第一次全球化周期阶段的历史分析
根据米歇尔-奥利斯（Michel Oris）的课程改编[1][2]
地结构与乡村社会： 前工业化时期欧洲农民分析 ● 旧政体的人口制度：平衡状态 ● 十八世纪社会经济结构的演变： 从旧制度到现代性 ● 英国工业革命的起源和原因] ● 工业革命的结构机制 ● 工业革命在欧洲大陆的传播 ● 欧洲以外的工业革命：美国和日本 ● 工业革命的社会成本 ● 第一次全球化周期阶段的历史分析 ● 各国市场的动态和产品贸易的全球化 ● 全球移民体系的形成 ● 货币市场全球化的动态和影响：英国和法国的核心作用 ● 工业革命时期社会结构和社会关系的变革 ● 第三世界的起源和殖民化的影响 ● 第三世界的失败与障碍 ● 不断变化的工作方法： 十九世纪末至二十世纪中叶不断演变的生产关系 ● 西方经济的黄金时代： 辉煌三十年（1945-1973 年） ● 变化中的世界经济：1973-2007 年 ● 福利国家的挑战 ● 围绕殖民化：对发展的担忧和希望 ● 断裂的时代：国际经济的挑战与机遇 ● 全球化与 "第三世界 "的发展模式
第一波全球化浪潮从 19 世纪中叶开始形成，是人类交往和国际贸易史上的一个剧变 时期。这个时代可以分为三个不同的阶段：首先，从 1850 年到 1872 年，我们目睹了经济和社会制度的大变革，当时正处于鼎盛时期的欧洲成为经济增长和社会进步的中心枢纽。随后，从 1873 年到 1890 年，经济停滞不前，农业和工业都深陷危机，反映了当时经济发展的局限性和不平衡性。最后，从 1890-95 年到 1914 年第一次世界大战爆发，经济重新增长的同时，国际紧张局势加剧。
这一早期全球化时代的特点是前所未有的技术进步和创新，这导致了有形边界和经济边界的逐渐削弱，尽管市场一体化仍不均衡。欧洲虽然是这一全球动态的中心，但未能保持团结，最终在大战的自相残杀中崩溃，而美国则开始崛起。
贸易自由化体现在保护主义的退却、铁路网络的扩张以及蒸汽船带来的海上运输革命，这些都为贸易的加强铺平了道路。跨大西洋电报电缆的铺设几乎促进了即时通信，加快了商业和金融生活的步伐，使世界比以往任何时候都更加相互联系。我们深入分析了这一新生的全球化及其起因、发展和后果，探讨了技术创新以及人员、资金、货物和信息的流动如何重塑了世界的经济和社会格局，为当前全球化的当代动态奠定了基础。
商业周期动态的三个阶段
全球化是世界经济一体化的一个复杂过程，在全球各地的发展并不均衡。在市场日益相互关联的同时，一些参与者，如欧洲，其影响力和经济实力也显著增强。这种渐进的、尽管不均衡的一体化导致传统经济疆界的淡化，可分为三个主要历史阶段。
第一阶段从 1850 年到 1872 年，标志着与过去的根本决裂。这是一个彻底变革的时代，世界从传统的组织形式转向了以进步为导向的现代体系。这一时期的经济爆炸式增长和社会进步证明，工业革命深刻改变了生产方式和社会关系，为一体化的世界秩序奠定了基础。
第二阶段从 1873 年到 1890 年，其特点是之前的经济扩张明显放缓。在这一时期，出现了一场波及工农业的大范围危机，尤其是在欧洲。经济萧条的影响导致了经济停滞，造成了重大的结构调整，并反映出经济易受全球市场波动的影响。
第三阶段始于 1890-95 年，一直持续到 1914 年第一次世界大战前夕，这是一个模糊的时期，其特点是经济恢复增长，但国际紧张局势加剧。国与国之间的差距日益扩大，对资源和市场的竞争日益激烈，这些都为最终导致全球范围冲突的不和谐氛围埋下了伏笔。这一时期凸显了全球经济相互依存的不稳定性和冲突频发性。
因此，通过对这三个阶段的研究，我们可以把握全球化的演变和动态，其中既有起起伏伏，也有令人眼花缭乱的进步时期，还有危机和紧张时刻。这说明有必要将全球化视为一种多层面的现象，其影响远不止于经济领域，而是深刻地影响着全世界社会的组织和凝聚力。
全球化草案： 全球化：逐步兴起
标志着第一次全球化开始的时期通常被视为经济疆界开始逐渐消失、市场和贸易实现跨国一体化的时期。然而，这种描述需要加以限定。一方面，19 世纪末 20 世纪初，全球范围内的商业和金融网络空前扩张，另一方面，这个时代也是各国和各帝国加强巩固其民族和帝国特性的时代。这种双重性在这一时期的各种动态中清晰可见。一方面，技术进步，尤其是交通和通信技术的进步，缩小了距离，连接了市场，使货物、资本和人员的流通空前便捷。电报的引入、苏伊士运河等战略运河的开通以及蒸汽动力的普及，都是这种经济互联的催化剂。另一方面，这个时代的特点是民族主义的激增和国家结构的正规化。殖民大国竞相争夺海外领土，从而确立了帝国之间的世界划分。与此同时，还出现了保护主义政策以及主张国家工业化和维护各国自身利益的经济理论。正是在这种复杂的、有时甚至是相互矛盾的背景下，第一次全球化在开放与封闭、国际合作与帝国竞争之间摇摆不定。这第一次全球化行动成为世界经济史上的关键时刻，为现代国际贸易奠定了基础，同时也凸显了这一进程的局限性和内在矛盾。
全球相互依存的动力和先兆
Early globalization was strongly influenced by the decline of protectionism, a movement that took place for a variety of intertwined and complex reasons. Originally, protectionism served as a shield for national economies, safeguarding them through tariffs that made imports more expensive and thus protected local producers from foreign competition. However, this dynamic began to reverse as the 19th century progressed, under the influence of several combined forces. Internal political and economic pressures, often driven by producers eager to expand their markets and by consumers in search of diversity and lower prices, began to undermine the foundations of protectionism. Mature industries, seeking outlets for their surplus production, supported the opening of borders to access new customers. At the same time, technological advances were revolutionizing transport and communication, making cross-border trade easier and less costly. This context naturally favored a discourse in favor of free trade, supported by the rise of liberal economic ideologies that extolled