The origins of fundamental rights

Based on a course by Victor Monnier

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Introduction to law

Introduction to the Law : Key Concepts and Definitions ● The State: Functions, Structures and Political Regimes ● The different branches of law ● The sources of law ● The great formative traditions of law ● The elements of the legal relationship ● The application of law ● The implementation of a law ● The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century ● Switzerland's domestic legal framework ● Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality ● The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century ● The universal organizations ● European organisations and their relations with Switzerland ● Categories and generations of fundamental rights ● The origins of fundamental rights ● Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century ● Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century

Fundamental rights, often referred to as human rights, are essential legal principles designed to protect individual dignity and freedom. Rooted in diverse historical and philosophical traditions, these rights are now universally recognised and respected throughout the world.

The first traces of fundamental rights date back to ancient civilisations and religious texts, where the concepts of justice and fairness were already present. For example, the laws of the Old Testament, Roman law and the philosophical teachings of ancient Greece offered primitive reflections on the rights and duties of individuals. In the Middle Ages, these concepts continued to develop, particularly in Europe. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215 in England, is an early example of a legal document granting certain rights, such as the right to a fair trial and protection from royal arbitrariness, although these rights were limited to a section of society. The Enlightenment was a crucial period in the development of fundamental rights. Philosophers such as John Locke, who advocated the notion of natural and inalienable rights in his work "Two Treatises on Government" in 1689, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, with his idea of the social contract, laid the theoretical foundations for human rights. Their ideas inspired several historic declarations, including the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789. These documents were revolutionary, formally recognising rights such as freedom and equality. The twentieth century saw a major advance in the international recognition of fundamental rights. The horrors of the Second World War led to a global awareness of the need to protect these rights. The United Nations, founded in 1945, played a key role in this development. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, was a milestone, establishing a set of fundamental rights recognised worldwide.

Over the years, many countries have incorporated these principles into their national constitutions and laws. International treaties such as the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, have strengthened the protection and promotion of these rights.

The religious origins

In ancient times, the notion of individual rights as we understand it today did not really exist, and the individual was often subject to strict rules and standards imposed by the state or society.

In Sparta, for example, life was strictly controlled by the state. Celibacy was forbidden because Spartan society emphasised military strength and reproduction in order to maintain a powerful army. Spartan citizens were expected to contribute to society primarily through procreation and military service, thus limiting their personal autonomy. In ancient Rome, laws regulated aspects of daily life that would be considered private today. For example, the consumption of pure wine was restricted. These rules reflected the moral and social concerns of the time, when moderation and self-control were valued. In Athens, the restrictions imposed on women also illustrated the absence of individual rights as we know them. Athenian women were largely confined to the domestic sphere and had few political or legal rights. The limitation on the number of dresses a woman could take out of town is an example of the many restrictions on women's autonomy and freedom in that society.

These examples show that in ancient times, individual autonomy was often subordinated to the perceived needs of society or the state. Rights to mental and physical integrity, as we understand them in the modern context of human rights, were not recognised. Individuals were largely seen as members of a collective, with obligations and duties towards it, rather than as entities with inalienable rights. This perspective on the individual and power evolved considerably over the centuries, eventually leading to the recognition of fundamental rights as we know them today.

In ancient societies, particularly in Athens, freedom was often conceptualised as the ability to participate in public life and in the management of the state. This participation was seen as a privilege and a responsibility of citizens, but it was limited to a fraction of the population - generally free men who owned land. Women, slaves and foreigners were excluded from this sphere of political participation. In this context, there was no recognised sphere of individual freedom in the modern sense. Rights and freedoms were defined and limited by status in society and membership of the political community. Privacy and individual rights were not widely recognised or valued concepts.

