The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas

The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas

Cover of the book Santo Domingo or History of its Revolutions, 1791-1804.

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The goals of this course on the Haitian revolution are multiple; first, to bring the Haitian revolution out of oblivion maintained by historians through their Westernist vision of history. It is the most total revolution in history and the one that had an enormous impact both on the fate of Napoleonic France in the Americas and in general, but also in the independence struggles of Latin America and the Caribbean on the fate of the slave trade and slavery.

The Haitian revolution shows that there are structural causes to the great events with an explosive demography and external elements such as the French Revolution with its ideals of equality and freedom. This revolution changed the relationship between rulers and governed while individuals in positions of power were not equal to the events of which Napoleon and Toussaint Louverture were examples. Thus, Haiti's current status is due to its pariah status given by other nations and imposed after its independence in 1804.

The Haitian revolution that triumphed in 1804 is the nightmare of all slave owners, it is a terrible fear that will mark all the slave-owning Americas for decades. It is also the world upside down, the transformation of the most profitable slave colony in the West Indies into an independent black republic.

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The society of Santo Domingo in 1789

In 1789, the society of Santo Domingo (now known as Haiti) was a colony of France, and the island was divided into two parts: the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which occupied the western third of the island, and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, which occupied the eastern two-thirds. The French colony was the most profitable colony in the world at the time, due to its production of sugar, coffee, and other cash crops. The colony had a large population of enslaved Africans who worked on the plantations. The society was also divided by race and class, with a small white elite owning the majority of the land and wealth, while the majority of the population were enslaved people of African descent.

Populations

In 1789, the total population of the French colony of Saint-Domingue was around 500,000, of which approximately 88% were enslaved Africans. The majority of the enslaved population were brought to the colony from Africa as part of the transatlantic slave trade.

The enslaved population was divided between those born in the colony and those who were imported. The enslaved population born in the colony, known as Creoles, were considered to be more valuable as they were considered to be more acclimated to the conditions of the colony and less likely to rebel than the newly imported slaves.

African slaves represented 58% of the total population of the colony. The vast majority of enslaved Africans were women, who were considered to be more productive in the field than men. The female slaves were forced to work in the fields and also to breed to produce more slaves for the colony, which was a source of wealth for the French colony.

In the French colony of Saint-Domingue, most of the enslaved population worked on the sugar cane, coffee, and indigo plantations, which were the primary sources of wealth for the colony. The enslaved population was also used as domestic servants and in various trades in the cities and ports.

As a result of the forced labor, the enslaved population was composed of people from various African cultures, and through their interactions, they developed a common language, Creole, which was a mix of French and African languages. Similarly, the enslaved population also developed a syncretic religion, Voodoo, which was a mix of traditional African religious practices and elements of Catholicism, which was imposed on them by the French colonizers.

Voodoo became an important part of the enslaved population's culture and was used as a way to express resistance to their enslavement and to maintain their cultural heritage. It is still an important part of Haitian culture and is practiced by many people in Haiti and the diaspora today.

In 1789, the white population made up only about 7% of the total population, or around 40,000 people. Among this population, there were more men than women, as many women did not migrate to the colony.

The white population was divided into several groups. The minority of the population were planters, merchants and royal officials, who controlled the majority of the land and wealth. There were also soldiers and sailors among the white population.

Another group of white people were the so-called "little whites," who were poor men and women who worked in agriculture and handicrafts. These people were often of lower social standing than the wealthy plantation owners and merchants, and they often lived in poverty. They were also less likely to own slaves or have access to the wealth and privileges of the white elite.

The population of free people of color made up about 5% of the total population, or around 30,000 people. The majority of these people were mulattoes, people of mixed African and European descent, rather than black people.

Despite their free status, they were not equal to whites before the law and faced significant discrimination. They were not allowed to vote, and they did not have the same legal rights as whites. They were also restricted in terms of the types of jobs they could hold and the property they could own.

