The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas

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The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
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Cover of the book Santo Domingo or History of its Revolutions, 1791-1804.

Faculté Lettres
Département Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s) Aline Helg[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
Cours The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures


The goals of this course on the Haitian revolution are multiple; first, to bring the Haitian revolution out of oblivion maintained by historians through their Westernist vision of history. It is the most total revolution in history and the one that had an enormous impact both on the fate of Napoleonic France in the Americas and in general, but also in the independence struggles of Latin America and the Caribbean on the fate of the slave trade and slavery.

The Haitian revolution shows that there are structural causes to the great events with an explosive demography and external elements such as the French Revolution with its ideals of equality and freedom. This revolution changed the relationship between rulers and governed while individuals in positions of power were not equal to the events of which Napoleon and Toussaint Louverture were examples. Thus, Haiti's current status is due to its pariah status given by other nations and imposed after its independence in 1804.

The Haitian revolution that triumphed in 1804 is the nightmare of all slave owners, it is a terrible fear that will mark all the slave-owning Americas for decades. It is also the world upside down, the transformation of the most profitable slave colony in the West Indies into an independent black republic.

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The society of Santo Domingo in 1789

In 1789, the society of Santo Domingo (now known as Haiti) was a colony of France, and the island was divided into two parts: the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which occupied the western third of the island, and the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, which occupied the eastern two-thirds. The French colony was the most profitable colony in the world at the time, due to its production of sugar, coffee, and other cash crops. The colony had a large population of enslaved Africans who worked on the plantations. The society was also divided by race and class, with a small white elite owning the majority of the land and wealth, while the majority of the population were enslaved people of African descent.

Populations

In 1789, the total population of the French colony of Saint-Domingue was around 500,000, of which approximately 88% were enslaved Africans. The majority of the enslaved population were brought to the colony from Africa as part of the transatlantic slave trade.

The enslaved population was divided between those born in the colony and those who were imported. The enslaved population born in the colony, known as Creoles, were considered to be more valuable as they were considered to be more acclimated to the conditions of the colony and less likely to rebel than the newly imported slaves.

African slaves represented 58% of the total population of the colony. The vast majority of enslaved Africans were women, who were considered to be more productive in the field than men. The female slaves were forced to work in the fields and also to breed to produce more slaves for the colony, which was a source of wealth for the French colony.

In the French colony of Saint-Domingue, most of the enslaved population worked on the sugar cane, coffee, and indigo plantations, which were the primary sources of wealth for the colony. The enslaved population was also used as domestic servants and in various trades in the cities and ports.

As a result of the forced labor, the enslaved population was composed of people from various African cultures, and through their interactions, they developed a common language, Creole, which was a mix of French and African languages. Similarly, the enslaved population also developed a syncretic religion, Voodoo, which was a mix of traditional African religious practices and elements of Catholicism, which was imposed on them by the French colonizers.

Voodoo became an important part of the enslaved population's culture and was used as a way to express resistance to their enslavement and to maintain their cultural heritage. It is still an important part of Haitian culture and is practiced by many people in Haiti and the diaspora today.

In 1789, the white population made up only about 7% of the total population, or around 40,000 people. Among this population, there were more men than women, as many women did not migrate to the colony.

The white population was divided into several groups. The minority of the population were planters, merchants and royal officials, who controlled the majority of the land and wealth. There were also soldiers and sailors among the white population.

Another group of white people were the so-called "little whites," who were poor men and women who worked in agriculture and handicrafts. These people were often of lower social standing than the wealthy plantation owners and merchants, and they often lived in poverty. They were also less likely to own slaves or have access to the wealth and privileges of the white elite.

The population of free people of color made up about 5% of the total population, or around 30,000 people. The majority of these people were mulattoes, people of mixed African and European descent, rather than black people.

Despite their free status, they were not equal to whites before the law and faced significant discrimination. They were not allowed to vote, and they did not have the same legal rights as whites. They were also restricted in terms of the types of jobs they could hold and the property they could own.

