Version actuelle datée du 15 décembre 2023 à 12:37

Based on a course by Victor Monnier^[1]^[2]^[3]

Languages

Introduction to the Law : Key Concepts and Definitions ● The State: Functions, Structures and Political Regimes ● The different branches of law ● The sources of law ● The great formative traditions of law ● The elements of the legal relationship ● The application of law ● The implementation of a law ● The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century ● Switzerland's domestic legal framework ● Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality ● The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century ● The universal organizations ● European organisations and their relations with Switzerland ● Categories and generations of fundamental rights ● The origins of fundamental rights ● Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century ● Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century

The United Nations[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

United Nations emblem.

The United Nations Organisation (UNO) represents a crucial milestone in the history of international cooperation, founded in the immediate post-war period to prevent global conflict and promote peace. Its origins date back to the dark days of the Second World War, when world leaders, confronted with the horrors and failures of the League of Nations to maintain peace, felt a compelling need to create a new international organisation with stronger and more effective mechanisms for managing conflict and promoting international cooperation.

The expression "United Nations" was used for the first time on 1 January 1942. On that day, representatives of 26 nations fighting against the Axis powers signed the Declaration of the United Nations, marking their collective commitment against the Axis forces and for a future world order based on peace and security. This declaration laid the foundations for the collaboration that would lead to the creation of the UN. In 1944, the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in Washington, D.C., brought together representatives of the United States, the United Kingdom, the USSR and China. They discussed plans for an organisation that would be responsible for maintaining peace in the world after the war. These discussions were completed and refined at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, where world leaders, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, set out more concrete proposals for this organisation. The culmination of these efforts was the San Francisco Conference, where the United Nations Charter was signed on 26 June 1945. This historic event saw the participation of delegates from 50 countries, signing a document that would shape the post-war world order. The Charter entered into force on 24 October 1945, following ratification by the five permanent members of the Security Council - the United States, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China - as well as by a majority of other signatories.

The UN was created with ambitious objectives, including the prevention of war, the promotion of human rights, economic and social development, and respect for international law. It was also designed to operate on the principles of equal sovereignty for all its members, peaceful settlement of disputes and non-intervention in the internal affairs of states. Over the years, the UN has played a central role in many significant historical events. It has been involved in the management and resolution of major conflicts such as the Korean War in the 1950s, the Suez Crisis in 1956, and more recently, in various peacekeeping and humanitarian intervention efforts in war-torn regions such as Rwanda in the 1990s and Syria in the 21st century. In addition, the UN has been a vital forum for addressing global issues such as climate change, women's and children's rights, and sustainable development. Since its creation in 1945, the United Nations has grown and evolved into a global platform that includes the vast majority of the world's nations. Today, it has more than 196 members, testifying to its central role in global governance and international cooperation. Among these members, Switzerland occupies a unique position due to its history of membership of the UN.

Switzerland, renowned for its historical neutrality, has long held an observer seat at the UN since the end of the Second World War. This position enabled it to take part in the organisation's discussions and activities without being a full member. This neutrality was in line with its traditional foreign policy, which emphasised non-participation in international conflicts and political and military alliances. Switzerland's path towards full UN membership was marked by internal debates and changes in the international political climate. In 1986, during a period marked by confrontation between the Soviet and Western blocs, Switzerland held a referendum on UN membership, but the proposal was rejected by the people and the cantons. This decision reflected a concern to maintain Swiss neutrality in a world divided by the Cold War.

However, with the end of the Cold War and changes in the global political structure, Switzerland's position began to evolve. A new referendum was held in 2002, and this time the Swiss people and cantons voted in favour of UN membership. This vote marked a turning point in Swiss foreign policy, signalling a desire to be more actively involved in world affairs while maintaining its historic commitment to neutrality. Switzerland's accession to the UN in 2002 was a significant moment, not only for Switzerland but also for the UN, as it illustrated the organisation's move towards universal acceptance and recognition of the diversity of its members' foreign policies. Since joining the UN, Switzerland has played an active part in its various initiatives, making its own unique contribution in the fields of diplomacy, mediation and peace promotion, while retaining its identity as a neutral nation.

The Charter of the United Nations, adopted in 1945, is the founding document of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) and serves as the cornerstone of its activities and mission. The main purpose of the Charter is to promote the maintenance of international peace and security, and to foster cooperation among nations on various fronts, including human rights, social and economic development, and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. It also establishes the fundamental principles of the sovereign equality of States, the non-use of force or threat in international relations, and intervention in the internal affairs of other States. The UN's main headquarters are in New York, in the United States. This is where most of its main bodies are located, including the General Assembly and the Security Council. The choice of New York as the UN's headquarters was significant at the time, symbolising the hope and commitment of the nations of the world for an era of cooperation and peace after the devastation of the Second World War. The UN has also maintained an important European centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The UN's European headquarters in Geneva plays a vital role in the organisation's international operations. Geneva was chosen because of its long tradition of neutrality and diplomacy, as well as its history as a centre for international cooperation and humanitarian organisations. The United Nations Office at Geneva (UNOG) is the second largest UN office after New York and serves as an important forum for international diplomatic negotiations, conferences and meetings on a variety of global issues, including human rights, disarmament, humanitarian assistance and economic development. Thus, while the UN headquarters in New York symbolises its global commitment to peace and security, the Geneva office represents its role in facilitating international cooperation and solving global problems in a European and international context.

The principal organs of the United Nations[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The United Nations General Assembly[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The United Nations General Assembly plays a central role in the running of the organisation, acting as a forum where each member has one vote, reflecting the principle of the sovereign equality of States. This assembly meets annually for ordinary sessions, and can also hold extraordinary sessions if necessary. During these sessions, members discuss and vote on various international issues, ranging from peace and security to economic, social and environmental problems.

Beyond the General Assembly, the UN has created a network of specialised bodies and programmes to tackle specific areas of international concern. These bodies operate with a degree of autonomy and are specialised in various areas. For example, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), established in 1950, is responsible for protecting the rights and welfare of refugees worldwide. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) focuses on education, science, culture and communication to promote international peace and security. In addition, the International Labour Organisation (ILO) works to promote workers' rights, encourage decent working conditions and develop employment opportunities.

Although Switzerland only became a full member of the UN in 2002, it was involved in several of these specialised bodies long before it joined. This was in keeping with its tradition of neutrality and international cooperation. For example, Switzerland was a founding member of the ILO in 1919 and hosted the organisation's headquarters in Geneva. This early involvement in the UN's specialised bodies demonstrates Switzerland's commitment to the UN's principles and objectives, even before it officially became a member.