There were also significant differences among the free people of color. Some were freed slaves who were not much better off than slaves, while others were part of a kind of middle class, serving in the militia and the police. Some women were mistresses of white men and their descendants, while others became rich planters and merchants. Some among the men and among the descendants of the women who were the wives of white men, became rich planters, but also rich merchants, many of whom went to France to study. This group of free people of color represented a sort of intermediary group between the white elite and the enslaved population, with the ones near the white elite having more privileges and opportunities.

The population of Saint-Domingue was diverse and highly stratified. The free people of color, although they were free and had more rights and opportunities than enslaved people, they were still considered inferior to whites and faced significant discrimination. Despite some of them having economic wealth and culture, they were not able to fully escape the racial hierarchy that existed in the colony. The wealthy free people of color were able to move closer to the white elite, but they were still not able to fully join the white elite due to their racial background. The society of Santo Domingo in 1789 was heavily based on slavery and the racial hierarchy, with a small white elite controlling the majority of the land and wealth, while the majority of the population were enslaved people of African descent who worked on the profitable plantations, and a small group of free people of color, who represented a sort of intermediary group between the white elite and the enslaved population.

Regional differences

In 1789, the enslaved population made up about 88% of the total population. The majority of the enslaved population were concentrated in regions where the major cash crops were grown.

The "northern plain" was the region where sugar cane was grown. This was the most profitable crop in the colony and required a large workforce to plant, harvest, and process the sugar. Many plantations were located in this region and many enslaved people were forced to work in the sugar fields.

The southeast region was also known for growing cocoa and indigo. These crops were also important for the colony's economy and enslaved people were forced to work on these plantations as well.

In general, the population distribution was heavily influenced by the economic activities, and the enslaved population was disproportionately concentrated in regions where the major cash crops were grown, and where the labor was needed the most.

The high concentration of enslaved people in regions where the major cash crops were grown, such as the northern plain and the southeast, made these regions particularly explosive. The enslaved population was subjected to brutal conditions and treatment, and they were forced to work long hours with little rest. They were also separated from their families and culture, and were not allowed to practice their own religion or customs. These conditions led to a high level of discontent and resentment among the enslaved population, which in turn made these regions more susceptible to rebellion.

In addition, the high population density in these regions made it easier for enslaved people to organize and communicate with each other, which facilitated the possibility of rebellion. These regions would later become the most explosive regions during the Haitian revolution, where the enslaved population would rise up against their enslavers, ultimately leading to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti in 1804.

0ther Caribbean colonies, such as Jamaica and Barbados, also had a large enslaved population and similar conditions to those in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) which could have led to an explosive situation. However, these islands did not experience a revolution of slavery.

One reason for this difference is that the enslaved population in Saint-Domingue was more diverse, with people from many different African cultures and languages, which made it easier for them to organize and communicate with each other. In contrast, the enslaved population in Jamaica and Barbados was more homogeneous, which made it more difficult for them to organize and communicate with each other.

Another reason is that the French colony of Saint-Domingue was more profitable and had a larger enslaved population than the British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados. The French colony of Saint-Domingue was the most profitable colony in the world at the time, due to its production of sugar, coffee, and other cash crops, which made it more important for the French to keep the colony under control. The British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados had a lower enslaved population and produced less profitable crops, which made it less important for the British to keep the colony under control.

In addition to that, the French colony of Saint-Domingue had a more complex social system than the British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados, which included a free people of color population, who played a significant role in the revolution, and were also a source of frustration for the white elite, as they were not allowed to fully join the white elite, due to their racial background.

Lastly, the Haitian revolution was also influenced by the political and social changes happening in France, which lead to the French revolution, which had a significant impact on the colony, making it easier for the enslaved population to gain their freedom and independence.

The causes of the Revolution

The Haitian Revolution was caused by a variety of factors, including the massive influx of enslaved Africans, the exploitation of the colony by the French colonial government, and the Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality that were spreading throughout the world at the time. Additionally, the revolution was sparked by the rebellion of enslaved Africans and people of mixed race, who were tired of being treated as property and subjected to brutal conditions. The revolution was led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former enslaved person who became a skilled military leader and strategist. The revolution ultimately resulted in the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti from French colonial rule.