There were also significant differences among the free people of color. Some were freed slaves who were not much better off than slaves, while others were part of a kind of middle class, serving in the militia and the police. Some women were mistresses of white men and their descendants, while others became rich planters and merchants. Some among the men and among the descendants of the women who were the wives of white men, became rich planters, but also rich merchants, many of whom went to France to study. This group of free people of color represented a sort of intermediary group between the white elite and the enslaved population, with the ones near the white elite having more privileges and opportunities.

The population of Saint-Domingue was diverse and highly stratified. The free people of color, although they were free and had more rights and opportunities than enslaved people, they were still considered inferior to whites and faced significant discrimination. Despite some of them having economic wealth and culture, they were not able to fully escape the racial hierarchy that existed in the colony. The wealthy free people of color were able to move closer to the white elite, but they were still not able to fully join the white elite due to their racial background. The society of Santo Domingo in 1789 was heavily based on slavery and the racial hierarchy, with a small white elite controlling the majority of the land and wealth, while the majority of the population were enslaved people of African descent who worked on the profitable plantations, and a small group of free people of color, who represented a sort of intermediary group between the white elite and the enslaved population.

Regional differences

In 1789, the enslaved population made up about 88% of the total population. The majority of the enslaved population were concentrated in regions where the major cash crops were grown.

The "northern plain" was the region where sugar cane was grown. This was the most profitable crop in the colony and required a large workforce to plant, harvest, and process the sugar. Many plantations were located in this region and many enslaved people were forced to work in the sugar fields.

The southeast region was also known for growing cocoa and indigo. These crops were also important for the colony's economy and enslaved people were forced to work on these plantations as well.

In general, the population distribution was heavily influenced by the economic activities, and the enslaved population was disproportionately concentrated in regions where the major cash crops were grown, and where the labor was needed the most.

The high concentration of enslaved people in regions where the major cash crops were grown, such as the northern plain and the southeast, made these regions particularly explosive. The enslaved population was subjected to brutal conditions and treatment, and they were forced to work long hours with little rest. They were also separated from their families and culture, and were not allowed to practice their own religion or customs. These conditions led to a high level of discontent and resentment among the enslaved population, which in turn made these regions more susceptible to rebellion.

In addition, the high population density in these regions made it easier for enslaved people to organize and communicate with each other, which facilitated the possibility of rebellion. These regions would later become the most explosive regions during the Haitian revolution, where the enslaved population would rise up against their enslavers, ultimately leading to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti in 1804.

0ther Caribbean colonies, such as Jamaica and Barbados, also had a large enslaved population and similar conditions to those in Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) which could have led to an explosive situation. However, these islands did not experience a revolution of slavery.

One reason for this difference is that the enslaved population in Saint-Domingue was more diverse, with people from many different African cultures and languages, which made it easier for them to organize and communicate with each other. In contrast, the enslaved population in Jamaica and Barbados was more homogeneous, which made it more difficult for them to organize and communicate with each other.

Another reason is that the French colony of Saint-Domingue was more profitable and had a larger enslaved population than the British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados. The French colony of Saint-Domingue was the most profitable colony in the world at the time, due to its production of sugar, coffee, and other cash crops, which made it more important for the French to keep the colony under control. The British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados had a lower enslaved population and produced less profitable crops, which made it less important for the British to keep the colony under control.

In addition to that, the French colony of Saint-Domingue had a more complex social system than the British colonies of Jamaica and Barbados, which included a free people of color population, who played a significant role in the revolution, and were also a source of frustration for the white elite, as they were not allowed to fully join the white elite, due to their racial background.

Lastly, the Haitian revolution was also influenced by the political and social changes happening in France, which lead to the French revolution, which had a significant impact on the colony, making it easier for the enslaved population to gain their freedom and independence.