the virtues of unfettered trade for global economic growth. Moreover, the era was marked by the signing of numerous bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, in which nations agreed to mutually reduce their customs barriers. These treaties paved the way for a considerable increase in international trade. The expansion of industrial production beyond the capacity of domestic consumption also played a crucial role, driving companies to seek out external markets to dispose of their surpluses. This search for new markets was made all the easier by periods of relative peace between the major powers, providing the stability necessary for the growth of international trade. Thus, the decline in protectionism did not occur in a vacuum; it was the product of a convergence of economic, technological, ideological and political transformations. These changes not only eased trade constraints, but also paved the way for an era of economic globalization that would redefine international relations.
The rise of the first globalization was strongly stimulated by the unprecedented development of means of transport. In the 19th century, the advent of steam power and the continuous improvement of transport infrastructures revolutionized international trade. The revolution in maritime transport saw the construction of faster, more reliable steamships, which replaced sailing ships dependent on the vagaries of the wind. This led to a significant and steady increase in trade flows, as goods could now be moved faster and over longer distances. What's more, the opening of waterways such as the Suez Canal in 1869 considerably reduced maritime distances between Europe and Asia, speeding up trade and reducing transport costs. On land, the construction of rail networks revolutionized the transport of goods and people. Trains offered superior loading capacity and far greater speed than traditional modes of land transport such as carts or river navigation. This transformation was particularly notable in the United States, where the transcontinental Railroad, completed in 1869, linked the East and West coasts, opening up vast regions to trade and investment. This intensification of trade led to a significant drop in transport costs. The economies of scale achieved by larger ships and more efficient rail transport reduced the cost of delivering goods. As a result, products could be sold at more competitive prices in distant markets, making international goods more accessible and increasing demand. In addition, lower transport costs also made raw materials cheaper for producers and enabled the integration of remote regions into the global economy, facilitating the export of previously inaccessible resources. The impact on local economies has been profound, with the opening up of new markets and regional specialization based on comparative advantage. The development of transport thus played a key role in the dynamics of early globalization, making international trade not only possible but also profitable. This process helped weave an increasingly interdependent global economic network, defining the trajectory of international trade for decades to come.