The high influx of enslaved Africans to Haiti in the late 18th century contributed to the revolution by increasing the population of enslaved people and exacerbating their conditions of oppression and suffering. The large number of enslaved Africans also created a demographic imbalance in the colony, with enslaved people outnumbering white colonists and people of mixed race. This led to increased tension and resentment towards the colonial government and the slave-holding class, ultimately fueling the rebellion and revolution that would lead to Haiti's independence.

The large population of free people of color in Haiti also played a significant role in the causes of the Haitian Revolution. Many of these individuals were educated and had access to the same Enlightenment ideals that were inspiring the revolution in France. They were also aware of the rights and privileges of French citizens, but were denied these rights in the colony. They felt the injustice of being treated as second-class citizens and were determined to fight for their rights and equality. Jean-Baptiste Belley, a free man of color, was elected as a deputy of Saint-Domingue to the National Assembly in Paris, he will be able to advocate for the rights of the colony and the abolition of slavery. Also, the participation of free people of color in the French troops during the American War of Independence exposed them to the ideas of freedom and equality, which they brought back with them to Haiti, further fueling the desire for revolution.

The French Revolution was a major external cause of the Haitian Revolution. The political and ideological upheaval in France had a significant impact on the colony of Saint-Domingue. The weakening of French authority in the colony as a result of the revolution created a power vacuum and created opportunities for enslaved people and free people of color to demand more rights and autonomy. The ideological impact of the French Revolution, with the declaration of the sovereignty of the people and the rights of man and citizen, also played a major role in the Haitian Revolution. These ideas, which were spreading throughout the world, inspired enslaved people and free people of color in Haiti to demand their own rights and freedom. They saw the opportunity to emulate the ideals of the French Revolution in their own colony and to fight for their own independence.

The impact of the French Revolution, both political and ideological, was a major catalyst for the Haitian Revolution and ultimately led to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti.

On the French side, there was initially little intention of changing the status of the colonies, as they were seen as a valuable source of revenue for the French treasury, and the French government was heavily dependent on the income from the colony of Saint-Domingue, particularly from the production of sugar, coffee and other crops, which were grown by enslaved labor. However, the events in Saint-Domingue pushed the French Revolution to its extremes, as the enslaved people and free people of color in the colony began to demand their rights and freedom. The French government's attempts to maintain control of the colony and suppress the rebellion ultimately failed, leading to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti. This marked the only successful slave revolt in modern history, and the first independent nation in Latin America and the Caribbean. It also had a significant impact on the French Revolution, as it highlighted the contradiction between the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity and the reality of colonial oppression and slavery.

The five stages of the revolution

1790 - 1791: color free vs. white

Vincent Ogé.
Physionotrace par Gilles-Louis Chrétien, 1790.

The 1790-1791 revolution in Santo Domingo, also known as the Haitian Revolution, was initially led by the white elite of the colony who were inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution and sought to gain control of the colony's institutions. However, enslaved Africans and people of color soon joined the rebellion and played a key role in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation. the white elite of Santo Domingo, including planters, merchants, and lawyers, were inspired by the ideas of the American Revolution and the concept of sovereignty of the people. They sought to gain greater control over the colony's institutions and break away from French colonial rule. However, the revolution soon expanded beyond their initial goals and enslaved Africans and people of color became key players in the overthrow of French rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

The colored freemen, or gens de couleur, were another group that were quick to join the revolution in Santo Domingo. They were influenced by the debates in the National Assembly in Paris and the ideas of the French Revolution, particularly the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. They saw the revolution as an opportunity to gain equality and end the discrimination they faced under the colonial laws. They formed their own military units and played an important role in the overthrow of French rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

Vincent Ogé was a wealthy colored freeman who had returned to Santo Domingo from Paris. He was inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution and sought to gain greater rights and equality for people of color in the colony. In 1790, he led a small army of around 300 men, made up mostly of colored freemen, to demand greater rights and equality from the white planters who controlled the colony. However, Ogé's rebellion was met with resistance from the white planters and their armed forces, and it was eventually defeated. Despite this, Ogé's rebellion sparked a larger rebellion among enslaved Africans and people of color, which ultimately led to the overthrow of French colonial rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