The emergence of Christianity, on the other hand, brought a new dimension to the concept of the individual and freedom. Christianity introduced the idea of the fundamental equality of all human beings before God, a revolutionary idea at the time. This perspective laid the foundations for greater recognition of the dignity and intrinsic value of each individual, regardless of his or her social status or role in the political community. Over time, Christian teachings on love of neighbour, compassion and the equality of all before God helped to erode the rigid social and legal structures of antiquity. These ideas laid the foundations for a more modern understanding of freedom, where the value of the individual is not only dependent on his or her ability to participate in public life, but is also rooted in his or her own dignity and rights as a human being. However, it is important to note that the transformation of notions of freedom and individual rights did not happen overnight with the advent of Christianity. It was a gradual process, influenced by many other historical, philosophical and cultural factors over the centuries.

Christian teaching, with its deep roots in biblical texts and traditions, introduced revolutionary ideas about human nature and dignity that have profoundly influenced Western thought. At the heart of this vision is the belief that every human being is created in the image of God, an idea that originated in the Hebrew scriptures and was adopted and developed by early Christian thinkers. This notion, by affirming that all men are created in the image of God, introduced a concept of fundamental equality and the inherent dignity of each person. This idea was radically different from the social hierarchies and power structures that prevailed in ancient societies. For example, in Roman society, dominated by strict distinctions between citizens, non-citizens, slaves and freedmen, Christian doctrine offered a different perspective, affirming the equal worth of all individuals, regardless of their social status. Moreover, the belief in the immortality of the soul, a central concept in Christianity, reinforced this idea of the intrinsic and eternal dignity of the human being. This perspective encouraged a vision of human life as having meaning beyond the material and temporal. Christian thinkers such as Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) and Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-1274) explored these ideas, emphasising the importance of the spiritual life and the eternal value of the human soul.

The impact of these teachings on the Western conception of freedom and human rights was profound and lasting. Whereas ancient societies focused primarily on the collective and the place of the individual within the state, Christianity introduced a new dimension, that of individual value. This change was essential for the subsequent development of the ideas of human rights and respect for the individual. These concepts played a crucial role in shaping political and social thought in the West, influencing movements such as the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, which emphasised the importance of individual conscience, and the Enlightenment period, when philosophers such as John Locke developed theories on natural rights and government. In this way, the foundations laid by Christianity paved the way for a richer and more nuanced understanding of individual freedom and human rights.

The central message of Christianity, as taught by Jesus Christ, rests on the idea that earthly life is only a transitory stage in man's existence, destined for eternal life. This vision has profoundly influenced the way in which human dignity has been perceived and valued in Western culture and thought. According to this perspective, earthly life is seen as a preparation, a path towards an ultimate destination which is eternal life. This concept transcends the idea of an existence centred solely on material or temporal concerns. It places the emphasis on the spiritual and moral aspects of existence, stressing values such as compassion, love of neighbour and the pursuit of a virtuous life. This understanding of the human vocation to eternal life has led to a greater appreciation of the dignity of every person. In this worldview, the value of the individual lies not in his or her earthly achievements, social status or wealth, but in his or her essence as a being created in the image of God and destined for an eternal destiny. This dignity is inherent and inalienable, regardless of external circumstances.

The implications of this vision for the conception of rights and freedoms are considerable. It has served as the foundation for the idea that all human beings deserve respect and consideration, because each of them carries an inestimable value. This perspective has influenced various social and political movements over the centuries, particularly those seeking to promote justice, equality and protection for the most vulnerable. Historically, it also informed the development of Christian ethics and influenced thinkers such as St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas, who sought to integrate these ideas into a broader theological and philosophical framework. Later, in the modern era, this conception influenced the philosophers of the Enlightenment and the founding fathers of liberal democracy, who articulated principles of natural rights and individual sovereignty.

The second fundamental proposition of Christ's message, that all people are children of God, has had a profound and lasting impact on the understanding of human equality and brotherhood in Western thought. This idea, which emphasises the fundamental equality of all human beings before God, introduced a principle of equality radically different from the social hierarchies and status distinctions that prevailed in many ancient and medieval societies. The Christian teaching that every person is a child of God implies that all individuals share a common dignity and intrinsic worth. This perspective was revolutionary, particularly in a historical context where distinctions of class, race, gender and ethnicity were often deeply entrenched. By proclaiming the equality of all before God, Christianity challenged these divisions and promoted a sense of human unity and solidarity.