The causes of the Revolution

The Haitian Revolution was caused by a variety of factors, including the massive influx of enslaved Africans, the exploitation of the colony by the French colonial government, and the Enlightenment ideals of liberty and equality that were spreading throughout the world at the time. Additionally, the revolution was sparked by the rebellion of enslaved Africans and people of mixed race, who were tired of being treated as property and subjected to brutal conditions. The revolution was led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, a former enslaved person who became a skilled military leader and strategist. The revolution ultimately resulted in the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti from French colonial rule.

The high influx of enslaved Africans to Haiti in the late 18th century contributed to the revolution by increasing the population of enslaved people and exacerbating their conditions of oppression and suffering. The large number of enslaved Africans also created a demographic imbalance in the colony, with enslaved people outnumbering white colonists and people of mixed race. This led to increased tension and resentment towards the colonial government and the slave-holding class, ultimately fueling the rebellion and revolution that would lead to Haiti's independence.

The large population of free people of color in Haiti also played a significant role in the causes of the Haitian Revolution. Many of these individuals were educated and had access to the same Enlightenment ideals that were inspiring the revolution in France. They were also aware of the rights and privileges of French citizens, but were denied these rights in the colony. They felt the injustice of being treated as second-class citizens and were determined to fight for their rights and equality. Jean-Baptiste Belley, a free man of color, was elected as a deputy of Saint-Domingue to the National Assembly in Paris, he will be able to advocate for the rights of the colony and the abolition of slavery. Also, the participation of free people of color in the French troops during the American War of Independence exposed them to the ideas of freedom and equality, which they brought back with them to Haiti, further fueling the desire for revolution.

The French Revolution was a major external cause of the Haitian Revolution. The political and ideological upheaval in France had a significant impact on the colony of Saint-Domingue. The weakening of French authority in the colony as a result of the revolution created a power vacuum and created opportunities for enslaved people and free people of color to demand more rights and autonomy. The ideological impact of the French Revolution, with the declaration of the sovereignty of the people and the rights of man and citizen, also played a major role in the Haitian Revolution. These ideas, which were spreading throughout the world, inspired enslaved people and free people of color in Haiti to demand their own rights and freedom. They saw the opportunity to emulate the ideals of the French Revolution in their own colony and to fight for their own independence.

The impact of the French Revolution, both political and ideological, was a major catalyst for the Haitian Revolution and ultimately led to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti.

On the French side, there was initially little intention of changing the status of the colonies, as they were seen as a valuable source of revenue for the French treasury, and the French government was heavily dependent on the income from the colony of Saint-Domingue, particularly from the production of sugar, coffee and other crops, which were grown by enslaved labor. However, the events in Saint-Domingue pushed the French Revolution to its extremes, as the enslaved people and free people of color in the colony began to demand their rights and freedom. The French government's attempts to maintain control of the colony and suppress the rebellion ultimately failed, leading to the abolition of slavery and the independence of Haiti. This marked the only successful slave revolt in modern history, and the first independent nation in Latin America and the Caribbean. It also had a significant impact on the French Revolution, as it highlighted the contradiction between the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity and the reality of colonial oppression and slavery.

The five stages of the revolution

1790 - 1791: color free vs. white

Vincent Ogé.
Physionotrace par Gilles-Louis Chrétien, 1790.

The 1790-1791 revolution in Santo Domingo, also known as the Haitian Revolution, was initially led by the white elite of the colony who were inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution and sought to gain control of the colony's institutions. However, enslaved Africans and people of color soon joined the rebellion and played a key role in the successful overthrow of French colonial rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation. the white elite of Santo Domingo, including planters, merchants, and lawyers, were inspired by the ideas of the American Revolution and the concept of sovereignty of the people. They sought to gain greater control over the colony's institutions and break away from French colonial rule. However, the revolution soon expanded beyond their initial goals and enslaved Africans and people of color became key players in the overthrow of French rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

The colored freemen, or gens de couleur, were another group that were quick to join the revolution in Santo Domingo. They were influenced by the debates in the National Assembly in Paris and the ideas of the French Revolution, particularly the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. They saw the revolution as an opportunity to gain equality and end the discrimination they faced under the colonial laws. They formed their own military units and played an important role in the overthrow of French rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

