中東の概念
中東はエジプトからイランまで、イスラエル、ヨルダン、レバノン、シリア、イラク、サウジアラビアなどの国々を含む多面的な地域である。地理的には、この地域はヨーロッパ、アジア、アフリカの架け橋として機能しており、その戦略的な位置が歴史と政治を形成してきた。古代文明と3大一神教の発祥地でもある： ユダヤ教、キリスト教、イスラム教という三大一神教の発祥地であり、その文化や伝統に多大な影響を与えている。歴史的に中東は、第一次世界大戦後に滅亡するまで君臨したオスマン帝国や、文化的・科学的豊かさで名高いペルシャ帝国など、強大な帝国の中心地であった。12世紀には十字軍に対する抵抗の象徴であるサラディン、最近ではエジプトの指導者であり20世紀のアラブ民族主義の中心人物であるガマル・アブデル・ナセルなど、影響力のある人物が生まれた地域でもある。
中東はまた、ヨーロッパの植民地化と、石油を中心とする天然資源をめぐる世界列強の利害の影響を受け、地政学的紛争の主要な地域でもあった。1916年のサイクス・ピコ協定は、オスマン帝国崩壊後に中東の国境を再定義したもので、中東の政治的構成に西洋が影響を与えた顕著な例である。この時期は、パレスチナ問題が始まった時期でもあり、現在でも大きな争点となっている。経済面では、石油の発見と開発によって、サウジアラビア、カタール、アラブ首長国連邦など、中東の特定の国々が地域の経済大国へと激変した。しかし、この富は均等に分配されておらず、内外の緊張の原因となっている。この地域は、2011年に民主的改革を要求する民衆蜂起を引き起こした「アラブの春」のような大きな社会運動を目撃してきた。これらの出来事は、汚職、失業、政治的抑圧など、多くの中東社会が直面している課題を浮き彫りにした。理論的には、政治学や歴史学における中東の分析には、植民地主義、ナショナリズム、汎アラブ主義、そして最近ではテロリズムや宗教原理主義といった概念がしばしば盛り込まれている。これらの概念は、この地域の複雑な力学を理解するのに役立つ。
中東は今日でも、伝統と現代性の間を行き来する流動的な地域であり、国境を越えて政治、経済、文化に影響を与えながら、世界の舞台で中心的な役割を果たし続けている。
中東の概念
中東」という概念は、ヨーロッパの視点と密接に結びついており、欧米列強が歴史的にこの地域をどのように捉え、分類してきたかを反映している。この用語は、1902年にアメリカの有力な海軍戦略家であったアルフレッド・セイヤー・マハン（Alfred Thayer Mahan）が、インドとインド洋に関する戦略的問題を論じた論文の中で初めて広めたものである。
マハンはこの用語を、海軍と商業の利益にとって戦略的に重要な地理的領域、特に当時のイギリスの重要な植民地であったインドへの航路を指すために使用した。マハンが「中東」と呼んだ地域には、西のオスマン帝国からインドの西側国境までの領土が含まれ、ペルシャ湾やその他の海上・商業支配の重要な地域が含まれていた。このような中東の概念は、20世紀初頭の地政学分析で主流だったヨーロッパ中心主義を象徴するものである。これは、主に自国の戦略的・経済的利益のプリズムを通してこの地域を見ていた植民地大国のビジョンを反映している。この視点は、西欧の言説における中東の理解や表象の仕方だけでなく、特にオスマン帝国が崩壊し、第一次世界大戦が終結した後に、この地域の国境や政治構造が確立された方法をも形成した。
中東」という用語は、アルフレッド・セイヤー・マハンよりもずっと以前から使われていたが、その普及はマハンの功績とされることが多い。英国の将校であり外交官であったトーマス・エドワード・ゴードン卿は、1842年には早くも「中東」という言葉を使っていたと言われている。しかし、この初期の使用は、地政学や学問の世界ではマハンのような衝撃や共鳴を与えなかった。ゴードンが「中東」という言葉を使ったのは、ヨーロッパ列強が帝国的・戦略的利益の文脈でこの地域をどのように概念化し、定義し始めたかを示す初期の兆候と見ることができる。しかし、この用語を現代の地政学用語として定着させたのは、1902年に発表されたマハンの論文であった。マハンは、シーレーンの支配と資源へのアクセスにおけるこの地域の重要性に焦点を当てることで、この用語に戦略的側面を与え、当時の欧米列強の関心や懸念と共鳴させたのである。この2つの用法の影響と普及の違いは、ある考え方や概念が、それが使われる歴史的・地政学的背景によって、いかに影響力を持つようになるかを示している。ゴードンの用法が比較的無名のままであったのに対し、マハンの用法は、中東の戦略的課題が欧米列強によって次第に認識され始めた時期に使われたものであり、この用語の普及と定着に貢献した。