After Ogé's rebellion was defeated, he was captured and executed by the white planters' troops. News of his execution reached Paris, where it caused shock and outrage among the National Assembly. This led to the Assembly passing a law granting freedom to free people of color born of free parents in the colony. However, this decision was rejected by the white elite of Santo Domingo, who saw it as a threat to their power and control. The freedmen of color, meanwhile, were furious that the freedom was only granted to them and not to all people of color. This led to further rebellion and tensions between the freedmen of color and the white elite, and the colony was on the brink of civil war. The situation eventually led to the Haitian Revolution, in which enslaved Africans and people of color fought against the white elite and French colonial rule, ultimately leading to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

1791 - 1793: Mass revolt of the slaves, Free of colour against whites and against slaves

The 1791-1793 period was marked by a mass revolt of enslaved Africans, which took many by surprise. The rebellion broke out in the region around Cape Francais (now known as Cap-Haitien), which had the highest density of enslaved Africans and recently arrived Africans. The rebellion was sparked by the ongoing tensions and conflict between the white elite and the colored freemen, as well as the desire for freedom and equality among the enslaved population. The rebellion quickly spread across the colony, and the enslaved Africans fought against both the white planters and the colored freemen. The rebellion was led by Toussaint l'Ouverture and other enslaved leaders, who emerged as leaders of the rebellion and eventually succeeded in establishing Haiti as the first independent black nation in the world.

Enslaved Africans rose up against their white masters under the leadership of "elite slaves", men who had connections between ports and plantations, and who brought back news from France. They were armed with machetes and other weapons, and they destroyed plantation after plantation by killing, looting, and burning the sugar cane fields. These leaders were able to mobilize a large number of enslaved Africans, who fought for their freedom and equality. They were led by figures such as Toussaint L'Ouverture, who emerged as a key leader of the rebellion, and were able to defeat the French colonial forces and establish Haiti as an independent nation.

The rebellion spread quickly across the colony, and soon tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were taking part in it. The enslaved Africans were able to destroy many plantations and kill or capture many of the white planters. Within a month, more than a thousand plantations out of a total of 8000 were burned and hundreds of white people were massacred. The rebellion was able to gain momentum due to the leadership of figures like Toussaint L'Ouverture, and the high level of organization and coordination among the enslaved population. The rebellion was also able to defeat the French colonial forces and establish Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

Interestingly, the enslaved Africans who took part in the rebellion did not initially claim to be fighting for the ideals of freedom and equality that were espoused by the French Revolution. Instead, many of them, particularly those who had recently been brought from Africa, believed that they were acting on behalf of a king who had declared the abolition of slavery. This led to a situation where the rebellion was not only directed against the white planters, but also against the French colonial authorities who refused to abolish slavery. The rebellion was able to gain momentum and eventually defeat the French colonial forces, and establish Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

Sonthonax.

After the initial rebellion broke out, the conflict quickly escalated and spread throughout the colony. War broke out between the colored freemen, the white planters, and the enslaved Africans. Each side in the conflict committed atrocities against the other, and tensions and violence continued to escalate. France sent troops to the colony to try to restore order, but they were unable to do so and were decimated by yellow fever. The conflict continued for several years, with various leaders and groups fighting for control of the colony. Ultimately, the rebellion led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and other enslaved leaders succeeded in defeating the French colonial forces and establishing Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

In April 1792, the National Assembly in France granted equality to all free men of color in the colony, and sent a commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, to try to settle the conflict in the colony. Sonthonax was a revolutionary and abolitionist, and upon his arrival in the colony he alienated many of the white planters. However, he was supported by the colored freemen, and he hired several of them in the administration to help govern the colony. Sonthonax's policies of equality and abolition of slavery were met with resistance by the white planters. This led to a civil war between the colored freemen and the white planters, which continued until the arrival of Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was able to defeat the French troops, and declared Haiti an independent nation in 1804.