Vincent Ogé was a wealthy colored freeman who had returned to Santo Domingo from Paris. He was inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution and sought to gain greater rights and equality for people of color in the colony. In 1790, he led a small army of around 300 men, made up mostly of colored freemen, to demand greater rights and equality from the white planters who controlled the colony. However, Ogé's rebellion was met with resistance from the white planters and their armed forces, and it was eventually defeated. Despite this, Ogé's rebellion sparked a larger rebellion among enslaved Africans and people of color, which ultimately led to the overthrow of French colonial rule and the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

After Ogé's rebellion was defeated, he was captured and executed by the white planters' troops. News of his execution reached Paris, where it caused shock and outrage among the National Assembly. This led to the Assembly passing a law granting freedom to free people of color born of free parents in the colony. However, this decision was rejected by the white elite of Santo Domingo, who saw it as a threat to their power and control. The freedmen of color, meanwhile, were furious that the freedom was only granted to them and not to all people of color. This led to further rebellion and tensions between the freedmen of color and the white elite, and the colony was on the brink of civil war. The situation eventually led to the Haitian Revolution, in which enslaved Africans and people of color fought against the white elite and French colonial rule, ultimately leading to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation.

1791 - 1793: Mass revolt of the slaves, Free of colour against whites and against slaves

San Domingo.jpg

The 1791-1793 period was marked by a mass revolt of enslaved Africans, which took many by surprise. The rebellion broke out in the region around Cape Francais (now known as Cap-Haitien), which had the highest density of enslaved Africans and recently arrived Africans. The rebellion was sparked by the ongoing tensions and conflict between the white elite and the colored freemen, as well as the desire for freedom and equality among the enslaved population. The rebellion quickly spread across the colony, and the enslaved Africans fought against both the white planters and the colored freemen. The rebellion was led by Toussaint l'Ouverture and other enslaved leaders, who emerged as leaders of the rebellion and eventually succeeded in establishing Haiti as the first independent black nation in the world.

Enslaved Africans rose up against their white masters under the leadership of "elite slaves", men who had connections between ports and plantations, and who brought back news from France. They were armed with machetes and other weapons, and they destroyed plantation after plantation by killing, looting, and burning the sugar cane fields. These leaders were able to mobilize a large number of enslaved Africans, who fought for their freedom and equality. They were led by figures such as Toussaint L'Ouverture, who emerged as a key leader of the rebellion, and were able to defeat the French colonial forces and establish Haiti as an independent nation.

The rebellion spread quickly across the colony, and soon tens of thousands of enslaved Africans were taking part in it. The enslaved Africans were able to destroy many plantations and kill or capture many of the white planters. Within a month, more than a thousand plantations out of a total of 8000 were burned and hundreds of white people were massacred. The rebellion was able to gain momentum due to the leadership of figures like Toussaint L'Ouverture, and the high level of organization and coordination among the enslaved population. The rebellion was also able to defeat the French colonial forces and establish Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

Interestingly, the enslaved Africans who took part in the rebellion did not initially claim to be fighting for the ideals of freedom and equality that were espoused by the French Revolution. Instead, many of them, particularly those who had recently been brought from Africa, believed that they were acting on behalf of a king who had declared the abolition of slavery. This led to a situation where the rebellion was not only directed against the white planters, but also against the French colonial authorities who refused to abolish slavery. The rebellion was able to gain momentum and eventually defeat the French colonial forces, and establish Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

Sonthonax.

After the initial rebellion broke out, the conflict quickly escalated and spread throughout the colony. War broke out between the colored freemen, the white planters, and the enslaved Africans. Each side in the conflict committed atrocities against the other, and tensions and violence continued to escalate. France sent troops to the colony to try to restore order, but they were unable to do so and were decimated by yellow fever. The conflict continued for several years, with various leaders and groups fighting for control of the colony. Ultimately, the rebellion led by Toussaint L'Ouverture and other enslaved leaders succeeded in defeating the French colonial forces and establishing Haiti as an independent nation in 1804, becoming the first black nation in the world.