外交政策に影響力のあるジャーナリストでコメンテーターのヴァレンタイン・チロルは、「中東」という概念の歴史に興味深い視点を加えている。ロンドンのタイムズ紙（ニューヨーク・タイムズ紙ではない）に勤務していたチロルは、20世紀初頭、この用語の普及と浸透に重要な役割を果たした。ヴァレンタイン・チロルは、特派員として、また後にタイムズ紙の外交部長として、国際政治に関する多くの影響力のある記事や著書を執筆し、その著作は現在中東と呼ばれる地域に触れることが多かった。彼の分析は、いわゆる「グレート・ゲーム」（中央アジアの支配権をめぐる大英帝国とロシア帝国の戦略的対立）を含む地政学的力学に特に重点を置いていた。
チロルは中東の地理的境界を厳密に定義することはしなかったが、彼の著作は、特に中央アジアにおけるイギリスとロシアの利害に関連して、この地域を重要な戦略的空間として西洋の理解を形成するのに役立った。この「グレート・ゲーム」への注目は、この地域の経済的潜在力（特に石油資源）だけでなく、地政学的なパワー・バランスにおける役割の重要性を浮き彫りにした。実際、中東の議論におけるチロルの貢献は、19世紀後半から20世紀初頭にかけて国際政治を形成した帝国間の対立や影響圏の再定義といったより広い文脈の一部である。中東の正確な定義や境界線は時代とともに変化し続けてきたが、彼の著作は、西欧の地政学的言説における重要な概念として中東を確立する一助となった。
中東」を別個の地域として概念化すること
中東」を別個の地域として概念化することは、19世紀から20世紀初頭にかけて、植民地と帝国の利害関係の中で生まれたヨーロッパ中心主義の視点と密接な関係がある。このような世界観では、ヨーロッパとの相対的な近さによって地域が分類され、「極東」、「近東」、「中東」という言葉が生まれた。
極東には、中国、日本、韓国など、ヨーロッパから最も遠い国が含まれる。この地域は、アヘン戦争（1839年～1842年）や、1854年にペリー提督が日本を西洋貿易に強制的に開放したことなどで知られる西洋帝国主義の時代に、重要な意味を持つようになった。近東」については、当初はトルコ、ギリシャ、時にはエジプトなど、ヨーロッパに隣接するオスマン帝国の領土を指していた。19世紀のオスマン帝国におけるタンジマート改革や、ヨーロッパ列強とオスマン帝国との関係において外交的・文化的に大きな問題となった「東方問題」は、当時のヨーロッパの外交政策におけるこの地域の重要性を物語っている。この2つの地域の間に位置する「中東」は、より緩やかに定義されていた。アルフレッド・セイヤー・マハンは1902年の論文でこの用語を普及させ、アジアへの海路と石油資源の支配におけるこの地域の戦略的重要性を強調した。この視点は、「グレート・ゲーム」として知られる、中央アジアにおける影響力をめぐる英露の対立によって強化された。
このような用語の使用は、ヨーロッパ中心主義的な世界観を反映し、強化するものであった。このような視点は、ポストコロニアル言説や現代の地域研究において、関係する地域の内部力学や自律性を認識していないとして批判されてきた。政治学や歴史学においては、これらの用語の分析は、植民地化と帝国主義の複雑さと帰結を浮き彫りにすると同時に、世界の地域を理解するためには、より微妙で文脈に即したアプローチが必要であることを強調している。
第一次世界大戦は、地政学的用語の再定義と「近東」という用語の漸進的な消滅、そして「中東」という概念の普及と定着において重要な役割を果たした。第一次世界大戦中、当時「近東」と呼ばれていた地域の大部分を占めていたオスマン帝国は、中央列強と同盟を結んだ。この同盟は帝国にとって悲惨なものとなり、戦争末期には大きな領土損失を被った。1920年のセーヴル条約、1923年のローザンヌ条約によって、オスマン帝国はヨーロッパと中東の領土を失い、解体された。
この言葉は、バルカン戦争後のバルカン半島の状況を表すのによく使われるが、この地域にも当てはまる。この時期には、ムスタファ・ケマル・アタテュルク率いる現代トルコのような新しい国民国家が出現し、中東では国境が再定義された。同時に、国際連盟の委任統治領が旧オスマン帝国のいくつかの地域に設置された。フランスとイギリスを中心とするヨーロッパ列強は、シリア、レバノン、イラク、パレスチナといった旧オスマン帝国領の統治を委任された。この委任統治は、この地域の政治的・社会的構成に大きな影響を与え、現代の中東を形成し続けている遺産を残した。