As the rebellion led by Toussaint L'Ouverture gained momentum, the slave revolt began to diminish. In 1793, the colored freemen were able to take control of the colony and many of the white planters went into exile in Cuba, the United States and Louisiana. The colored freemen, now in power, and under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, were able to defeat the French colonial forces and declare Haiti an independent nation in 1804. This made Haiti the first black nation in the world and the first country in the world to be established as a result of a successful slave rebellion. The whites who remained in the colony were either killed or forced to flee, the colony was now in the hands of the free colored and the slaves who were now free.

In 1793, a new war broke out in France between revolutionary France and the monarchies of England and Spain, which also extended to the colonies that the three powers had in the Caribbean. In August 1793, faced with an imminent British invasion of Santo Domingo, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, French commissioner, saw that the only way to rally the slaves to the revolutionary cause and engage them in an army of defense was to abolish slavery in the colony. He signed an unofficial decree for the abolition of slavery in Santo Domingo. This decision was met with resistance from the white planters and colored freemen, but it also allowed for the formation of a more cohesive force of enslaved Africans and free people of color to defend against the British invasion. The abolition of slavery would be officially declared by Toussaint L'Ouverture after his arrival in 1793 and the defeat of the French colonial troops.

1793-1798: Mobilization of freed slaves and rise of Toussaint Louverture

In 1793, the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) began to see a mobilization of freed slaves, led by Toussaint Louverture. This was a significant development in the conflict, as it marked the elimination of white control over the colony. The situation became increasingly complex as England and Spain occupied parts of the colony, and different groups of freed slaves took different stances. Some established independent fiefdoms, while others supported revolutionary France, which had abolished slavery. However, there were also those who were willing to ally themselves with the Spanish or British monarchies. The situation was further complicated by the fact that the French commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, abolished slavery, which caused division among the free people of color.

The former slaves, known as maroons, established numerous communities of fugitive slaves in order to safeguard the freedom they had just gained. They were led by Toussaint Louverture, who organized them into a military force to defend the colony against foreign invaders. For French commissioner Sonthonax, it was important to mobilize these fugitive slaves in the defense of the colony, as they represented a significant military force that could aid in repelling the invading forces. He also recognized the importance of their support in maintaining French control over the colony, as they were a symbol of the abolition of slavery and the ideals of the French Revolution.

1800-1802: The reign of Toussaint

Toussaint Louverture, leader of the Santo Domingo insurgents.

Toussaint Louverture was a leader in the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791 and ended in 1804. He was a former slave who rose to become a powerful military strategist and leader of the rebellion against French colonial rule. He was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), and was of African, Creole, and French descent. He was freed from slavery around the age of 30, and was highly educated, able to read and write. He played a key role in the revolution, and was considered a skilled politician who was able to navigate the complex political landscape of the time.

Toussaint Louverture's alliances during the Haitian Revolution were complex and shifting. Initially, he aligned himself with the Spanish, who controlled the eastern part of the colony, and led his men to fight against the French. However, when the French National Assembly abolished slavery in 1794, Toussaint switched sides and joined the French forces, seeing an opportunity to secure freedom for his people. He brought his 22,000 men with him, giving the French a significant military advantage. With his support, the French were able to defeat the Spanish and gain control of the entire colony. Toussaint's goal was to secure autonomy for Haiti and the abolition of slavery.

André Rigaud.

After allying himself with the French and helping them gain control of the colony, he began to work with other leaders, such as André Rigaud, to further secure freedom for his people. Rigaud was a mulatto leader who commanded an army of 10,000 men, and together they chased out the Spanish and English troops who occupied parts of the colony. Rigaud and his men freed thousands of slaves in the occupied territories, which helped to strengthen their position. Toussaint's goal was to unite the colony and secure autonomy for Haiti.

After allying with André Rigaud and other leaders, Toussaint Louverture was able to gain the upper hand against the other generals of Saint-Domingue, as well as against the French revolutionary government. He was able to consolidate his power and control over the colony, and was seen as the most capable leader in the region. The French government, realizing that they needed him to maintain control of the colony, began to rely on him more and more. Toussaint's military strategy and political skills were key to the French success in the colony and they came to realize that they couldn't lose him. Despite the initial abolition of slavery by the French National Assembly, Toussaint was able to maintain the freedom of enslaved people in Haiti and to build an autonomous state.