Together, the General Assembly and the UN's specialised bodies represent a complex and integrated system that works to address a multitude of global challenges, reflecting the shared commitment of member states to a more peaceful, just and sustainable world. Switzerland's participation in this system, both as an observer and as a full member, underlines its active role and significant contribution to the international community.

Security Council[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The United Nations Security Council is one of the six principal organs of the UN and plays a crucial role in maintaining international peace and security. It is made up of 15 members, whose structure reflects both the organisation's history and its commitment to representing the world's geopolitical diversity. Five of these members are permanent, and they are the States that were the victorious powers of the Second World War: the United States, France, the United Kingdom, China and Russia (the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991). These permanent members have special powers, in particular the right of veto, which means that they can block any resolution, even if it has been approved by all the other members of the Council.

The other 10 members of the Security Council are non-permanent states, elected for two-year terms by the UN General Assembly. The election of these non-permanent members is designed to ensure a balanced representation of the different geographical regions of the world. This geographical distribution is intended to ensure that the interests and perspectives of all regions of the world are taken into account in the Council's decisions. The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It can adopt resolutions that have legal force for UN member states and has the power to take action ranging from imposing economic sanctions to authorising military intervention. The Council also plays an essential role in conflict resolution, war prevention and international crisis management.

The right of veto of the permanent members of the UN Security Council is a distinctive and influential feature of its functioning, although its exact nature is often misunderstood. Indeed, the right of veto is not explicitly mentioned as such in the UN Charter, but rather derives from its Article 27. According to this article, for a Security Council resolution to be adopted, it must obtain the approval of at least nine of its fifteen members, including the consent of all the permanent members. In practice, this means that a vote against a proposal by one of the five permanent members - the United States, France, the United Kingdom, China and Russia - is enough to prevent the resolution from being adopted. This is commonly referred to as the "right of veto".

It is important to note that the abstention or absence of a permanent member does not prevent a resolution from being adopted. A resolution can pass if it receives the necessary nine votes, even if one or more permanent members abstain. This means that the abstention of a permanent member is considered as a non-use of its right of veto, thus allowing the resolution to move forward. This veto system was originally designed to ensure that the major post-war powers, with major global strategic interests, were in agreement with the actions taken by the Security Council. However, the veto has been criticised by many as a means for the major powers to block action even where there is a broad international consensus. It has also been criticised for sometimes contributing to the paralysis of the Council on crucial issues, where the interest of one permanent member conflicts with the will of the majority of members.

Since the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the functioning of the UN Security Council has indeed evolved. During the Cold War, the Council was often paralysed by the opposition between the Soviet and Western blocs, with the United States and the Soviet Union frequently using the veto to block resolutions that went against their respective interests. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, this bipolar dynamic largely disappeared, paving the way for new forms of negotiation and decision-making within the Council. One notable change in Security Council practice has been an increased tendency to seek consensus. Consensus, unlike a decision taken by majority vote, implies general agreement or an absence of active opposition among Council members. In practice, this means that resolutions and decisions are often the result of lengthy negotiations and compromises, reflecting an effort to reach common ground acceptable to all members, including permanent members with veto rights.

The consensus technique is beneficial in that it avoids the use of the veto and encourages a more collaborative and less confrontational approach to international problems. This can lead to resolutions which, while sometimes less ambitious, are more likely to be accepted and implemented by all Council members. However, consensus-building also has its drawbacks. Critics point out that it can lead to watered-down resolutions, where the strongest terms or most decisive actions are watered down to win everyone's approval. In addition, the negotiation process to reach consensus can be long and complex, sometimes delaying Council action on urgent crises.

General Secretariat[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The General Secretariat of the United Nations plays a crucial role in coordinating and managing the organisation's activities. At the head of this Secretariat is the Secretary-General, a position of high importance that combines political and administrative responsibilities. Since 1 January 2017, the post has been held by António Guterres, a Portuguese diplomat and politician. He succeeded Ban Ki-moon, whose term ended in December 2016. The selection process for the Secretary-General involves the two principal organs of the United Nations: the Security Council and the General Assembly. The candidate is first recommended by the Security Council, after which the General Assembly proceeds with the election. This procedure is designed to ensure that the choice of Secretary-General reflects a consensus within the international community.

The Secretary-General's role is primarily political. He mediates in international conflicts, works to promote global peace and security, and mobilises the efforts of Member States and UN bodies to address global issues such as sustainable development, human rights, climate change and humanitarian assistance. As the UN's spokesperson and representative figure, the Secretary-General also plays an important role in raising awareness and influencing world public opinion on crucial issues. The Secretariat, the administrative arm of the UN, assists the Secretary-General in carrying out his duties. The Secretariat is made up of international staff working in a variety of areas, from administrative management to the implementation of UN programmes and policies. Their efforts are essential to the day-to-day running of the organisation and to supporting the Secretary-General in his diplomatic initiatives and mediation missions.

International Court of Justice[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), often referred to as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, plays an essential role in the international system by facilitating the peaceful settlement of disputes between States and contributing to the development of international law. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges, who are elected jointly by the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.

ICJ judges are chosen from among persons of high moral character who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or who are jurisconsults of recognised competence in international law. This requirement ensures that ICJ judges are experts in international law, capable of ruling on complex legal issues. One of the ICJ's main objectives is to settle, in accordance with international law, disputes submitted to it by States. These disputes may concern a variety of issues, ranging from territorial and maritime boundaries to rights of passage, diplomatic disputes and other international disputes. By issuing judgments and advisory opinions, the ICJ contributes to the development of international law and its consistent application.

In addition to deciding contentious cases between States, the ICJ also has the capacity to provide advisory opinions on legal questions at the request of other authorised organs or agencies of the United Nations. These advisory opinions, although not binding, are respected and considered to have great authority and influence in the development of international law. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, the Netherlands, which sometimes earns it the nickname "The Hague Court". Its role and decisions are of paramount importance in maintaining the international legal order and promoting the peaceful resolution of disputes between nations in accordance with the principles of justice and international law.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations, plays an essential role in the peaceful settlement of disputes between states. Based in The Hague in the Netherlands, the ICJ reflects the evolution and consolidation of international law in the post-Second World War world. The ICJ's jurisdiction is dedicated exclusively to cases brought by states, not by individuals, organisations or companies. This restriction underlines the importance of state sovereignty in the international legal system. A notable example of the ICJ's intervention is the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, where Nicaragua accused the United States of violations of international law for its support of the Contras in the Nicaraguan civil war. The ICJ ruling in favour of Nicaragua was a landmark moment, although the US chose not to comply with the judgement. The principle of state consent is fundamental to the ICJ. No state can be forced to submit a dispute to the Court without its consent. This means that states must voluntarily accept the jurisdiction of the ICJ in order for it to hear their case. This principle has been highlighted in cases such as the Aegean Sea case (Greece v Turkey), where the Court's jurisdiction was challenged.