オスマン帝国の滅亡と地域の再構成によって、「近東」と「中東」の区別が明確でなくなり、「近東」という用語は意味を失った。それ以降、「中東」という用語は、エジプトからイランまで、アラブ地域、トルコ、時にはアフガニスタンやパキスタンまでを含む地域を指す言葉として、より一般的に使われるようになった。したがって、この時期はこの地域の地政学的な再定義において決定的な意味を持ち、今日に至るまで国際的な言説の中でこの地域が認識され、分類される方法を形成してきた。こうした変化は、当時のパワー・ダイナミクスを反映しているだけでなく、地理的・政治的概念の形成における歴史的出来事の重要性を強調している。
第一次世界大戦は、中東の概念を拡張し、再定義する上で決定的な役割を果たした。第一次世界大戦以前は、中東といえばインドと、イギリスの貿易と影響力に不可欠な海路が中心であった。しかし、戦争の結果、この概念は特に西側へと大きく拡大した。大きな変革のひとつは、旧オスマン帝国のアラブ領土を中東の定義に加えたことである。オスマン帝国の崩壊と国際連盟の委任統治により、シリア、イラク、レバノン、パレスチナといった地域が、現在中東として知られている地域の中心的な部分となった。国境が引き直され、委任統治領に新しい国家が誕生したことで、この地域に対する新たな地政学的理解が形成された。
さらに、欧米列強や国際機関が「中東」という言葉を公式に使用し、承認したことで、政治・外交用語としての採用・受容が強化された。この変化は、戦後の地政学的現実だけでなく、この地域の戦略的・経済的利益、特に世界政治において重要な役割を果たすようになった石油埋蔵量に関する利益も反映したものであった。したがって、第一次世界大戦後の中東の再定義は、この地域の人々にとっても、国際政治にとっても、重大な意味を持つものであった。それは、中東が世界的な戦略的利害の焦点となる新たな時代の幕開けを示すものであり、この状況は現代世界においても国際関係と地域力学を形成し続けている。
第一次世界大戦後のイギリスは、中東の政治的・領土的再構成において主導的な役割を果たした。イギリスは、この地域の戦略的・経済的重要性が高まっていることを認識し、多くの会議、交流、会議を組織し、この地域における自国の利益と領土を管理するために特定の委員会や部局を設置した。
その初期の例のひとつが、1917年の中東委員会の設立である。この委員会の目的は、戦争による地政学的激変の時期に、この地域におけるイギリスの政策を調整することであった。この委員会の設立は、イギリスが世界戦略における中東の重要性を認識しつつあったことを反映している。1921年、当時植民地担当国務長官であったウィンストン・チャーチルは、中東省の創設において重要な役割を果たした。この部局は、パレスチナやメソポタミア（現イラク）といった国際連盟の委任統治領を含む、中東のイギリス支配地域の管理を担当していた。この部局の設立は、これらの領土の資源と戦略的地位を管理し、利用するための集中的で首尾一貫したアプローチの必要性を反映したものであった。
同年、中東会議が開催され、オスマン帝国解体後にフランスとイギリスが獲得した領土の政治的将来を決定する重要なイベントとなった。会議では、新たに設立された委任統治領の国境、行政、政策などの問題が取り上げられた。チャーチルやT.E.ロレンス（アラビアのロレンスとして知られる）といった重要人物がこの協議に参加し、その後数十年にわたり中東の政治情勢を形作ることになった。この地域におけるこうしたイギリスのイニシアチブは、地政学的な構成という点だけでなく、東西関係という点でも、永続的な影響を及ぼした。また、人工的な国境問題、国民的アイデンティティ、国家間紛争など、今日までこの地域が直面している多くの政治的・社会的課題の基礎を築いた。
地政学用語：中東、近東、大中東
The end of the First World War marked a decisive turning point for the Middle East, characterised by the establishment of mandates by the League of Nations over the territories of the former Ottoman Empire. These mandates, entrusted mainly to Great Britain and France, redefined the political landscape of the region, laying the foundations for many contemporary issues.