The rise of the first globalization was strongly stimulated by the unprecedented development of means of transport. In the 19th century, the advent of steam power and the continuous improvement of transport infrastructures revolutionized international trade. The revolution in maritime transport saw the construction of faster, more reliable steamships, which replaced sailing ships dependent on the vagaries of the wind. This led to a significant and steady increase in trade flows, as goods could now be moved faster and over longer distances. What's more, the opening of waterways such as the Suez Canal in 1869 considerably reduced maritime distances between Europe and Asia, speeding up trade and reducing transport costs. On land, the construction of rail networks revolutionized the transport of goods and people. Trains offered superior loading capacity and far greater speed than traditional modes of land transport such as carts or river navigation. This transformation was particularly notable in the United States, where the transcontinental Railroad, completed in 1869, linked the East and West coasts, opening up vast regions to trade and investment. This intensification of trade led to a significant drop in transport costs. The economies of scale achieved by larger ships and more efficient rail transport reduced the cost of delivering goods. As a result, products could be sold at more competitive prices in distant markets, making international goods more accessible and increasing demand. In addition, lower transport costs also made raw materials cheaper for producers and enabled the integration of remote regions into the global economy, facilitating the export of previously inaccessible resources. The impact on local economies has been profound, with the opening up of new markets and regional specialization based on comparative advantage. The development of transport thus played a key role in the dynamics of early globalization, making international trade not only possible but also profitable. This process helped weave an increasingly interdependent global economic network, defining the trajectory of international trade for decades to come.
The first globalization was also marked by the globalization of migratory flows, a far-reaching human dynamic that accompanied and reinforced the economic and social transformations of the time. International migration took on a massive dimension, with millions of people leaving their countries of origin to settle in new parts of the world, often driven by the search for a better life, escape from harsh conditions, or the lure of economic opportunity brought about by the industrial revolution and the expansion of colonial empires. These human flows were facilitated by the same technological advances that enabled the intensification of trade in goods and services. Lower shipping costs made transoceanic travel accessible to a greater number of people. Vast population movements took place, notably from Europe to North America, Latin America, Australia and New Zealand. These migrations were often encouraged by colonial and national governments seeking to populate territories, develop agriculture and meet the labor needs of growing economies. Immigrants not only contributed to the economic development of their host countries through their work, but also played an important role in the transfer of skills, knowledge and cultures. The diasporas created by these population movements have served as bridges between nations, facilitating other forms of exchange such as trade, investment and even diplomatic relations. At the same time, these massive migrations had profound consequences on societies, both for the host countries and for the countries of origin. Countries of origin may have suffered from the loss of population, but often benefited from remittances. Host countries, meanwhile, saw their demography, culture and economy transformed by the arrival of these newcomers. The globalization of migratory flows during the first globalization was therefore a major phenomenon that helped shape the modern world, its economies and societies. It was an essential factor in global economic integration, bringing peoples closer together and forging transnational links that continue to influence global dynamics today.