In addition, although states may recognise the ICJ's compulsory jurisdiction, they often have the option of limiting or conditioning this recognition. The declaration of compulsory jurisdiction allows the ICJ to hear cases without requiring specific consent for each case, but practice shows that states are sometimes reluctant to make an unconditional commitment. This dynamic reflects the tension between the need for an international legal order and the desire of states to maintain a degree of autonomy. The ICJ has therefore played, and continues to play, a crucial role in the promotion of international law and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. It represents a significant advance in the way international affairs are managed, by favouring law and negotiation over conflict and force. Its decisions, although sometimes contested or ignored, have contributed to the development of a more robust international legal framework and have often served as a benchmark for the resolution of subsequent international conflicts.

The International Court of Justice (ICJ), as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has a jurisdiction that is defined by several key criteria. Its ability to hear and decide cases depends first and foremost on the recognition of its jurisdiction by the States concerned. This recognition can manifest itself in different ways, each reflecting the commitment of States to international law and the peaceful settlement of disputes. Firstly, a State may recognise the jurisdiction of the ICJ either generally or specifically. General recognition is often established by a declaration in which the state accepts the ICJ's jurisdiction as binding for certain types of dispute. This form of recognition allows the ICJ to hear cases without the States concerned having to give their specific consent for each case. However, States may condition their recognition or exclude certain types of dispute from the jurisdiction of the ICJ. Secondly, the ICJ's jurisdiction extends to disputes concerning the interpretation or application of a treaty. In many international treaties, the parties include clauses that refer to the ICJ for the resolution of disputes relating to those treaties. These specific treaty clauses provide a clear mechanism for managing disagreements on the interpretation or application of the treaty, thus contributing to the stability and predictability of international law. Finally, the ICJ is competent to hear cases when two States in conflict decide, on their own initiative, to submit their dispute to the Court. This form of voluntary referral is an example of the use of international law to resolve conflicts peacefully. It demonstrates the willingness of states to abide by legal principles rather than resort to force or coercion. Historic cases such as the border dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali (1986) illustrate how states have chosen to resolve their disputes peacefully through the ICJ. Thus, the jurisdiction of the ICJ, although conditioned by the will of States, is an essential pillar of the international legal system, facilitating the settlement of disputes between States within a legal and structured framework. It symbolises the commitment of the nations of the world to the principle of international justice and the peaceful resolution of disagreements.

Article 93 of the United Nations Charter offers an interesting and important possibility for access to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Under this article, even states that are not members of the United Nations have the opportunity to participate in the ICJ, thereby extending the Court's reach and influence beyond the borders of the UN. Article 93 stipulates that all members of the United Nations are de facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. This means that, by becoming a member of the UN, a State also accepts the jurisdiction and authority of the ICJ. However, Article 93 goes further by providing that States which are not members of the UN may also become parties to the Statute of the Court, subject to certain conditions. To do so, these States must first be invited by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council to become parties to the ICJ Statute. They must then accept the terms and conditions set by the General Assembly, which may include financial obligations as well as acceptance of the jurisdiction and decisions of the ICJ. This provision is significant because it recognises the reality of a world in which some territories and political entities are not members of the UN, while underlining the importance of international law and the judicial resolution of conflicts at a global level. By allowing non-UN member states to join the ICJ, Article 93 contributes to the UN's broader objective of promoting peace, justice and international cooperation. Historically, this provision has enabled entities that are not members of the UN, for a variety of reasons, to seek judicial resolution of their international disputes within a legal and structured framework. This reinforces the role of the ICJ as a central judicial body in the international system and underlines the universality of the principles of international law.

The example of Switzerland in 1948 is a perfect illustration of the application of Article 93 of the UN Charter. Before becoming a member of the United Nations in 2002, Switzerland demonstrated its commitment to international law and the global legal system by becoming a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1948. Although Switzerland maintained a policy of strict neutrality and chose to remain outside the United Nations for much of the 20th century, its decision to join the ICJ reflects its recognition of the importance of international justice and the peaceful settlement of disputes. By acceding to the ICJ Statute, Switzerland accepted the Court's jurisdiction to settle international disputes, thereby demonstrating its support for the principles of international law, even in the absence of full UN membership. This action enabled Switzerland to participate actively in the international legal system and to contribute to the promotion of world peace and stability. It also demonstrated that commitment to international law could transcend UN membership statutes, underlining the importance of the ICJ as an institution accessible to all states concerned with justice and the legal resolution of disputes. Switzerland's situation prior to 2002 is therefore a notable example of how non-UN member states can interact with and participate in international institutions, thereby contributing to international dialogue and cooperation within the framework of international law.

Specialised institutions[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

In the wake of the United Nations, a network of specialised organisations has been created to tackle various aspects of peace and global development. Each of these entities plays a specific role, contributing to an aspect of international cooperation and global well-being.

Among these organisations, the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), founded in 1967, stands out for its work in protecting and promoting intellectual property. WIPO encourages innovation and creativity, which are essential to economic and cultural progress. Its creation was an important step in recognising the importance of intellectual property in international relations. UNESCO, established in 1945, plays a key role in promoting education, science and culture. Through its educational programmes, the preservation of world heritage and the defence of press freedom, UNESCO aims to strengthen peace and security by encouraging collaboration between nations. The World Health Organisation, created in 1948, is another cornerstone of this network. It coordinates international efforts in the field of public health, working to improve health conditions and respond to global health crises. Its role has been crucial in initiatives such as the eradication of smallpox and the response to pandemics. Finally, the International Labour Organisation, founded in 1919, well before the creation of the UN, has been a pioneer in promoting workers' rights. It has played a key role in shaping international labour policies, establishing standards and conventions that have shaped working conditions around the world.

Switzerland, known for its political neutrality and commitment to international cooperation, was involved in these organisations long before it joined the UN in 2002. As early as 1919, it was a member of the ILO, demonstrating its early support for social rights and labour standards. Its continued involvement in WIPO, UNESCO and WHO before joining the UN is testimony to its significant contribution to global efforts in the fields of intellectual property, education, culture and public health.

These organisations, with the support of states like Switzerland, illustrate how the international community strives to work together to promote peace, development and human well-being across a variety of specialised fields. They are a crucial part of the architecture of international cooperation, each making its own unique contribution to the overall goal of building a more just and peaceful world.