In April 1792, the National Assembly in France granted equality to all free men of color in the colony, and sent a commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, to try to settle the conflict in the colony. Sonthonax was a revolutionary and abolitionist, and upon his arrival in the colony he alienated many of the white planters. However, he was supported by the colored freemen, and he hired several of them in the administration to help govern the colony. Sonthonax's policies of equality and abolition of slavery were met with resistance by the white planters. This led to a civil war between the colored freemen and the white planters, which continued until the arrival of Toussaint L'Ouverture, who was able to defeat the French troops, and declared Haiti an independent nation in 1804.

As the rebellion led by Toussaint L'Ouverture gained momentum, the slave revolt began to diminish. In 1793, the colored freemen were able to take control of the colony and many of the white planters went into exile in Cuba, the United States and Louisiana. The colored freemen, now in power, and under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, were able to defeat the French colonial forces and declare Haiti an independent nation in 1804. This made Haiti the first black nation in the world and the first country in the world to be established as a result of a successful slave rebellion. The whites who remained in the colony were either killed or forced to flee, the colony was now in the hands of the free colored and the slaves who were now free.

In 1793, a new war broke out in France between revolutionary France and the monarchies of England and Spain, which also extended to the colonies that the three powers had in the Caribbean. In August 1793, faced with an imminent British invasion of Santo Domingo, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, French commissioner, saw that the only way to rally the slaves to the revolutionary cause and engage them in an army of defense was to abolish slavery in the colony. He signed an unofficial decree for the abolition of slavery in Santo Domingo. This decision was met with resistance from the white planters and colored freemen, but it also allowed for the formation of a more cohesive force of enslaved Africans and free people of color to defend against the British invasion. The abolition of slavery would be officially declared by Toussaint L'Ouverture after his arrival in 1793 and the defeat of the French colonial troops.[8][9][10]

1793-1798: Mobilization of freed slaves and rise of Toussaint Louverture

In 1793, the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) began to see a mobilization of freed slaves, led by Toussaint Louverture. This was a significant development in the conflict, as it marked the elimination of white control over the colony. The situation became increasingly complex as England and Spain occupied parts of the colony, and different groups of freed slaves took different stances. Some established independent fiefdoms, while others supported revolutionary France, which had abolished slavery. However, there were also those who were willing to ally themselves with the Spanish or British monarchies. The situation was further complicated by the fact that the French commissioner, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, abolished slavery, which caused division among the free people of color.

The former slaves, known as maroons, established numerous communities of fugitive slaves in order to safeguard the freedom they had just gained. They were led by Toussaint Louverture, who organized them into a military force to defend the colony against foreign invaders. For French commissioner Sonthonax, it was important to mobilize these fugitive slaves in the defense of the colony, as they represented a significant military force that could aid in repelling the invading forces. He also recognized the importance of their support in maintaining French control over the colony, as they were a symbol of the abolition of slavery and the ideals of the French Revolution.

1800-1802: The reign of Toussaint

Toussaint Louverture, leader of the Santo Domingo insurgents.

Toussaint Louverture was a leader in the Haitian Revolution, which began in 1791 and ended in 1804. He was a former slave who rose to become a powerful military strategist and leader of the rebellion against French colonial rule. He was born in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), and was of African, Creole, and French descent. He was freed from slavery around the age of 30, and was highly educated, able to read and write. He played a key role in the revolution, and was considered a skilled politician who was able to navigate the complex political landscape of the time.

Toussaint Louverture's alliances during the Haitian Revolution were complex and shifting. Initially, he aligned himself with the Spanish, who controlled the eastern part of the colony, and led his men to fight against the French. However, when the French National Assembly abolished slavery in 1794, Toussaint switched sides and joined the French forces, seeing an opportunity to secure freedom for his people. He brought his 22,000 men with him, giving the French a significant military advantage. With his support, the French were able to defeat the Spanish and gain control of the entire colony. Toussaint's goal was to secure autonomy for Haiti and the abolition of slavery.