The first wave of globalization was characterized not only by expanding trade and population movements, but also by significant financial globalization. International financial flows, in the form of foreign direct investment, loans, bonds and shares, began to intensify during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The increase in cross-border financial flows was closely linked to economic growth and industrialization. Developing countries and those undergoing rapid industrialization had a considerable need for capital to finance their expansion. At the same time, European countries, particularly the UK, had surplus capital which they sought to invest abroad in search of higher returns. This led to a major influx of capital, notably into infrastructure such as railroads, ports and mines, but also into utilities and the financial sector itself. Innovations in the financial sector, such as the creation of organized stock markets and the expansion of the international banking system, facilitated these capital movements. European banks established branches abroad and began to play a major role in financing international trade and investment. The relative stability provided by the gold standard, a monetary system where currencies were convertible into gold at a fixed rate, also encouraged cross-border investment by reducing exchange risk. This convertibility reinforced confidence in international financial transactions and facilitated trade and investment on a global scale. However, this financial integration was not without risks. It made national economies more interdependent and therefore more vulnerable to financial crises. The financial panic of 1873 and the banking crisis of 1907 are examples where financial shocks spread rapidly from one country to another, demonstrating the drawbacks of an interconnected financial system. Financial globalization was thus an essential pillar of the first globalization, contributing not only to the increase in global wealth but also to the emergence of a more complex and interdependent world economy. It laid the foundations for today's global financial system, while highlighting the challenges associated with managing international capital flows.
European Hegemony: Power, Prosperity and Radiation
During the period of early globalization, Europe occupied a central and dominant position in the concert of nations. This era is often seen as the apogee of European influence, when the continent's imperialist powers - the UK, France, Germany and others - extended their economic, political and cultural sway across the globe. The export of European capital, ideas, technologies and modes of governance shaped economies and societies across continents. However, this period of European domination was also marked by a lack of unity within the continent itself. European nation-states, then in the throes of asserting their sovereignty, were imbued with rivalries and expansionist desires that would inevitably lead to direct confrontation. This competition translated into an arms race, shifting alliances and a series of diplomatic crises that ultimately led to the conflagration of the First World War in 1914. The war was a dramatic tipping point, marking the end of a period of unchallenged European hegemony and paving the way for new balances of power. At the same time, the United States, benefiting from its vast territory, abundant natural resources and constant influx of immigrants, began to assert itself as a rising power. The American economy gained in strength, and the country began to extend its influence beyond its borders, positioning itself as both a rival and a partner for the European powers. The inter-war years saw the United States assert itself as a key player on the international stage, a trend that would become even more solidified with the two world conflicts of the 20th century. Thus, the first globalization was not only a period of integration and economic expansion, but also one of paradoxes and contradictions, where international cooperation coexisted with intense rivalries, foreshadowing the major geopolitical upheavals that would reshape the world in the following century.
Mechanisms of the Transportation Revolution and their Implications
The transportation revolution is a phenomenon that has truly transformed economic and social dynamics on a global scale, and its beginnings can be traced back to the 18th century. The initiative to link Europe's river basins with large navigable canals was one of the first milestones of this revolution. Essential for trade and industrialization, this undertaking considerably facilitated trade by reducing transport costs and times within the continent.
Canals made it possible to transport bulky or heavy goods, such as coal, ore and other raw materials essential to industrialization, over long distances at far lower costs than traditional overland means of transport. They thus played a crucial role in the economic development of hitherto isolated regions, and contributed to the expansion of domestic markets. However, it was in the 19th century that the transportation revolution really took off, with the arrival of the railways. The invention of the steam locomotive and the construction of railroads were decisive technological advances that changed the game. Trains were faster, could carry much heavier loads and were not limited by natural or man-made waterways. Rail networks expanded rapidly, linking major cities, industrial centers and even cross-border regions. Parallel to these land-based developments, advances in shipbuilding enabled the construction of larger, safer and faster ships, capable of crossing oceans with larger cargoes. The steam engine replaced the sail, eliminating dependence on winds and currents and enabling more regular and predictable sailing schedules. These innovations had a catalytic effect on international trade, bringing continents closer together and making economic globalization all the more concrete. By the turn of the 20th century, these technological advances in transportation had shrunk the world, opening up distant markets and facilitating the global economic integration that would characterize the first wave of globalization. The effects of the transportation revolution on society were equally profound, fostering not only urbanization and changes in population distribution, but also enabling a more rapid spread of ideas and innovations across the globe.