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Université de Genève. “International Organizations Management.” Coursera, https://www.coursera.org/learn/international-organizations-management.

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

[1] Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE

[2] Publications du professeur Victor Monnier

[3] Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE

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 === Security Council ===
-Le Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies est l'un des six organes principaux de l'ONU et joue un rôle crucial dans le maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales. Il est composé de 15 membres, dont la structure reflète à la fois l'histoire de l'organisation et son engagement à représenter la diversité géopolitique mondiale. Cinq de ces membres sont permanents, et il s'agit des États qui étaient les puissances victorieuses de la Seconde Guerre mondiale : les États-Unis, la France, le Royaume-Uni, la Chine et la Russie (l'Union Soviétique jusqu'à la dissolution de celle-ci en 1991). Ces membres permanents possèdent un pouvoir particulier, notamment le droit de veto, ce qui signifie qu'ils peuvent bloquer toute résolution, même si celle-ci a été approuvée par tous les autres membres du Conseil.
+The United Nations Security Council is one of the six principal organs of the UN and plays a crucial role in maintaining international peace and security. It is made up of 15 members, whose structure reflects both the organisation's history and its commitment to representing the world's geopolitical diversity. Five of these members are permanent, and they are the States that were the victorious powers of the Second World War: the United States, France, the United Kingdom, China and Russia (the Soviet Union until its dissolution in 1991). These permanent members have special powers, in particular the right of veto, which means that they can block any resolution, even if it has been approved by all the other members of the Council.
-Les 10 autres membres du Conseil de Sécurité sont des États non permanents, élus pour des mandats de deux ans par l'Assemblée générale de l'ONU. L'élection de ces membres non permanents est conçue pour assurer une représentation équilibrée des différentes régions géographiques du monde. Cette répartition géographique vise à garantir que les intérêts et les perspectives de toutes les régions du monde soient pris en compte dans les décisions du Conseil. Le Conseil de Sécurité a la responsabilité principale de maintenir la paix et la sécurité internationales. Il peut adopter des résolutions qui ont force juridique pour les États membres de l'ONU et a le pouvoir d'entreprendre des actions allant de l'imposition de sanctions économiques à l'autorisation d'interventions militaires. Le Conseil joue également un rôle essentiel dans la résolution des conflits, la prévention des guerres et la gestion des crises internationales.
+The other 10 members of the Security Council are non-permanent states, elected for two-year terms by the UN General Assembly. The election of these non-permanent members is designed to ensure a balanced representation of the different geographical regions of the world. This geographical distribution is intended to ensure that the interests and perspectives of all regions of the world are taken into account in the Council's decisions. The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It can adopt resolutions that have legal force for UN member states and has the power to take action ranging from imposing economic sanctions to authorising military intervention. The Council also plays an essential role in conflict resolution, war prevention and international crisis management.
-Le droit de veto des membres permanents du Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies est une caractéristique distinctive et influente de son fonctionnement, bien que sa nature exacte soit souvent mal comprise. En effet, le droit de veto n'est pas explicitement mentionné comme tel dans la Charte des Nations Unies, mais découle plutôt de son Article 27. Selon cet article, pour qu'une résolution du Conseil de Sécurité soit adoptée, elle doit obtenir l'approbation d'au moins neuf de ses quinze membres, y compris le consentement de tous les membres permanents. Cela signifie, en pratique, qu'un vote contre une proposition par l'un des cinq membres permanents - les États-Unis, la France, le Royaume-Uni, la Chine et la Russie - suffit à empêcher l'adoption de cette résolution. C'est ce qui est communément appelé le "droit de veto".
+The right of veto of the permanent members of the UN Security Council is a distinctive and influential feature of its functioning, although its exact nature is often misunderstood. Indeed, the right of veto is not explicitly mentioned as such in the UN Charter, but rather derives from its Article 27. According to this article, for a Security Council resolution to be adopted, it must obtain the approval of at least nine of its fifteen members, including the consent of all the permanent members. In practice, this means that a vote against a proposal by one of the five permanent members - the United States, France, the United Kingdom, China and Russia - is enough to prevent the resolution from being adopted. This is commonly referred to as the "right of veto".
-Il est important de noter que l'abstention ou l'absence d'un membre permanent n'empêche pas une résolution d'être adoptée. Une résolution peut passer si elle reçoit les neuf votes nécessaires, même si un ou plusieurs membres permanents s'abstiennent. Cela signifie que l'abstention d'un membre permanent est considérée comme un non-usage de son droit de veto, permettant ainsi à la résolution d'avancer. Ce système de veto a été conçu à l'origine pour assurer que les grandes puissances de l'après-guerre, ayant des intérêts stratégiques mondiaux majeurs, soient en accord avec les actions entreprises par le Conseil de Sécurité. Cependant, le droit de veto a fait l'objet de critiques, beaucoup le considérant comme un moyen pour les puissances majeures de bloquer des actions même en présence d'un large consensus international. Il a également été critiqué pour avoir parfois contribué à la paralysie du Conseil sur des questions cruciales, où l'intérêt d'un membre permanent entre en conflit avec la volonté de la majorité des membres.
+It is important to note that the abstention or absence of a permanent member does not prevent a resolution from being adopted. A resolution can pass if it receives the necessary nine votes, even if one or more permanent members abstain. This means that the abstention of a permanent member is considered as a non-use of its right of veto, thus allowing the resolution to move forward. This veto system was originally designed to ensure that the major post-war powers, with major global strategic interests, were in agreement with the actions taken by the Security Council. However, the veto has been criticised by many as a means for the major powers to block action even where there is a broad international consensus. It has also been criticised for sometimes contributing to the paralysis of the Council on crucial issues, where the interest of one permanent member conflicts with the will of the majority of members.
-Depuis la disparition de l'Union soviétique et la fin de la Guerre Froide, le fonctionnement du Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies a effectivement évolué. Pendant la période de la Guerre Froide, le Conseil était souvent paralysé par l'opposition entre les blocs soviétique et occidental, avec l'utilisation fréquente du droit de veto par les États-Unis et l'Union soviétique pour bloquer des résolutions qui allaient à l'encontre de leurs intérêts respectifs. Avec la dissolution de l'Union soviétique en 1991, cette dynamique bipolaire a largement disparu, ouvrant la voie à de nouvelles formes de négociation et de prise de décision au sein du Conseil. L'un des changements notables dans la pratique du Conseil de Sécurité a été une tendance accrue à rechercher le consensus. Le consensus, contrairement à une décision prise par un vote majoritaire, implique un accord général ou une absence d'opposition active parmi les membres du Conseil. En pratique, cela signifie que les résolutions et les décisions sont souvent le résultat de longues négociations et de compromis, reflétant un effort pour atteindre un terrain d'entente acceptable pour tous les membres, y compris les membres permanents avec droit de veto.