André Rigaud.

After allying himself with the French and helping them gain control of the colony, he began to work with other leaders, such as André Rigaud, to further secure freedom for his people. Rigaud was a mulatto leader who commanded an army of 10,000 men, and together they chased out the Spanish and English troops who occupied parts of the colony. Rigaud and his men freed thousands of slaves in the occupied territories, which helped to strengthen their position. Toussaint's goal was to unite the colony and secure autonomy for Haiti.

After allying with André Rigaud and other leaders, Toussaint Louverture was able to gain the upper hand against the other generals of Saint-Domingue, as well as against the French revolutionary government. He was able to consolidate his power and control over the colony, and was seen as the most capable leader in the region. The French government, realizing that they needed him to maintain control of the colony, began to rely on him more and more. Toussaint's military strategy and political skills were key to the French success in the colony and they came to realize that they couldn't lose him. Despite the initial abolition of slavery by the French National Assembly, Toussaint was able to maintain the freedom of enslaved people in Haiti and to build an autonomous state.

In 1796, Toussaint Louverture was appointed by the French government as the deputy governor of the colony of Saint-Domingue. This appointment solidified his position as the most powerful leader in the colony, and he began to eliminate his rivals and consolidate his power. He was able to expel Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, another French commissioner who had been sent to the colony and had played a significant role in the abolition of slavery. Toussaint was able to gain control of the colony and establish himself as the leader, despite the presence of French officials. He continued to work towards maintaining the freedom of enslaved people in Haiti, and building an autonomous state.

Toussaint Louverture was able to expand his control over the colony, and by 1798 he controlled the entire western and northern regions of the island. He also took control of the Spanish region, which was previously under Spanish rule. In order to further consolidate his power, he sent Jean-Jacques Dessalines to conquer the southern region, which was still under the control of André Rigaud and other mulatto leaders. This led to a brutal war that was characterized by atrocities on both sides. The conflict was marked by a level of violence and hatred towards the mulattoes of the south. It was a war that was close to genocide as both sides committed atrocities against each other. Toussaint's goal was to unite the colony under his control and secure autonomy for Haiti.

By the end of the war, Toussaint Louverture had emerged as the undisputed leader of the colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti). He controlled the entire island and ruled it with an iron hand. He was a strong leader who was able to maintain order and stability in the colony, despite the many challenges he faced. He was able to keep the colony free from slavery and secure autonomy for Haiti. He also implemented policies that helped to improve the economy, and build a strong centralized state. Toussaint's rule was marked by a level of authoritarianism and repression, but also by a level of progress and development.

1802-1804: Blacks and mulattos united for independence

At the same time Napoleon took power, the two men shared a common ambition, a love of absolute power and a certain conception of the egalitarian rights of the people as well as a contempt for political freedom.

Toussaint sought to revive the economic life of the country, and to do this he had to revive the plantation system. Thus he set up a forced sharecropping system for former slaves who were paid with part of their harvest. This encourages the return of white people not as planters, but as technical advisors. A new class of large black landowners and military men was formed.

This did not displease Napoleon, but at the same time Toussaint made decisions that went beyond those that Napoleon conceded to him. His decisions are close to the declaration of independence, especially when he proclaims a constitution that makes him governor for life, moreover he annexes the whole eastern part of the island unilaterally and without mentioning France.

It was too much for Napoleon, who sent Leclerc with an army of 10,000 men to invade Santo Domingo. First, they will fight the official armies of Dessalines and Henri Christophe. The latter will retreat to the mountainous regions and try to form guerrillas.

Many slaves feared that Napoleon wanted to re-establish slavery. Many of them will leave the army of Toussaint, Dessalines and Christophe to form autonomous entities. Their leaders are often Africans from the Congo and will wage a guerrilla war.

Quite quickly, many black high-ranking officers who had become plantation owners rallied to Leclerc taking over. On both sides, there are atrocities. In a few months of fighting, the three great Haitian generals surrender; Dessalines and Christophe are hired by Leclerc to put an end to the guerrilla war. Toussaint was arrested in June 1802 and deported to France. Toussaint was imprisoned in Fort de Joux and died there in 1803.

