善的交通网络，这些都为国内贸易提供了便利。同时，在鼓励创新的专利制度和经济自由传统的支持下，顽强的创业文化为重大进步铺平了道路。与此形成鲜明对比的是，西班牙同时也面临着许多阻碍其工业发展势头的障碍。来自殖民地的大量黄金和白银分散了人们对内部创新和工业投资需求的注意力。农业生产力停滞不前，没有像英国那样推动人们向城市迁移。政治动荡和冲突时期也阻碍了成功工业化所必需的长期投资。此外，严格的重商主义框架往往限制了对企业家精神至关重要的私人倡议和自由贸易。因此，英国的工业革命并非历史必然，而是社会经济和政治因素复杂纠结的结果，这些因素为工业变革塑造了一条特别肥沃的道路，而当时的西班牙或其他欧洲国家并不清楚这条道路。
18 世纪下半叶，英国经历了一场史无前例的经济蜕变，这就是人们常说的工业革命。这场变革始于 1760 年前后，在短短几十年间就已稳固扎根。到 1800 年，英国不仅重塑了自己的工业和经济版图，还为后来蔓延到欧洲其他国家的工业革命奠定了基础。英国的工业化及其大量技术创新开始向法国、比利时、德国和瑞士等邻国输出。每个国家都根据本国的具体情况对这些新方法进行了调整，从而在整个欧洲大陆形成了一个经济大幅增长和社会变革的时期。然而，工业革命的第一波浪潮并没有立即从欧洲蔓延到世界其他地区。亚洲、非洲和美洲的社会受到了欧洲殖民帝国的不同影响，而且往往是间接影响。欧洲凭借其技术进步和不断增强的经济实力，确立了主导地位，从而拉大了与全球其他地区的差距。这种鸿沟对全球发展产生了深远的影响，影响了远在欧洲边界之外的社会的经济、政治和社会轨迹。这种态势的后果错综复杂，在当代国际关系中依然清晰可见。工业化创造了一个日益相互联系的世界，同时也加剧了工业化国家与非工业化国家之间的差距。
在某种程度上，工业革命可以被视为一场农业革命。工业革命的标志是从手工劳动转向机器生产，这对农业也产生了重大影响。机械化犁和脱粒机等新技术的发展提高了农业的生产力和效率。交通网络的发展，包括公路、运河和铁路的建设，也使农产品更容易运往市场，有助于促进农产品贸易。此外，伴随着工业革命而来的人口增长对粮食产生了更大的需求，这进一步刺激了农业的发展。总体而言，工业革命对农业产生了重大影响，从这个意义上讲，工业革命可以被视为一场农业革命。
工业革命与同时发生的农业变革有着内在联系，因此一些历史学家将其称为 "农业革命"。技术创新极大地改进了农业生产方式，提高了生产力，减少了农村对大量劳动力的需求。其中一个例子就是犁等农具的改进，铁和钢等新材料的使用提高了犁的性能。杰特罗-图尔的机械播种机、联合收割机和轮作系统等发明也在这一转变中发挥了关键作用。通过系统地选择物种来改进畜牧业，也有助于增加肉类、牛奶和羊毛的供应。此外，农业革命解放了部分农村人口，他们迁移到城市的工厂工作，推动了城市和工业的发展。效率更高的交通基础设施的发展也促进了农业剩余产品向城市市场的运输，鼓励了贸易的发展和经济的扩张。然而，这种转型并非没有负面影响。它导致公有土地被圈占，迫使许多小农放弃土地，到城市找工作。更重要的是，向集约化耕作的转型有时也会造成环境退化，这种现象随着二十世纪的农业现代化而持续和加剧。工业革命和农业革命是同一个现代化进程的两个方面，以深刻而持久的方式重塑了社会、经济和环境。
工业革命时期贵族对农学的兴趣是农业创新的关键因素。这一时期的特点是以科学和实践为动力来提高农业生产力。进步的贵族和地主开始采用和发展新的农业技术和实践。这不仅包括改进工具和机械，还包括将科学应用于农场动物的选育。例如，在英国，这是一个 "农业改良者 "或 "绅士农民 "的时代，他们都是贵族或富人，对农业的发展有着浓厚的个人兴趣。罗伯特-贝克韦尔（Robert Bakewell，1725-1795 年）就是这些改良者中的杰出代表。他是最早应用系统选育方法改良牲畜品种的人之一。特别是，他培育出了莱斯特长毛绵羊品种，这种绵羊比传统品种能产更多的肉和羊毛。他还致力于牛的改良，培育出产量更高的奶牛和肉牛品种。这种创新产生了重大的经济和社会影响。廉价肉类和羊毛供应的增加推动了贸易和工业的发展，例如对蓬勃发展的纺织业至关重要的毛纺厂。同样，牛奶产量的增加也对不断增长的城市人口的饮食产生了影响。这些农艺试验是更广泛的 "圈地 "运动的一部分，在圈地运动中，普通土地被围起来，改造成生产力更高的私人管理农场。这往往会对失去传统土地权的农民造成破坏性影响，但同时也提高了农业生产效率，为工业革命推波助澜。
绅士农场主是工业革命期间农业发展的重要组成部分，他们的影响力往往远远超出自己的庄园。他们的耕作方式往往将创新和改良的热情与试验和实施新技术的资源结合在一起。这些富有的地主通过投资研究和开发改良耕作方法，如土地卫生、轮作和选择性育种，发挥了先锋作用。他们的试验大大提高了农业生产率，而农业生产率的提高又有助于为城市中迅速发展的工厂释放劳动力，这是工业革命的一个核心特征。然而，这一时期的变革并非没有批评者。例如，圈地运动常常与绅士农民联系在一起。这种做法是将许多小农拥有放牧和耕种权的公有土地转化为私有财产，以进行更密集的耕作。虽然这提高了农业生产的效率，但也使许多农民流离失所，造成了农村的困境和被迫城市化。随着时间的推移，随着 19 世纪和 20 世纪科学农业和大规模商业耕作的出现，绅士农耕传统失去了其作为农业创新推动力的重要性。然而，绅士农耕的遗产仍保留在现代农业实践中，其在伴随和支持工业革命的农业革命中所扮演的角色仍是经济史学家研究的重要课题。