This idea of God's equal share of love for all his children has also influenced the concept of human rights. If all people are equal as children of God, then they all deserve fair treatment and respect for their fundamental rights. This thinking has been an important driving force behind social reform and justice movements throughout history. Historical figures such as Saint Francis of Assisi, who preached love and brotherhood towards all living beings, or reformers such as Martin Luther, who stressed the importance of faith and grace being accessible to all, embodied and disseminated these ideas. Later, in the context of the Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although they did not always refer directly to these Christian teachings, developed political and social ideas that resonated with the principle of the fundamental equality of all human beings.

The idea that each individual enjoys a sphere of individual autonomy to fulfil his or her own destiny is part of a worldview in which the spiritual and personal vocation is paramount. This view, influenced by Christianity, emphasises that social, political and economic structures are means to serve man in his spiritual quest and not ends in themselves. This approach marks a significant contrast with earlier perspectives, where the individual was often seen as subordinate to the needs of the state or society. According to this vision, the state and other social institutions have a duty to respect and protect individual autonomy. This implies recognition of the right to freedom of conscience, thought and expression, as well as an appreciation of privacy and individual freedom. The idea that the state should serve the individual, rather than the other way round, has been an important development in political and social thought, profoundly influencing modern theories of human rights and democratic governance. This concept found particular resonance during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, when philosophers began to question traditional power structures and promote the idea of natural rights inherent in every person. Thinkers such as John Locke, who defended the right to life, liberty and property, and Immanuel Kant, with his categorical imperative emphasising respect for each individual as an end in itself, helped to shape this perspective.

In practice, this philosophy influenced the drafting of fundamental documents such as the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen during the French Revolution. These documents put forward the idea that governments are established to protect individual rights and that their legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed. Thus, the idea that every human being has a sphere of individual autonomy in which to realise his or her destiny has been fundamental to the evolution of Western societies towards principles of personal freedom, respect for individual rights and democratic governance. These concepts continue to form the basis of contemporary liberal and democratic societies, emphasising the importance of the individual within the social and political order.

The impact of the Christian message on the development of Human Rights in the West is deeply linked to the work of sixteenth-century Spanish Catholic legal theologians, particularly in the context of the debates surrounding the Spanish conquest of America. These debates centred on crucial moral and legal questions concerning the treatment of the indigenous peoples of America by the Spanish conquerors.

One of the key players in this debate was Bartolomé de las Casas, a Dominican priest and later bishop, who became famous for his passionate defence of the rights of the indigenous peoples. Shocked by the brutality and exploitation suffered by the Amerindians, Las Casas opposed the theories and practices that justified their enslavement. He argued for recognition of their humanity and fundamental rights, arguing that, as human beings, they were children of God and deserved the same respect and dignity as Europeans. Another important figure in these debates was Francisco de Vitoria, a theologian and jurist, considered to be one of the founders of modern international law. Vitoria questioned the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest on the basis of principles of natural law. He argued that indigenous peoples possessed their own sovereign rights and that their territory could not justly be taken. His ideas laid the foundations for an argument in favour of the fundamental equality and rights of indigenous peoples.

These debates took place in a broader context of ethical and legal issues raised by the encounter between Europe and the Americas. Spanish theologians and jurists played a crucial role in the development of the first doctrines of human rights in the West, articulating arguments based on Christian principles that recognised the dignity and rights of indigenous peoples. This period was fundamental in the history of human rights, as it marked a turning point when ethical and legal principles began to be applied in a global context, transcending borders and cultures. The ideas and arguments developed by figures such as de las Casas and de Vitoria laid the foundations for what was to become international human rights law, emphasising the universal importance of human dignity and equality.

Portrait of Bartolomé de las Casas (anonymous, 16th century).