+Since the demise of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, the functioning of the UN Security Council has indeed evolved. During the Cold War, the Council was often paralysed by the opposition between the Soviet and Western blocs, with the United States and the Soviet Union frequently using the veto to block resolutions that went against their respective interests. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, this bipolar dynamic largely disappeared, paving the way for new forms of negotiation and decision-making within the Council. One notable change in Security Council practice has been an increased tendency to seek consensus. Consensus, unlike a decision taken by majority vote, implies general agreement or an absence of active opposition among Council members. In practice, this means that resolutions and decisions are often the result of lengthy negotiations and compromises, reflecting an effort to reach common ground acceptable to all members, including permanent members with veto rights.
-La technique du consensus est bénéfique dans le sens où elle permet d'éviter l'utilisation du veto et favorise une approche plus collaborative et moins conflictuelle des problèmes internationaux. Cela peut conduire à des résolutions qui, bien que parfois moins ambitieuses, sont plus susceptibles d'être acceptées et mises en œuvre par tous les membres du Conseil. Cependant, la recherche du consensus a aussi ses inconvénients. Les critiques soulignent que cela peut mener à des résolutions diluées, où les termes les plus forts ou les actions les plus décisives sont édulcorés pour gagner l'approbation de tous. De plus, le processus de négociation pour atteindre le consensus peut être long et complexe, parfois retardant l'action du Conseil face à des crises urgentes.
+The consensus technique is beneficial in that it avoids the use of the veto and encourages a more collaborative and less confrontational approach to international problems. This can lead to resolutions which, while sometimes less ambitious, are more likely to be accepted and implemented by all Council members. However, consensus-building also has its drawbacks. Critics point out that it can lead to watered-down resolutions, where the strongest terms or most decisive actions are watered down to win everyone's approval. In addition, the negotiation process to reach consensus can be long and complex, sometimes delaying Council action on urgent crises.
-=== Secrétariat Général ===
+=== General Secretariat ===
-Le Secrétariat Général des Nations Unies joue un rôle crucial dans la coordination et la gestion des activités de l'organisation. À la tête de ce Secrétariat se trouve le Secrétaire général, un poste de haute importance qui combine des responsabilités politiques et administratives. Depuis le 1er janvier 2017, le poste est occupé par António Guterres, un diplomate et homme politique portugais. Il a succédé à Ban Ki-moon, dont le mandat s'est terminé en décembre 2016. Le processus de sélection du Secrétaire général implique les deux principaux organes des Nations Unies : le Conseil de Sécurité et l'Assemblée générale. Le candidat est d'abord recommandé par le Conseil de Sécurité, après quoi l'Assemblée générale procède à l'élection. Cette procédure vise à assurer que le choix du Secrétaire général soit le reflet d'un consensus au sein de la communauté internationale.
+The General Secretariat of the United Nations plays a crucial role in coordinating and managing the organisation's activities. At the head of this Secretariat is the Secretary-General, a position of high importance that combines political and administrative responsibilities. Since 1 January 2017, the post has been held by António Guterres, a Portuguese diplomat and politician. He succeeded Ban Ki-moon, whose term ended in December 2016. The selection process for the Secretary-General involves the two principal organs of the United Nations: the Security Council and the General Assembly. The candidate is first recommended by the Security Council, after which the General Assembly proceeds with the election. This procedure is designed to ensure that the choice of Secretary-General reflects a consensus within the international community.
-Dans son rôle, le Secrétaire général a des fonctions principalement politiques. Il est chargé de la médiation dans les conflits internationaux, s'efforce de promouvoir la paix et la sécurité mondiales, et mobilise les efforts des États membres et des organes de l'ONU pour aborder des enjeux globaux tels que le développement durable, les droits de l'homme, le changement climatique et l'assistance humanitaire. En tant que porte-parole et figure représentative de l'ONU, le Secrétaire général joue également un rôle important dans la sensibilisation et l'influence de l'opinion publique mondiale sur des questions cruciales. Le Secrétariat, l'appareil administratif de l'ONU, assiste le Secrétaire général dans l'exécution de ses tâches. Ce Secrétariat est composé de personnel international qui travaille dans divers domaines, de la gestion administrative à la mise en œuvre des programmes et politiques de l'ONU. Leurs efforts sont essentiels pour le fonctionnement quotidien de l'organisation et pour soutenir le Secrétaire général dans ses initiatives diplomatiques et ses missions de médiation.
+The Secretary-General's role is primarily political. He mediates in international conflicts, works to promote global peace and security, and mobilises the efforts of Member States and UN bodies to address global issues such as sustainable development, human rights, climate change and humanitarian assistance. As the UN's spokesperson and representative figure, the Secretary-General also plays an important role in raising awareness and influencing world public opinion on crucial issues. The Secretariat, the administrative arm of the UN, assists the Secretary-General in carrying out his duties. The Secretariat is made up of international staff working in a variety of areas, from administrative management to the implementation of UN programmes and policies. Their efforts are essential to the day-to-day running of the organisation and to supporting the Secretary-General in his diplomatic initiatives and mediation missions.
-=== Cour Internationale de Justice ===
+=== International Court of Justice ===
-La Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ), souvent désignée comme le principal organe judiciaire des Nations Unies, joue un rôle essentiel dans le système international en facilitant le règlement pacifique des différends entre États et en contribuant à l'élaboration du droit international. La CIJ est composée de 15 juges, qui sont élus conjointement par l'Assemblée générale et le Conseil de Sécurité des Nations Unies.
+The International Court of Justice (ICJ), often referred to as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, plays an essential role in the international system by facilitating the peaceful settlement of disputes between States and contributing to the development of international law. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges, who are elected jointly by the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
-Les juges de la CIJ sont choisis parmi des personnes possédant une haute compétence morale et qui répondent aux qualifications requises dans leurs pays respectifs pour occuper les plus hautes fonctions judiciaires, ou qui sont des jurisconsultes possédant une compétence reconnue en droit international. Cette exigence garantit que les juges de la CIJ sont des experts en droit international, capables de statuer sur des questions juridiques complexes. L'un des objectifs principaux de la CIJ est de régler, conformément au droit international, les différends qui lui sont soumis par les États. Ces différends peuvent concerner une variété de questions, allant des frontières territoriales et maritimes aux droits de passage, en passant par les conflits diplomatiques et autres contentieux internationaux. En rendant des jugements et des avis consultatifs, la CIJ contribue au développement du droit international et à son application cohérente.