The rise of the railroads in the 19th century marked a decisive turning point in the modernization of transport infrastructures, and played a key role in the Industrial Revolution and the first globalization. Starting in Great Britain and Belgium in the 1850s, this boom rapidly spread to France in the 1860s, and then to the whole of the European continent and beyond in the following decades. Railroads brought a series of unprecedented benefits. Their speed significantly reduced travel times, linking distant towns and regions and fostering the emergence of more integrated national markets. The reliability of rail services, with a remarkably low number of accidents compared with other modes of transport at the time, reinforced public and business confidence in this means of transport. In addition, the power of steam locomotives made it possible to transport large volumes of goods, such as coal, and passengers, consolidating economies of scale and stimulating trade and industrialization. By 1914, railroads were at the heart of Europe's transport system, and the appearance of streetcars in major cities was testimony to the continuing innovation in urban transport. These electric streetcars, better suited to navigating the narrow, congested streets of metropolises, improved urban mobility and played a key role in the expansion and increasing urbanization of European cities. At the dawn of the First World War, the European rail network had reached a level of development that would only be surpassed by subsequent innovations in motorized transport. But in those days, rail was the symbol of connectivity and efficiency, contributing not only to economic growth, but also to a new perception of space and time. It had revolutionized travel, trade and even warfare, becoming an indispensable part of everyday life and a key driver of globalization.
The expansion of transportation networks, particularly railroads, considerably altered the perception and use of space in the 19th century. The concept of the isochrone, defining the geographical area accessible within one hour of transport, emerged as a key tool for understanding the impact of mobility innovations. For a retailer, the one-hour isochrone draws the catchment area, i.e. the extent of the potentially accessible market. This means that a larger population can now be reached more quickly, expanding commercial and economic opportunities. From the worker's point of view, isochrones widened the scope of employment opportunities. If one's salary was considered insufficient, it was now conceivable to look for a higher-paying job in a company located an hour away, thus increasing competition between employers to attract labor. This is particularly relevant in an urban area of 400,000 inhabitants, where employment options are multiplying. The transport revolution has also brought about profound changes in social structure and human relations. People began to take the train to work, a great first that began as early as the 1850s to 1870s. This increased mobility led to the development of suburbs, as workers were able to live a considerable distance from their place of work while keeping their commute time to a minimum. This phenomenon allowed a certain separation between home and work, enabling families to choose living environments far from the hustle and bustle and pollution of industrial areas, while still benefiting from the economic advantages they offered. The impact of this transport revolution was not limited to the economy and work; it also transformed social life. Leisure travel became more common, family visits more frequent, and social and cultural events more accessible, contributing to an enrichment and diversification of life experiences for many Europeans. In short, the transportation revolution was an essential driving force in opening up space and expanding the horizon of possibilities, redefining human relationships on an individual and collective scale.
Steamships revolutionized maritime transport in the 19th century, overturning both the speed and efficiency with which people and goods could cross the oceans. One of the most significant transformations was the halving of the time needed to cross the Atlantic, from around 30 days to just 15. This made transatlantic travel much more convenient, and stimulated flourishing international trade and the movement of people. The first steamships used paddlewheels, a technology which, while revolutionary compared with sailing, had its limitations. Paddlewheels were less efficient in rough waters and could be damaged by high waves. In addition, they took up a lot of space on the sides of the ship, limiting loading capacity. The introduction of the propeller (or Archimedean screw) was a major breakthrough. Being fully submerged, propellers were more protected from the elements and offered less resistance to forward movement in the water, making ships faster and more economical in terms of fuel consumption. They also enabled better control and maneuverability of the vessel, which was crucial in crowded ports and on busy shipping lanes. These technological improvements, combined with the construction of larger, stronger metal ships, ushered in an era of mass shipping. Steamships played a key role in the expansion of the British Empire, and were essential for maintaining lines of communication and trade between the UK and its colonies around the world. In addition, they facilitated mass immigration to the Americas, particularly the USA, where many Europeans sought new economic opportunities and a better life, contributing to the wave of globalization and population movements of the time.