The affirmation of the first doctrinal elaboration of human rights in the West, attributed to Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas, marks a crucial turning point in the recognition of human rights. These two figures played a decisive role in challenging the ethical and legal foundations of the Spanish conquest of America in the 16th century, particularly with regard to the treatment of indigenous peoples.

Francisco de Vitoria, a Spanish theologian and jurist, is often regarded as the father of modern international law. Born in 1492, he developed theories that defended the rights of the indigenous peoples of America, questioning the legitimacy of their domination by the Spanish conquerors. He argued that the Indians had their own sovereign rights, in both the private and public spheres, and that these rights should be respected. Vitoria argued that indigenous peoples had the right to their own governance and possession of their lands, ideas that were revolutionary at the time. Bartolomé de las Casas, a Dominican priest born in 1474, became famous for his ardent defence of indigenous peoples. He denounced the atrocities committed by the Spanish conquistadors and argued for respect for the dignity and rights of the Indians. De las Casas argued that the Indians were human beings in their own right, endowed with reason and capable of faith, and that they should therefore be treated fairly and justly. By recognising the equal rights of indigenous peoples, Vitoria and Las Casas laid the foundations for a conception of human rights that transcends cultural and national boundaries. Their teachings implied that all human beings, regardless of their ethnic or geographical origin, possess inalienable rights that must be respected.

This period therefore marks the beginning of the conceptualisation of human rights in the Western context, with a particular emphasis on the equality and sovereignty of peoples. Although the ideas of Vitoria and Las Casas did not immediately lead to major political or social changes, they laid the intellectual and moral foundations that influenced the subsequent development of human rights theories and international law. Thus, the sixteenth century in Spain can be seen as a key moment in the evolution of thinking on human rights.

« Our religion is one, and can suit all the nations of the world; it welcomes them all into its bosom, and does not take away from any of them their freedom or their masters; it is especially far removed from wanting people to be made slaves on the pretext that they were born for it, as the Lord Bishop claims. May Your Majesty therefore deign, at the beginning of his reign, to express his contempt for this evil doctrine and to disavow its consequences. »

— Las Casas

This quotation from Bartolomé de las Casas perfectly illustrates his commitment to defending the rights and dignity of the indigenous peoples of America in the face of the Spanish conquest. In his plea, Las Casas emphasises several key points that reflect not only his religious convictions but also his profound humanism. Firstly, he affirms the universality of the Christian religion, emphasising that it is destined for all nations and welcomes all peoples without distinction. This vision of the universality and inclusiveness of Christianity is fundamental, as it rejects the idea that certain peoples could be intrinsically inferior or destined to be dominated. Secondly, Las Casas emphasises respect for the freedom and autonomy of peoples. He openly criticised the idea that conversion to Christianity or acceptance of Spanish rule should entail the loss of freedom or sovereignty for indigenous peoples. He considers that the Christian religion is not a tool of domination, but a means of spiritual elevation and mutual respect. Finally, he appealed directly to the royal authority, in this case the Spanish monarch, to take a stand against the doctrines that justified slavery and the oppression of indigenous peoples on religious or racial grounds. This action by Las Casas is an appeal to the moral and political responsibility of leaders, urging them to reject ideologies that perpetuate injustice and inequality. Las Casas' quote is a powerful testimony to the early days of colonisation in the Americas, when voices like his were raised in defence of the rights of indigenous peoples. His arguments and activism played a crucial role in the genesis of human rights thinking and in the development of the first formal critiques of conquest and colonisation.

He demonstrated that Indians were God's creatures and could not be slaves. He joined Vittoria's theses:

« Among the Infidels, who live in these remote Kingdoms, who have never heard of Christ, who have not received the faith, there are true Lords, Kings and Princes. Natural law and the law of nations grant them Sovereignty, dignity and royal pre-eminence... The same applies to the domination of private individuals over inferior property... »

— Las Casas

This quotation from Bartolomé de las Casas illustrates his argument against the slavery and oppression of indigenous peoples, affirming their intrinsic equality and sovereignty as creatures of God. He explicitly recognises the legitimacy and authority of the existing leaders and political structures of the indigenous peoples, even those who have not been exposed to Christianity. In his argument, Las Casas refutes the idea that indigenous peoples could be legitimately subjugated or dispossessed of their lands and sovereignty because of their lack of knowledge of Christianity. He points out that natural law and the law of nations (ius gentium, a key concept of international law in medieval and Renaissance thought) recognise and respect the sovereignty of non-Christian peoples.