+ICJ judges are chosen from among persons of high moral character who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or who are jurisconsults of recognised competence in international law. This requirement ensures that ICJ judges are experts in international law, capable of ruling on complex legal issues. One of the ICJ's main objectives is to settle, in accordance with international law, disputes submitted to it by States. These disputes may concern a variety of issues, ranging from territorial and maritime boundaries to rights of passage, diplomatic disputes and other international disputes. By issuing judgments and advisory opinions, the ICJ contributes to the development of international law and its consistent application.
-En plus de statuer sur des affaires contentieuses entre États, la CIJ a également la capacité de fournir des avis consultatifs sur des questions juridiques à la demande d'autres organes ou agences autorisés des Nations Unies. Ces avis consultatifs, bien qu'ils ne soient pas contraignants, sont respectés et considérés comme ayant une grande autorité et influence dans le développement du droit international. La Cour Internationale de Justice est située à La Haye, aux Pays-Bas, ce qui lui vaut parfois le surnom de "Cour de La Haye". Son rôle et ses décisions ont une importance capitale dans le maintien de l'ordre juridique international et dans la promotion de la résolution pacifique des conflits entre nations, conformément aux principes de justice et de droit international.
+In addition to deciding contentious cases between States, the ICJ also has the capacity to provide advisory opinions on legal questions at the request of other authorised organs or agencies of the United Nations. These advisory opinions, although not binding, are respected and considered to have great authority and influence in the development of international law. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, the Netherlands, which sometimes earns it the nickname "The Hague Court". Its role and decisions are of paramount importance in maintaining the international legal order and promoting the peaceful resolution of disputes between nations in accordance with the principles of justice and international law.
-La Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ), établie en 1945 en tant qu'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies et successeur de la Cour permanente de justice internationale de la Société des Nations, joue un rôle essentiel dans le règlement pacifique des différends entre les États. Située à La Haye aux Pays-Bas, la CIJ reflète l'évolution et la consolidation du droit international dans le monde post-Seconde Guerre mondiale. La compétence de la CIJ est dédiée exclusivement aux affaires soumises par les États, et non par des individus, des organisations ou des entreprises. Cette restriction souligne l'importance de la souveraineté des États dans le système juridique international. Un exemple notable de l'intervention de la CIJ est l'affaire du Nicaragua contre les États-Unis en 1984, où le Nicaragua a accusé les États-Unis de violations du droit international en raison de leur soutien aux Contras dans la guerre civile nicaraguayenne. La décision de la CIJ en faveur du Nicaragua a été un moment marquant, bien que les États-Unis aient choisi de ne pas se conformer au jugement. Le principe de consentement des États est fondamental pour la CIJ. Aucun État ne peut être forcé de soumettre un différend à la Cour sans son accord. Cela implique que les États doivent volontairement accepter la juridiction de la CIJ pour que celle-ci puisse entendre leur cas. Ce principe a été mis en évidence dans des cas comme celui de la Mer Égée (Grèce c. Turquie), où la compétence de la Cour a été contestée.
+The International Court of Justice (ICJ), established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations, plays an essential role in the peaceful settlement of disputes between states. Based in The Hague in the Netherlands, the ICJ reflects the evolution and consolidation of international law in the post-Second World War world. The ICJ's jurisdiction is dedicated exclusively to cases brought by states, not by individuals, organisations or companies. This restriction underlines the importance of state sovereignty in the international legal system. A notable example of the ICJ's intervention is the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, where Nicaragua accused the United States of violations of international law for its support of the Contras in the Nicaraguan civil war. The ICJ ruling in favour of Nicaragua was a landmark moment, although the US chose not to comply with the judgement. The principle of state consent is fundamental to the ICJ. No state can be forced to submit a dispute to the Court without its consent. This means that states must voluntarily accept the jurisdiction of the ICJ in order for it to hear their case. This principle has been highlighted in cases such as the Aegean Sea case (Greece v Turkey), where the Court's jurisdiction was challenged.
-En outre, bien que les États puissent reconnaître la juridiction obligatoire de la CIJ, ils ont souvent le choix de limiter ou de conditionner cette reconnaissance. La déclaration de juridiction obligatoire permet à la CIJ d'entendre des affaires sans nécessiter un consentement spécifique pour chaque cas, mais la pratique montre que les États sont parfois réticents à s'engager de manière inconditionnelle. Cette dynamique reflète la tension entre la nécessité d'un ordre juridique international et le désir des États de maintenir une certaine autonomie. La CIJ a donc joué et continue de jouer un rôle crucial dans la promotion du droit international et la résolution pacifique des conflits. Elle représente une avancée significative dans la manière dont les affaires internationales sont gérées, en privilégiant le droit et la négociation sur le conflit et la force. Ses décisions, bien que parfois contestées ou ignorées, ont contribué au développement d'un cadre juridique international plus robuste et ont souvent servi de référence pour la résolution de conflits internationaux ultérieurs.
+In addition, although states may recognise the ICJ's compulsory jurisdiction, they often have the option of limiting or conditioning this recognition. The declaration of compulsory jurisdiction allows the ICJ to hear cases without requiring specific consent for each case, but practice shows that states are sometimes reluctant to make an unconditional commitment. This dynamic reflects the tension between the need for an international legal order and the desire of states to maintain a degree of autonomy. The ICJ has therefore played, and continues to play, a crucial role in the promotion of international law and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. It represents a significant advance in the way international affairs are managed, by favouring law and negotiation over conflict and force. Its decisions, although sometimes contested or ignored, have contributed to the development of a more robust international legal framework and have often served as a benchmark for the resolution of subsequent international conflicts.