The transition from sailing to steam navigation marked a milestone in the history of globalization, making maritime transport safer and faster. The advent of steamships brought unprecedented predictability to sea travel. Whereas sailing ships were at the mercy of the vagaries of the climate, subject to major delays due to adverse weather conditions, steamships were able to maintain much more regular schedules. This increased regularity and speed had far-reaching repercussions, not least on immigration. People wishing to emigrate knew they could count on more precise arrival dates, making it easier to organize their departures and arrivals in new countries. This contributed to massive waves of immigration, particularly to the New World, where the promise of freedom, opportunity and prosperity attracted many Europeans. On the commercial front, steam navigation made it possible to establish fast, reliable sea links, essential to the development of international trade. Goods could be delivered with greater certainty of arrival date, reducing risk for traders and enabling more efficient inventory management. Agricultural products, such as rice, which had previously been considered exotic or expensive in Europe due to slow and uncertain transport routes, became more accessible and less expensive. Thus, the diversification of food in Europe was one of the many tangible benefits of this innovation. The increased reliability of travel also had implications for the world of business and finance, enabling faster transactions and the exchange of information. Shipping companies were able to establish fixed schedules, and marine insurance, once extremely expensive due to the high risks associated with sailing, became more affordable. The steamboat revolution was a key factor in globalization, facilitating trade, cultural exchange and population movements on a scale never before possible, bringing different parts of the world closer together in a way that would profoundly shape contemporary and future societies. The impact will also be felt on transport costs, which will plummet.
The year 1859 marked another crucial milestone in the acceleration of globalization, with the laying of transatlantic telegraph cables, a feat that linked the European and American continents in an unprecedented way through near-instantaneous communication. Telegraph cables enabled the rapid transmission of information over long distances, revolutionizing international communications and having a particularly strong impact on financial markets. Before this innovation, news crossed the ocean at the speed of ships, taking weeks to reach its destination. Financial information was therefore often out of date by the time it was received, making stock market speculation and investment decisions extremely risky. Instant communication changed all that, enabling stock markets to react in real time to economic, political and commercial developments. The implications of this breakthrough were far-reaching. For the first time, financial transactions and investment decisions could be made synchronously on different continents. The result was much greater economic interdependence and market volatility. With information now circulating in a matter of minutes, a chain reaction could occur on the world's markets. A stock market panic in New York could instantly create uncertainty among investors in London and Paris, leading to massive share sales and market declines. However, this connectivity also had a positive side. It enabled greater transparency and better corporate governance by facilitating the dissemination of timely and reliable financial information. Investors could now access up-to-date data, enabling a more informed and dynamic business environment. In addition, the telegraph had a significant cultural and social impact, as news from around the world could be shared almost instantaneously. Political events, scientific discoveries and even trivia could be communicated rapidly to an international audience, contributing to an awareness of an interconnected global community. This technological innovation was therefore one of the factors that paved the way for the twentieth century, characterized by an integrated global economy and a fast-moving information culture that have become the norm in contemporary society.
Assessment of the Pioneering Era of Globalization
The first period of globalization, from the mid-19th century to the outbreak of the First World War, was a pivotal time in the formation of the modern world. It was shaped by remarkable technological advances and an upheaval in economic and social structures. The gradual erosion of physical and economic frontiers, coupled with the uneven integration of markets, led to an era of unprecedented growth and tension. Europe, at the heart of this dynamic, played a leading role, despite the internal divisions that ultimately led to its partial self-destruction during the war.
Reduced protectionism, improved transport and instant communication revolutionized exchanges and interactions on an international scale, fostering growing interdependence between nations. Mass migration, capital flows and the exchange of goods and ideas not only strengthened national economies, but also intertwined the destinies of people the world over, foreshadowing the complexities of today's global economy.
As the rise of the United States began to reshape the global balance of power, Europe was plunged into the turmoil of war, underscoring the fragility of an interconnected system. This historical period raises ever-relevant questions about how nations can work together for shared prosperity while managing the inequalities and tensions that inevitably arise from international competition and cooperation.
Ultimately, the lessons of the first globalization remain crucial to understanding the challenges and opportunities of our globalized age. They teach us the importance of innovation and adaptability, while warning us of the risks of conflict and disunity that can emerge from an increasingly interdependent world.