In asserting that indigenous peoples had kings, princes and legitimate governance structures, Las Casas joined the theses of Francisco de Vitoria, another theologian and jurist who defended the notion of universal rights and sovereignty of peoples, regardless of their faith or knowledge of Christianity. Vitoria argued that non-Christian peoples possessed natural rights, including the right to property and political autonomy, which had to be respected by the colonial powers. This approach was revolutionary for its time, as it challenged the justifications usually put forward for the colonisation and domination of indigenous peoples. Las Casas and Vitoria, with their progressive ideas, helped to lay the foundations for modern international law and the recognition of universal human rights, regardless of race, culture or religion. In conclusion, the efforts of Las Casas and Vitoria to defend the rights of indigenous peoples marked an important stage in the history of human rights, highlighting the need to respect the dignity and sovereignty of all peoples.

The defence of these theses by figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria in the early sixteenth century represented a fundamental step in the development of a doctrine of human rights. Their arguments, centred on the idea that all human beings are equal as creatures of God, marked a decisive turning point in the understanding and recognition of fundamental rights. This doctrinal approach was revolutionary for its time, as it opposed the common practices of conquest, enslavement and colonisation based on notions of cultural, racial or religious superiority. By insisting on the fundamental equality of all human beings, regardless of their faith, ethnic origin or social status, Las Casas and Vitoria challenged the justifications for the oppression and exploitation of indigenous peoples.

This perspective was rooted in a Christian understanding of humanity, in which each person, as God's creation, possesses intrinsic dignity and inalienable rights. This vision helped to lay the ethical and philosophical foundations for future developments in human rights. Their teachings have had a considerable influence not only on international law, but also on the way in which Western societies have begun to consider issues of justice, equality and sovereignty. Although the immediate effects of their advocacy were limited in the context of their time, the principles they enunciated continued to inspire future generations and played a key role in the evolution of the concepts of human rights and respect for human dignity. Thus, the early sixteenth century marks an important period when theologians and jurists began to articulate a doctrinal approach to human rights, laying the foundations for a broader recognition of the equality and inherent worth of all human beings.

The political origins

The political origins of fundamental rights can be traced through a series of key historical events that have shaped global political thought and practice, each contributing a stone to the edifice of human rights.

The Magna Carta, signed in England in 1215, represents one of the first concrete examples of a legal limitation on royal power. Although primarily intended to protect the rights of the aristocracy against the arbitrary power of the king, it introduced fundamental principles such as the right to a fair trial, influencing future notions of legal rights and constitutional governance. In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation, initiated by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, challenged the centralised authority of the Catholic Church and promoted ideas of freedom of conscience and individual interpretation of the Scriptures. These ideas helped shape the modern concepts of individual rights and personal sovereignty. The end of the Wars of Religion in Europe and the signing of the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648 not only redrawn the political map of Europe, but also introduced key concepts such as state sovereignty and the principle of non-interference, which have implications for individual and collective rights. The impact of the American Revolution in 1776 was monumental, with the United States Declaration of Independence proclaiming principles such as fundamental equality and inalienable rights. These ideas were taken up and developed during the French Revolution, in particular with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, which explicitly set out rights such as liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. Finally, the Conference of Vienna in 1815, although often seen as a period of conservative restoration, laid the foundations of modern diplomacy and international law, playing a key role in the recognition and protection of fundamental rights on a global scale. These events, spanning several centuries, have made a significant contribution to the evolution of the notion of fundamental rights. They have shaped not only legal and political systems, but also the values and ideals that underpin modern societies, leading to the universal recognition of human rights and their protection as an essential component of justice and international governance.