In 1796, Toussaint Louverture was appointed by the French government as the deputy governor of the colony of Saint-Domingue. This appointment solidified his position as the most powerful leader in the colony, and he began to eliminate his rivals and consolidate his power. He was able to expel Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, another French commissioner who had been sent to the colony and had played a significant role in the abolition of slavery. Toussaint was able to gain control of the colony and establish himself as the leader, despite the presence of French officials. He continued to work towards maintaining the freedom of enslaved people in Haiti, and building an autonomous state.

Toussaint Louverture was able to expand his control over the colony, and by 1798 he controlled the entire western and northern regions of the island. He also took control of the Spanish region, which was previously under Spanish rule. In order to further consolidate his power, he sent Jean-Jacques Dessalines to conquer the southern region, which was still under the control of André Rigaud and other mulatto leaders. This led to a brutal war that was characterized by atrocities on both sides. The conflict was marked by a level of violence and hatred towards the mulattoes of the south. It was a war that was close to genocide as both sides committed atrocities against each other. Toussaint's goal was to unite the colony under his control and secure autonomy for Haiti.

By the end of the war, Toussaint Louverture had emerged as the undisputed leader of the colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). He controlled the entire island and ruled it with an iron hand. He was a strong leader who was able to maintain order and stability in the colony, despite the many challenges he faced. He was able to keep the colony free from slavery and secure autonomy for Haiti. He also implemented policies that helped to improve the economy, and build a strong centralized state. Toussaint's rule was marked by a level of authoritarianism and repression, but also by a level of progress and development.

1802-1804: Blacks and mulattos united for independence

The French invasion of Saint-Domingue of 1802 and the Haitian Revolution

In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France and began to take a more active interest in the colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). He saw the colony as a valuable source of wealth and resources, and sought to re-establish slavery and bring the colony back under French control. Toussaint Louverture, who had established himself as the leader of the colony, saw this as a threat to the freedom and autonomy of Haiti. He began to resist the French efforts to re-establish slavery and bring the colony back under French control.

This resistance led to a new conflict between the French and the people of Haiti, which was characterized by a united front of blacks and mulattoes. Both groups came together to fight for independence, despite their previous conflicts. Toussaint and other leaders were able to rally the population behind the cause of independence, and they were able to resist the French efforts to re-establish slavery and bring the colony back under French control.

However, Napoleon and Toussaint shared a common ambition, a love of absolute power and a certain conception of the egalitarian rights of the people as well as a contempt for political freedom. This led to a conflict between the two leaders, with Toussaint being captured by the French and eventually dying in prison. Despite his death, the Haitian people were able to secure their independence in 1804, making Haiti the first independent black republic in the world.

Toussaint Louverture recognized that in order to revive the economy of Haiti, he would need to revive the plantation system. However, he faced the challenge of how to do this in a way that would not re-establish slavery. To address this, he set up a system of forced sharecropping, in which former slaves were required to work on the plantations in exchange for a portion of the harvest. This system was intended to provide a source of income for the former slaves, while also reviving the economy of the colony.

As a result of this system, many white people returned to the colony, not as planters, but as technical advisors. They provided expertise and knowledge that was needed to run the plantations. This led to the formation of a new class of large black landowners and military men, who were able to take advantage of the new economic opportunities.

It should be noted that this forced labor system was not different from slavery, as the sharecroppers were not given the right to leave the plantation, and the system was often abusive. The forced labor system was also a way for Toussaint to maintain control over the population and to pay for his army.

Toussaint Louverture's policies and actions during his rule as Governor of Haiti were a source of tension with the French government, particularly with Napoleon Bonaparte. While Napoleon initially did not object to Toussaint's efforts to revive the economy of the colony through a system of forced sharecropping, Toussaint began to make decisions that went beyond what Napoleon had granted him. For example, Toussaint proclaimed a constitution that made him Governor for life, and annexed the entire eastern part of the island without consulting or mentioning France. These decisions were seen as a move towards independence, which was not acceptable for the French government, who sought to maintain control over the colony.