原工业化指的是工业革命之前的一个阶段，其特点是一种小规模的分散生产，通常在所谓的 "家庭系统 "或 "投放系统 "的框架内进行。在这种体系中，手工业者可以是纺织工、纺纱工、铁匠或其他传统行业的工人，他们在自己的家中或小型作坊中进行部分工业生产。这些原工业手工业者通常居住在农村地区，从事自给自足或略高于自给自足水平的耕作，通过工业劳动来补充收入。他们并不完全依赖农业为生，这使他们不易受到农作物歉收和农产品价格变动的影响。不过，他们也不完全依赖工业工作的收入，这使他们具有一定程度的经济弹性。他们的工业工作通常涉及当时需求量很大的纺织品生产。商人或企业家提供原材料（羊毛、亚麻、棉花），然后向工匠下订单，工匠在家中将原材料加工成纺织品。然后，商人收集成品，在当地市场销售或出口。这种模式培养了一支熟练的劳动力队伍，并使商人习惯于投资生产和管理复杂的分销网络，从而促进了向工业化的过渡。随着工业革命的到来和机器的引进，许多原工业化的做法被整合到规模更大、机械化程度更高的生产系统中。工厂逐渐取代了家庭工作，从根本上改变了欧洲的经济和社会。
詹姆斯-哈格里夫斯（James Hargreaves）于 1764 年发明的珍妮纺纱机标志着纺织生产史上的一个决定性转折点。这种手动纺纱机可以同时完成几个传统纺纱工人的工作，从根本上改变了纱线生产的效率和经济性。随着珍妮纺纱机以及理查德-阿克莱特（Richard Arkwright）的水车和塞缪尔-克朗普顿（Samuel Crompton）的骡式珍妮纺纱机等其他技术创新的引入，纺织生产能力大幅提高。与手工纺纱机相比，这些机器能更快地生产出更细、更结实的纱线。效率的提高降低了生产成本，增加了市场上的织物供应量。作为家用系统的一部分，在家工作的工匠和纺纱工人根本无法与生产量更大、成本更低的机器竞争。为了生存，许多人破产或被迫到新工厂找工作。这些变化促使工人从农村向城市迁移，催生了城市工人阶级和大规模工业化。这种社会经济动荡并非没有后果。它导致许多前手工业者及其家庭陷入困境和社会动荡。对这些变化的抵制体现在一些运动中，如 "卢德分子"（Luddites）运动，这些手工业者摧毁了他们认为导致其失业的机器。然而，尽管有反抗，工业化仍在继续，从而导致了现代工业和技术时代的到来。
英国的圈地现象在 18 世纪和 19 世纪尤为明显，对英国乡村的社会和经济结构产生了深远影响。圈地运动涉及将以前向教区所有成员开放用于放牧和耕种的公有土地合并为独立的私人土地。贵族和大土地所有者往往利用《圈地法》，"圈占 "这些土地，确立其专属所有权，并将其用于更密集的商业耕作。这一过程导致许多小农被征用，他们不仅失去了土地，还失去了传统的生存手段。这场运动造成了巨大的社会后果。许多被剥夺了传统生存手段的失地农民被迫迁徙到城市寻找工作，从而为新生的工业革命提供了所需的劳动力。这些工人涌入城市地区，大大增加了劳动力的供应，使工厂主可以收取低廉的工资，因为工作岗位的需求远远超过供应。这也导致了不稳定的工作条件和城市贫民窟的形成，工人们通常生活在悲惨的环境中。威尔士亲王以及后来的其他英国皇室成员在此期间积累了大量土地，成为王室财富的重要组成部分。这些土地如今由康沃尔公国和兰开斯特公国管理，仍然是王室收入的重要来源。圈占公有土地是加速工业化的关键因素，因为它为工厂解放了劳动力，改变了耕作方式，并改变了英国农村的社会结构。
威尔-基姆利卡（Will Kymlicka）在其 1999 年出版的《正义理论导论》（Theories of Justice： 导言》一书中指出："在 17 世纪的英国，出现了一种将以前由社区拥有、所有人都可以使用的土地圈地（私人占有）的运动。在这些土地（"公地"）上，任何人都可以行使放牧、拾柴等权利。私人占有公地导致一些人发财，另一些人失去资源，他们现在被剥夺了任何生存手段"。圈地运动在工业革命之前的农业革命期间加速发展，给当时的财产所有权结构和英国社会组织带来了深刻的变化。公地 "是社区成员赖以获取基本资源的土地。当这些土地被圈占并变为私有财产时，受益的往往是那些有能力购买和圈占土地的权贵，而依赖这些公地生存的小农和农村工人却一贫如洗。圈地的影响不仅限于剥夺穷人的资源。它还改变了英格兰的工作动态，迫使许多人成为新土地所有者的农业雇佣劳动者，或迁移到城市，成为工业时代工厂和企业的劳动力。这种迁移在城市工人阶级的形成过程中也发挥了作用，进而推动了伴随工业革命而来的政治和社会变革。
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