Magna Carta.

King John of England signs Magna Carta.

In 13th-century England, a landmark event took place that profoundly shaped the course of legal and political history: the drafting and signing of Magna Carta, or "Magna Carta", on 12 June 1215. This historic document was the result of an intense conflict between King John of England and a group of his vassals, mainly disgruntled and rebellious barons. The Magna Carta represented a decisive turning point in limiting the arbitrary power of monarchs and laying the foundations of constitutional law.

The context at the time was one of growing discontent among the nobles, largely due to the high taxes imposed by King John and his failure in military campaigns, particularly in France. Faced with increasing resistance from the barons, the king was forced to negotiate, resulting in the creation of the Magna Carta. This document was revolutionary for several reasons. Firstly, it recognised and guaranteed a number of rights and privileges for the barons and, by extension, for other subjects of the kingdom. Although its main aim was to protect the interests of the aristocracy, the Magna Carta contained principles that evoke our modern conceptions of personal freedoms. These included the guarantee of a fair trial, protection against arbitrary detention and limitations on the king's fiscal powers. In addition, Magna Carta established the idea that even the king was subject to the law. This was a revolutionary notion at a time when monarchs were often considered to have absolute and divinely ordained power. The idea that the law applied equally to the sovereign laid the foundations for the rule of law and constitutional governance in Western societies. Although Magna Carta was repeatedly annulled, revised and reinstated in the years following its first promulgation, its influence has endured. It is often regarded as a precursor to modern constitutions and has significantly influenced the development of legal systems and human rights, not only in England but throughout the world.

These articles from Magna Carta illustrate the revolutionary scope and vision of this document in terms of rights and freedoms. Article XXXIX, in particular, establishes principles of justice that are fundamental to modern legal systems. The idea that no free man should be punished without the lawful judgment of his peers and according to the law of the land was revolutionary for its time. This article laid the foundations for what we know today as the right to a fair trial, a key element of the rule of law and a fundamental principle of human rights.

"No free man shall be arrested or imprisoned, or dispossessed of his property, or declared an outlaw, or exiled, or executed in any manner whatsoever, nor shall we act against him, nor send any person against him, without a lawful judgment of his peers and in accordance with the law of the land."

- Article XXXIX.

« No free man will be arrested or imprisoned, or dispossessed of his property, or declared an outlaw, or exiled, or executed in any way, and we will not act against him or send anyone against him, without the lawful judgment of his peers and in accordance with the law of the land. »

— Article XXXIX.

Article XLI focuses on economic freedom and the safety of merchants. It recognises the importance of safe and unhindered trade and travel for merchants, while setting out rules for conduct in times of war. This article reflects an early understanding of the importance of trade and economic mobility, concepts that are essential in our globalised economy.

« All merchants may freely and safely leave England, come to England, remain in England, and travel in England both by road and by ship, to buy and to sell, without any irregular tolls, according to ancient and just customs, except in time of war and if such merchants are from a country at war with us. If such merchants are found in our country at the beginning of a war, they shall be detained, without any damage to their persons or property, until we, or our Grand Justicier, are informed of the manner in which our merchants are treated in the country at war with us, and if ours are safe, the others shall be safe in our country. »

— Article XLI.

Together, these articles bear witness to the gradual evolution of notions of justice, personal freedom and economic rights. The Magna Carta, although primarily designed to protect the rights of the English aristocracy, laid the foundations for legal principles that would, centuries later, benefit all citizens. The document established standards for limiting arbitrary power and protecting individual rights, influencing the subsequent development of constitutional democracies and legal systems in the Western world. These principles, enunciated over eight centuries ago, continue to resonate in charters of rights and constitutions around the world, testifying to their timeless importance and enduring impact on the conception of human rights and equitable governance.