-La Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ), en tant qu'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies, détient une compétence qui est définie par plusieurs critères clés. Sa capacité à entendre et trancher des affaires dépend avant tout de la reconnaissance de sa compétence par les États concernés. Cette reconnaissance peut se manifester de différentes manières, chacune reflétant l'engagement des États envers le droit international et le règlement pacifique des conflits. Premièrement, un État peut reconnaître la compétence de la CIJ de manière générale ou spécifique. La reconnaissance générale est souvent établie par une déclaration où l'État accepte la compétence de la CIJ comme obligatoire pour certains types de litiges. Cette forme de reconnaissance permet à la CIJ d'entendre des affaires sans que les États concernés aient à donner leur consentement spécifique pour chaque cas. Cependant, les États peuvent conditionner leur reconnaissance ou exclure certains types de litiges de la compétence de la CIJ. Deuxièmement, la compétence de la CIJ s'étend aux litiges concernant l'interprétation ou l'application d'un traité. Dans de nombreux traités internationaux, les parties incluent des clauses qui renvoient à la CIJ pour la résolution des différends relatifs à ces traités. Ces clauses traité spécifiques offrent un mécanisme clair pour la gestion des désaccords sur l'interprétation ou l'application du traité, contribuant ainsi à la stabilité et à la prévisibilité du droit international. Enfin, la CIJ est compétente pour entendre des affaires lorsque deux États en conflit décident, de leur propre initiative, de soumettre leur différend à la Cour. Cette forme de saisine volontaire est un exemple de l'utilisation du droit international pour résoudre pacifiquement des conflits. Elle montre la volonté des États de se conformer à des principes juridiques plutôt que de recourir à la force ou à la contrainte. Des affaires historiques telles que le différend frontalier entre le Burkina Faso et le Mali (1986) illustrent comment des États ont choisi de régler pacifiquement leurs différends par le biais de la CIJ. Ainsi, la compétence de la CIJ, bien que conditionnée par la volonté des États, est un pilier essentiel du système juridique international, facilitant le règlement des conflits entre États dans un cadre légal et structuré. Elle symbolise l'engagement des nations du monde envers le principe de justice internationale et la résolution pacifique des désaccords.
+The International Court of Justice (ICJ), as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has a jurisdiction that is defined by several key criteria. Its ability to hear and decide cases depends first and foremost on the recognition of its jurisdiction by the States concerned. This recognition can manifest itself in different ways, each reflecting the commitment of States to international law and the peaceful settlement of disputes. Firstly, a State may recognise the jurisdiction of the ICJ either generally or specifically. General recognition is often established by a declaration in which the state accepts the ICJ's jurisdiction as binding for certain types of dispute. This form of recognition allows the ICJ to hear cases without the States concerned having to give their specific consent for each case. However, States may condition their recognition or exclude certain types of dispute from the jurisdiction of the ICJ. Secondly, the ICJ's jurisdiction extends to disputes concerning the interpretation or application of a treaty. In many international treaties, the parties include clauses that refer to the ICJ for the resolution of disputes relating to those treaties. These specific treaty clauses provide a clear mechanism for managing disagreements on the interpretation or application of the treaty, thus contributing to the stability and predictability of international law. Finally, the ICJ is competent to hear cases when two States in conflict decide, on their own initiative, to submit their dispute to the Court. This form of voluntary referral is an example of the use of international law to resolve conflicts peacefully. It demonstrates the willingness of states to abide by legal principles rather than resort to force or coercion. Historic cases such as the border dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali (1986) illustrate how states have chosen to resolve their disputes peacefully through the ICJ. Thus, the jurisdiction of the ICJ, although conditioned by the will of States, is an essential pillar of the international legal system, facilitating the settlement of disputes between States within a legal and structured framework. It symbolises the commitment of the nations of the world to the principle of international justice and the peaceful resolution of disagreements.
-L'article 93 de la Charte des Nations Unies offre une possibilité intéressante et importante en ce qui concerne l'accès à la Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ). Selon cet article, même les États qui ne sont pas membres des Nations Unies ont la possibilité de participer à la CIJ, ce qui élargit la portée et l'influence de la Cour au-delà des frontières de l'ONU. L'article 93 stipule que tous les membres des Nations Unies sont de facto parties au Statut de la Cour Internationale de Justice. Cela signifie que, en devenant membre de l'ONU, un État accepte également la compétence et l'autorité de la CIJ. Cependant, l'article 93 va plus loin en prévoyant que les États non membres de l'ONU peuvent aussi devenir parties au Statut de la Cour, sous certaines conditions. Pour ce faire, ces États doivent d'abord être invités par l'Assemblée générale sur recommandation du Conseil de sécurité à devenir parties au Statut de la CIJ. Ils doivent ensuite accepter les termes et conditions fixés par l'Assemblée générale, qui peuvent inclure des obligations financières ainsi que l'acceptation de la compétence et des décisions de la CIJ. Cette disposition est significative car elle reconnaît la réalité d'un monde où certains territoires et entités politiques ne sont pas membres de l'ONU, tout en soulignant l'importance du droit international et de la résolution judiciaire des conflits au niveau mondial. En permettant à des États non membres de l'ONU d'adhérer à la CIJ, l'article 93 contribue à l'objectif plus large des Nations Unies de promouvoir la paix, la justice et la coopération internationale. Historiquement, cette disposition a permis à des entités qui ne sont pas membres de l'ONU, pour diverses raisons, de rechercher la résolution judiciaire de leurs différends internationaux dans un cadre légal et structuré. Cela renforce le rôle de la CIJ en tant qu'organe judiciaire central dans le système international et souligne l'universalité des principes du droit international.
+Article 93 of the United Nations Charter offers an interesting and important possibility for access to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Under this article, even states that are not members of the United Nations have the opportunity to participate in the ICJ, thereby extending the Court's reach and influence beyond the borders of the UN. Article 93 stipulates that all members of the United Nations are de facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. This means that, by becoming a member of the UN, a State also accepts the jurisdiction and authority of the ICJ. However, Article 93 goes further by providing that States which are not members of the UN may also become parties to the Statute of the Court, subject to certain conditions. To do so, these States must first be invited by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council to become parties to the ICJ Statute. They must then accept the terms and conditions set by the General Assembly, which may include financial obligations as well as acceptance of the jurisdiction and decisions of the ICJ. This provision is significant because it recognises the reality of a world in which some territories and political entities are not members of the UN, while underlining the importance of international law and the judicial resolution of conflicts at a global level. By allowing non-UN member states to join the ICJ, Article 93 contributes to the UN's broader objective of promoting peace, justice and international cooperation. Historically, this provision has enabled entities that are not members of the UN, for a variety of reasons, to seek judicial resolution of their international disputes within a legal and structured framework. This reinforces the role of the ICJ as a central judicial body in the international system and underlines the universality of the principles of international law.