This led to increasing tensions between Toussaint and the French, and ultimately to a French military expedition to retake control of the colony. Toussaint was eventually captured by the French and died in prison, but his actions and decisions were a significant step towards the eventual independence of Haiti, which was declared in 1804.

Toussaint Louverture's actions and decision were seen as a direct threat to the French control over the colony, and Napoleon Bonaparte became increasingly determined to retake control of the colony. In 1802, he sent an army of 10,000 men under the command of General Charles Leclerc to invade Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) and regain control of the colony.

The French army initially faced resistance from the official armies of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Christophe, who were both former generals under Toussaint Louverture. Dessalines and Christophe put up a strong resistance against the French, but were ultimately defeated. Christophe retreated to the mountainous regions and tried to form guerrillas to continue fighting against the French, but the French were able to suppress the rebellion and regain control of the colony.

The French re-established slavery and implemented harsh measures to punish and control the population. The Haitian people, led by Dessalines, continued to resist the French occupation, and were eventually able to defeat the French army in 1804 and declare the independence of Haiti, making it the first independent black republic in the world.

When the French army under General Leclerc arrived in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) in 1802, many of the former slaves who had fought for freedom under Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, feared that Napoleon Bonaparte's ultimate goal was to re-establish slavery. As a result, many of them deserted the army and formed autonomous entities. Their leaders were often of African descent, particularly from the Congo, and they waged a guerrilla war against the French in an effort to maintain their freedom.

This resistance was fueled by fear and mistrust of the French, as well as by a desire to maintain the freedom that had been won through the Haitian Revolution. The guerrilla fighters, known as the maroons, were able to evade the French army and continue to resist the French efforts to re-establish slavery and control the colony. They were able to launch surprise attacks and sabotage the French efforts, making it difficult for the French to completely suppress the rebellion. Despite the French efforts, Haiti declared its independence in 1804, becoming the first independent black republic in the world.

During the French invasion of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) in 1802, many black high-ranking officers who had become plantation owners and had previously fought for freedom under Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, ended up switching sides and joining the French army led by General Charles Leclerc. This was due to a variety of reasons, including fear of reprisals, mistrust of Dessalines and Christophe, and the promise of land and wealth.

The conflict between the French and the Haitian resistance was marked by atrocities committed by both sides. The French army engaged in brutal repression of the population, while the Haitian resistance fighters also committed brutal acts of violence. In a few months of fighting, the three main Haitian generals, Dessalines, Christophe, and Toussaint Louverture, were captured or surrendered. Dessalines and Christophe were hired by Leclerc to help put an end to the guerrilla war, while Toussaint was arrested in June 1802 and deported to France. He was imprisoned in Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803.

General Alexandre Pétion.

In July 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte made the decision to re-establish slavery in the French colonies, including Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). This decision was met with strong resistance from the Haitian people, who had fought for and secured their freedom during the Haitian Revolution. It also led to a shift in alliances among the various groups within the colony.

One important development was the meeting between the chief of the mulattoes, Alexandre Piéton, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the leader of the black population. Previously, there had been conflicts and tensions between these groups, but in the face of the French efforts to re-establish slavery, they decided to join forces and fight together against the French. This alliance was crucial in the eventual defeat of the French army and the establishment of an independent Haiti in 1804.

The French invasion of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) in 1802 was a brutal and violent conflict marked by atrocities committed by both sides. General Charles Leclerc and his successor, General Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, employed a variety of tactics to try to regain control of the colony and re-establish slavery. One of these tactics that has been reported is the use of dogs that were trained to attack and devour slaves. This is a tactic that is known to have been used by slave-hunters in other parts of the world but is not well-documented in the Haitian history.