Conflicts between King and Parliament in England, which were particularly pronounced during certain periods of history, played a crucial role in the development of many texts and treaties guaranteeing fundamental rights. These confrontations have often been the driving force behind significant constitutional and legal changes, helping to shape the principles of democratic governance and human rights.

One of the most notable examples is the period of the English Civil War in the 17th century, which pitted the royalist forces of King Charles I against the Parliamentarians. The conflict culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell, marking a period of experimental republicanism. Although the Commonwealth was short-lived, ending with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, this period was significant for the development of political and constitutional thought. Another key moment was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw King James II of England dethroned and replaced by Mary II and her husband William of Orange. This relatively peaceful transition led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1689, a fundamental document that set clear limits on royal power and affirmed the rights of Parliament. In particular, it established the principle that the King could not rule without the consent of Parliament, and guaranteed rights such as freedom of speech in Parliament, limitations on taxation and the right to a fair trial.

These events, and other similar conflicts between monarchical power and Parliament, helped to shape a political tradition in which respect for fundamental rights and the limitation of governmental power are central. They laid the foundations for the later development of parliamentary democracy in England and influenced political thought in other parts of the world, most notably inspiring the founders of the United States when they drafted the American Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. These conflicts between King and Parliament in England were crucial to the emergence and consolidation of the principles of democratic governance and respect for fundamental rights, principles that continue to influence political and legal systems around the world.

The philosophical origins

John Locke, un philosophe anglais du XVIIe siècle, a eu une influence profonde sur la théorie politique moderne, en particulier en ce qui concerne les concepts de droits naturels et de gouvernement civil. Sa pensée, articulée principalement dans deux œuvres majeures, "Deux traités du gouvernement" (1690) et "Essai sur l'entendement humain" (1689), a posé les bases de la philosophie libérale et a eu un impact considérable sur le développement des idées démocratiques et constitutionnelles. Locke a proposé une vision du gouvernement fondée sur l'idée que l'autorité politique légitime dérive du consentement des gouvernés. Cette notion de consentement volontaire est un pilier de sa théorie politique et marque une rupture avec les conceptions antérieures du pouvoir monarchique divinement ordonné ou de la suprématie incontestée de l'État. Pour Locke, les individus sont naturellement libres et égaux, et tout gouvernement légitime doit être fondé sur l'accord et l'acceptation de ceux qu'il gouverne.

Selon Locke, l'état de nature, une condition hypothétique pré-gouvernementale, est caractérisé par la liberté et l'égalité, mais également par l'insécurité et les conflits potentiels. Pour remédier à cette situation, les individus concluent un contrat social, renonçant à certains de leurs droits naturels en échange de la protection et de l'ordre fournis par un gouvernement civil. Toutefois, ce transfert de droits n'est pas absolu. Si un gouvernement ne protège pas les droits naturels fondamentaux de la vie, de la liberté et de la propriété, et s'il ne respecte pas le principe du consentement, il devient illégitime et les citoyens ont le droit de le résister ou de le changer. Les idées de Locke sur le gouvernement par consentement, la souveraineté populaire et les droits naturels ont été extrêmement influentes. Elles ont inspiré de nombreux penseurs et leaders politiques, notamment lors de la rédaction de la Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis et de la Constitution américaine. Ses théories sur le contrat social et les droits naturels ont également influencé d'autres philosophes importants tels que Jean-Jacques Rousseau et Immanuel Kant, et ont joué un rôle clé dans l'évolution des démocraties libérales modernes.

La théorie politique de John Locke, centrée sur le concept du contrat social, constitue un élément fondamental de la pensée libérale et a eu une influence déterminante sur la compréhension des droits et du gouvernement civil. Selon Locke, les individus en état de nature jouissent de droits naturels, mais cet état est également marqué par l'incertitude et l'absence de garanties formelles pour la protection de ces droits. C'est cette situation qui pousse les hommes à établir une société politique par le biais d'un contrat social. Dans l'état de nature, tel que décrit par Locke, les hommes sont libres et égaux, et chacun possède des droits naturels inaliénables tels que la vie, la liberté et la propriété. Cependant, cet état manque d'une autorité centrale pour résoudre les conflits et garantir efficacement ces droits. Face à cette lacune, les individus choisissent volontairement de renoncer à une partie de leur liberté et de leurs droits naturels pour créer une société politique. Cette transition de l'état de nature à la société politique est réalisée par le contrat social, un accord mutuel pour former une communauté politique et établir un gouvernement.