-L'exemple de la Suisse en 1948 illustre parfaitement l'application de l'article 93 de la Charte des Nations Unies. Avant de devenir membre des Nations Unies en 2002, la Suisse a démontré son engagement envers le droit international et le système juridique mondial en devenant partie au Statut de la Cour Internationale de Justice (CIJ) en 1948. Bien que la Suisse ait maintenu une politique de neutralité stricte et choisi de rester en dehors des Nations Unies pendant une grande partie du 20ème siècle, sa décision de rejoindre la CIJ reflète sa reconnaissance de l'importance de la justice internationale et du règlement pacifique des différends. En adhérant au Statut de la CIJ, la Suisse a accepté la compétence de la Cour pour régler les litiges internationaux, marquant ainsi son soutien aux principes du droit international, même en l'absence d'adhésion complète à l'ONU. Cette action a permis à la Suisse de participer activement au système juridique international et de contribuer à la promotion de la paix et de la stabilité mondiales. Elle a aussi démontré que l'engagement envers le droit international pouvait transcender les statuts d'adhésion aux Nations Unies, soulignant l'importance de la CIJ en tant qu'institution accessible à tous les États soucieux de justice et de résolution légale des conflits. La situation de la Suisse avant 2002 est donc un exemple notable de la manière dont les États non membres de l'ONU peuvent interagir avec et participer aux institutions internationales, contribuant ainsi au dialogue et à la coopération internationale dans le cadre du droit international.
+The example of Switzerland in 1948 is a perfect illustration of the application of Article 93 of the UN Charter. Before becoming a member of the United Nations in 2002, Switzerland demonstrated its commitment to international law and the global legal system by becoming a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1948. Although Switzerland maintained a policy of strict neutrality and chose to remain outside the United Nations for much of the 20th century, its decision to join the ICJ reflects its recognition of the importance of international justice and the peaceful settlement of disputes. By acceding to the ICJ Statute, Switzerland accepted the Court's jurisdiction to settle international disputes, thereby demonstrating its support for the principles of international law, even in the absence of full UN membership. This action enabled Switzerland to participate actively in the international legal system and to contribute to the promotion of world peace and stability. It also demonstrated that commitment to international law could transcend UN membership statutes, underlining the importance of the ICJ as an institution accessible to all states concerned with justice and the legal resolution of disputes. Switzerland's situation prior to 2002 is therefore a notable example of how non-UN member states can interact with and participate in international institutions, thereby contributing to international dialogue and cooperation within the framework of international law.
-= Les institutions spécialisées =
+= Specialised institutions =
-Dans le sillage de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, un réseau d'organisations spécialisées a été créé pour s'attaquer à divers aspects de la paix et du développement mondial. Chacune de ces entités joue un rôle spécifique, contribuant à un aspect de la coopération internationale et au bien-être global.
+In the wake of the United Nations, a network of specialised organisations has been created to tackle various aspects of peace and global development. Each of these entities plays a specific role, contributing to an aspect of international cooperation and global well-being.
-Parmi ces organisations, l'Organisation Mondiale de la Propriété Intellectuelle (OMPI), fondée en 1967, se distingue par son travail dans la protection et la promotion de la propriété intellectuelle. L'OMPI encourage l'innovation et la créativité, éléments essentiels au progrès économique et culturel. Sa création a été une étape importante dans la reconnaissance de l'importance de la propriété intellectuelle dans les relations internationales. L'UNESCO, établie en 1945, joue un rôle primordial dans la promotion de l'éducation, de la science et de la culture. Par ses programmes éducatifs, la préservation du patrimoine mondial et la défense de la liberté de la presse, l'UNESCO vise à renforcer la paix et la sécurité en favorisant la collaboration entre les nations. L'Organisation Mondiale de la Santé, créée en 1948, est une autre pierre angulaire de ce réseau. Elle coordonne les efforts internationaux dans le domaine de la santé publique, travaillant à améliorer les conditions de santé et à répondre aux crises sanitaires mondiales. Son rôle a été crucial dans des initiatives telles que l'éradication de la variole et la réponse aux pandémies. Enfin, l'Organisation Internationale du Travail, fondée en 1919, bien avant la création de l'ONU, a été un pionnier dans la promotion des droits des travailleurs. Elle a joué un rôle clé dans l'élaboration des politiques internationales du travail, en établissant des normes et des conventions qui ont façonné les conditions de travail dans le monde entier.
+Among these organisations, the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), founded in 1967, stands out for its work in protecting and promoting intellectual property. WIPO encourages innovation and creativity, which are essential to economic and cultural progress. Its creation was an important step in recognising the importance of intellectual property in international relations. UNESCO, established in 1945, plays a key role in promoting education, science and culture. Through its educational programmes, the preservation of world heritage and the defence of press freedom, UNESCO aims to strengthen peace and security by encouraging collaboration between nations. The World Health Organisation, created in 1948, is another cornerstone of this network. It coordinates international efforts in the field of public health, working to improve health conditions and respond to global health crises. Its role has been crucial in initiatives such as the eradication of smallpox and the response to pandemics. Finally, the International Labour Organisation, founded in 1919, well before the creation of the UN, has been a pioneer in promoting workers' rights. It has played a key role in shaping international labour policies, establishing standards and conventions that have shaped working conditions around the world.
-La Suisse, connue pour sa neutralité politique et son engagement envers la coopération internationale, a été impliquée dans ces organisations bien avant son adhésion à l'ONU en 2002. Dès 1919, elle était membre de l'OIT, montrant son soutien précoce aux droits sociaux et aux normes du travail. Son engagement continu dans l'OMPI, l'UNESCO, et l'OMS avant de rejoindre l'ONU témoigne de sa contribution significative aux efforts mondiaux dans les domaines de la propriété intellectuelle, de l'éducation, de la culture, et de la santé publique.
+Switzerland, known for its political neutrality and commitment to international cooperation, was involved in these organisations long before it joined the UN in 2002. As early as 1919, it was a member of the ILO, demonstrating its early support for social rights and labour standards. Its continued involvement in WIPO, UNESCO and WHO before joining the UN is testimony to its significant contribution to global efforts in the fields of intellectual property, education, culture and public health.
-Ces organisations, avec le soutien d'États comme la Suisse, illustrent la façon dont la communauté internationale s'efforce de travailler ensemble pour promouvoir la paix, le développement et le bien-être humain à travers une variété de domaines spécialisés. Elles constituent un élément crucial de l'architecture de la coopération internationale, chacune apportant sa contribution unique à l'objectif global de construire un monde plus juste et pacifique.
+These organisations, with the support of states like Switzerland, illustrate how the international community strives to work together to promote peace, development and human well-being across a variety of specialised fields. They are a crucial part of the architecture of international cooperation, each making its own unique contribution to the overall goal of building a more just and peaceful world.
 = Annexes =
 *Université de Genève. “International Organizations Management.” Coursera, https://www.coursera.org/learn/international-organizations-management.
-= Références =
+= References =
 <references />
 [[Category:droit]]
 [[Category:Victor Monnier]]

« The universal organizations » : différence entre les versions