General Alexandre Pétion.

In Haiti, things changed, because in July 1802 Napoleon decided to re-establish slavery in the colonies. We have the historic meeting between the chief of mulattoes Alexandre Piéton and Jean-Jacques Dessalines who decided to join forces to fight the French.

Leclerc and Rochambeau have trained dogs imported into Cuba to attack and devour slaves, while the slaves carry out massacres of whites.

Jean-Jacques-Dessalines.

In May 1803, Napoleon entered the war against England and gradually had to abandon Santo Domingo. It was at this point that Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States for $15 million, putting an end to French power in the Americas.

We will never know how many tens of thousands of Haitians died for freedom, but there are 70,000 French soldiers and European sailors who died in the struggle to keep Santo Domingo.

In 1804 Dessalines proclaimed independence by renaming it Haiti in remembrance of its near-Colombian name. It was also a way of breaking with colonialism while smoothing relations between former slaves and former freemen.

The new constitution declares Dessalines emperor for life, but above all it defines all Haitians as black, forbids whites to own land and confirms the abolition of slavery. It must be seen that Haiti overturns all the established patterns and models of Western modernity established by the American and French revolutions.

In the case of Haiti we have:

  1. A massive mobilization of the population
  2. A struggle between different ideologies #
  3. A concrete struggle for power
  4. as a result of which the country is undergoing a profound transformation of its social and economic structures #

For all the slaves of the Americas, this victory becomes a source of hope that slavery can be destroyed. For all slave rulers and owners, it becomes a source of fear; for decades across the Americas slaves and free people of color were persecuted and often executed for being suspected of plotting.

Not surprisingly, given the scale of the revolution, Haiti has become a pariah state for the Americas in the midst of the slave boom.

Simón Bolívar.

What must be seen is that Haiti is under constant threat of foreign invasion by the great powers; for this reason, it must buy arms to defend itself, subjecting it to the dictatorship of US and European merchants, especially since no country has established diplomatic relations with the black republic.

In 1816, Haiti will help Bolivar to revive the guerre d’indépendance du Venezuela de façon décisive. However, Bolívar will exclude Haiti from the Congress of Panama which he organized in 1826 while the Republic of Bolívar did not recognize Haiti.

France recognized Haiti in 1825 against the payment of an astronomical compensation of 150 million gold francs, two and a half times the price at which Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States. This sum will be reduced to 90 million gold francs; Haiti will pay this sum in full until 1883. The United States had England recognize them only two years after independence without compensation.

After 14 years of war Haiti is completely financially devastated, economically devastated with an uneducated population, it no longer has the possibility of reviving a sugar economy, especially since the former slaves want anything but to return to the plantations developing their own ideals of equality through the development of small family farms living in autarky to have the essentials.

Alliances break up, political struggles begin, all the more so as a division is created around culture, religion and skin, Creoles against merchants, and a new class of black soldiers that continues through all the decades that follow.

Annexes

References

  1. ↑ Aline Helg - UNIGE
  2. ↑ Aline Helg - Academia.edu
  3. ↑ Aline Helg - Wikipedia
  4. ↑ Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com
  5. ↑ Aline Helg - Researchgate.net
  6. ↑ Aline Helg - Cairn.info
  7. ↑ Aline Helg - Google Scholar
  8. ↑ Wanquet, Claude. La France et la première abolition de l'esclavage, 1794-1802: le cas des colonies orientales, Ile de France (Maurice) et la Réunion. KARTHALA Editions, 1998.
  9. ↑ Cauna, Jacques de. "Polverel et Sonthonax, deux voies pour l'abolition de l'esclavage." Outre-Mers. Revue d'histoire 84.316 (1997): 47-53.
  10. ↑ Blancpain, François. "Les abolitions de l’esclavage dans les colonies françaises (1793-1794 et 1848)." Haïti (1804): 63-83.
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