Le gouvernement légitime, selon Locke, est donc le produit du consentement des individus libres et égaux. Son rôle principal est de protéger les droits naturels des individus, qui n'étaient pas suffisamment sécurisés dans l'état de nature. Si le gouvernement manque à cette tâche fondamentale, ou s'il agit de manière despotique, violant les droits qu'il est censé protéger, il perd sa légitimité. Dans un tel cas, les citoyens ont le droit de résister, de modifier ou de renverser ce gouvernement. Cette conception de Locke a eu un impact profond sur la philosophie politique moderne. Elle a influencé la formation de systèmes de gouvernement démocratiques où la souveraineté réside dans le peuple, et le gouvernement est perçu comme un serviteur des citoyens, chargé de protéger leurs droits et libertés. Les idées de Locke sur le contrat social et les droits naturels ont été particulièrement influentes lors de la fondation des États-Unis, où elles ont informé la rédaction de documents fondamentaux comme la Déclaration d'indépendance et la Constitution. La théorie de Locke sur le contrat social et le gouvernement civil marque une étape importante dans l'histoire des idées politiques, établissant les fondations de la gouvernance démocratique moderne et la reconnaissance des droits fondamentaux de l'homme.

La théorie du contrat social, telle qu'élaborée par John Locke et d'autres penseurs comme Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a eu une influence considérable sur l'émergence et la formulation des premières Déclarations des droits de l'homme. Cette théorie, qui repose sur l'idée que les sociétés politiques sont fondées sur un accord volontaire entre des individus libres et égaux, a posé les bases philosophiques et théoriques des principes de liberté et d'égalité qui sont au cœur des droits de l'homme. Ces idées, issues d'un amalgame d'origines religieuses, politiques et philosophiques, ont trouvé un écho particulier lors de moments clés de l'histoire tels que la Révolution américaine et la Révolution française. La Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis en 1776 et la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen en France en 1789 sont des exemples emblématiques de la manière dont la théorie du contrat social a influencé la pensée politique et juridique.

Dans ces documents, les concepts de liberté et d'égalité sont affirmés comme des droits naturels et inaliénables. La Déclaration d'indépendance américaine, par exemple, proclame que "tous les hommes sont créés égaux" et dotés de "certains droits inaliénables". De même, la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen affirme que les hommes naissent libres et égaux en droits. Ces déclarations marquent une rupture significative avec les conceptions antérieures de la hiérarchie sociale et du pouvoir politique, enracinées dans le droit divin des rois ou dans des structures de pouvoir inégalitaires. La fusion des idées religieuses, notamment l'accent mis par le christianisme sur la dignité égale de tous les êtres humains, avec les théories politiques et philosophiques du contrat social et des droits naturels, a contribué à façonner une nouvelle vision du monde. Dans cette vision, les droits individuels et la souveraineté populaire sont fondamentaux, et le gouvernement est conçu comme un instrument au service du peuple, plutôt que comme une autorité absolue. Ainsi, les origines des droits fondamentaux reflètent un riche héritage d'idées et de pratiques, mêlant des influences religieuses, politiques et philosophiques pour aboutir à des principes de liberté, d'égalité et de justice qui sont devenus des piliers des sociétés démocratiques modernes. Ces principes continuent d'inspirer et de guider les efforts en faveur des droits de l'homme et de la démocratie à travers le monde.

Annexes

• Magna Carta
  • texte en anglais, français, latin, espagnol, italien
• Le discours et l'événement. L'émergence des droits de l'homme et le christianisme dans l'histoire occidentale - Alfred Dufour