It is also reported that the enslaved people of Haiti engaged in massacres of white people. There were violent clashes between the French and the enslaved population, and the French army engaged in brutal repression of the population, while the enslaved people also committed brutal acts of violence. The violence was not limited to a single group, and both sides were responsible for atrocities. The conflict ended with the independence of Haiti in 1804, and the establishment of the first independent black republic in the world.

Jean-Jacques-Dessalines.

In May 1803, Napoleon Bonaparte entered into a war with England, which marked a turning point in the French efforts to regain control of the colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). As the war with England escalated, Napoleon was forced to divert resources and troops away from the colony, and gradually had to abandon his efforts to retake it.

In order to raise funds for the war effort, Napoleon made the decision to sell the French territory of Louisiana to the United States for $15 million. This was a significant blow to French power in the Americas, as Louisiana had been a valuable colony for the French, and its loss effectively marked the end of French colonial presence in the region.

The sale of Louisiana to the United States also had a significant impact on the colony of Saint-Domingue, as it marked the end of French efforts to re-establish control and re-establish slavery in the colony. The Haitian people, led by Jean-Jacques Dessalines, were able to resist the French efforts and secure their independence in 1804, making Haiti the first independent black republic in the world.

The Haitian Revolution, which led to the independence of Haiti in 1804, was a brutal and violent conflict that lasted for more than a decade. It is difficult to know the exact number of casualties, but it is estimated that tens of thousands of Haitians died in the struggle for freedom. The French army under General Charles Leclerc and his successor, General Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau, also suffered significant losses, with an estimated 70,000 French soldiers and European sailors dying in the conflict. The war was marked by many atrocities, and both sides engaged in brutal acts of violence. The Haitian Revolution was one of the most significant and transformative events in the history of the Americas, and its impact is still felt today.

The Independence of Haiti

In 1804 Dessalines proclaimed independence by renaming it Haiti in remembrance of its near-Colombian name. It was also a way of breaking with colonialism while smoothing relations between former slaves and former freemen.

The new constitution declares Dessalines emperor for life, but above all it defines all Haitians as black, forbids whites to own land and confirms the abolition of slavery. It must be seen that Haiti overturns all the established patterns and models of Western modernity established by the American and French revolutions.

In the case of Haiti we have:

1. A massive mobilization of the population
2. A struggle between different ideologies #
3. A concrete struggle for power
4. as a result of which the country is undergoing a profound transformation of its social and economic structures #

For all the slaves of the Americas, this victory becomes a source of hope that slavery can be destroyed. For all slave rulers and owners, it becomes a source of fear; for decades across the Americas slaves and free people of color were persecuted and often executed for being suspected of plotting.

Not surprisingly, given the scale of the revolution, Haiti has become a pariah state for the Americas in the midst of the slave boom.

Simón Bolívar.

What must be seen is that Haiti is under constant threat of foreign invasion by the great powers; for this reason, it must buy arms to defend itself, subjecting it to the dictatorship of US and European merchants, especially since no country has established diplomatic relations with the black republic.

In 1816, Haiti will help Bolivar to revive the guerre d’indépendance du Venezuela de façon décisive. However, Bolívar will exclude Haiti from the Congress of Panama which he organized in 1826 while the Republic of Bolívar did not recognize Haiti.

France recognized Haiti in 1825 against the payment of an astronomical compensation of 150 million gold francs, two and a half times the price at which Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States. This sum will be reduced to 90 million gold francs; Haiti will pay this sum in full until 1883. The United States had England recognize them only two years after independence without compensation.

After 14 years of war Haiti is completely financially devastated, economically devastated with an uneducated population, it no longer has the possibility of reviving a sugar economy, especially since the former slaves want anything but to return to the plantations developing their own ideals of equality through the development of small family farms living in autarky to have the essentials.

Alliances break up, political struggles begin, all the more so as a division is created around culture, religion and skin, Creoles against merchants, and a new class of black soldiers that continues through all the decades that follow.

Annexes

• Cours :
  • La conquête du territoire
• Monde-diplomatique.fr,. (2015). Les Spartacus de Saint-Domingue, par Christophe Wargny (Le Monde diplomatique, juin 2015). Retrieved 28 June 2015, from http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2015/06/WARGNY/53092