Great Britain, with its imperial experience in India, played a pre-eminent role in the new configuration of the Middle East. Among the mandates granted, that of Mesopotamia, now Iraq, was particularly significant. Rich in oil, this territory was crucial to British economic and strategic interests. The British administration in Iraq was marked by attempts to merge various ethnic and religious entities under a single state, a complex undertaking that sowed the seeds of future tensions. The British Mandate in Palestine also had profound implications. Incorporating the Balfour Declaration of 1917, which promised the creation of a "national home for the Jewish people", the Mandate laid the foundations for the Arab-Israeli conflict, which continues to shape regional geopolitics. British management of the Mandate was a delicate undertaking, juggling Zionist aspirations with the demands of the indigenous Arab populations. France, for its part, received the mandates over Syria and Lebanon, where it set up administrations that profoundly influenced the cultural and political development of these countries. French policy in these regions often favoured certain communities, such as the Maronite Christians in Lebanon, helping to shape the fragmented political landscape we know today.
These mandates, although initially designed to prepare the territories for autonomy and independence, often functioned more like colonial administrations. The borders drawn by the mandating powers did not always take account of ethnic, religious and cultural realities, leading to the creation of states with complex and sometimes conflicting national identities. The repercussions of these mandates are still being felt today. The artificial borders and nation-states created during this period have often been the breeding ground for internal conflicts and inter-state tensions. These historical events not only reshaped the Middle East, but also influenced theories in political science and history, highlighting the long-term consequences of colonisation and imperialism, as well as the challenges of nation-building in multi-ethnic and multi-faith contexts.
The Second World War played a crucial role in the consolidation of the use of the term 'Middle East' and the obsolescence of the term 'Near East'. This period of global conflict saw fighting in many areas, including the Balkans and North Africa, which were gradually subsumed under the broader definition of the Middle East.
During the Second World War, the Middle East theatre of operations was not limited to the countries traditionally associated with the region, such as Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It also encompassed areas of conflict in North Africa, notably the North African campaign which saw major clashes between the Axis forces, mainly Italian and German, and the Allies, comprising British, French and later American troops. Figures such as British General Bernard Montgomery and German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel became famous for their roles in these battles. The increased use of the term "Middle East" to refer to these various theatres of operation reflected a broader and more flexible understanding of the region. This geographical extension was also influenced by the strategic and logistical needs of the belligerent powers, for whom control of sea routes and resources, particularly oil, was crucial.
As a result, the term "Near East", which had traditionally referred to the parts of the Ottoman Empire closest to Europe, gradually fell into disuse. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the redefinition of borders and political entities in the region, the distinction between "Near East" and "Middle East" became increasingly irrelevant. Thus, the Second World War was not only a catalyst for geopolitical and territorial change, but also influenced the terminology and conceptualisation of the world's regions. The gradual disappearance of the expression 'Near East' and the predominance of the term 'Middle East' in political and academic discourse are emblematic of these changes.
The growing involvement of the United States in the Middle East during and after the Second World War strengthened and solidified the concept of 'Middle East' in international discourse. A significant milestone in this growing interest was the establishment of the Middle East Institute in Washington, D.C., which played a crucial role in promoting the study and understanding of the region in the United States. Founded in 1946, the Middle East Institute was established against a background of growing strategic and economic interest in the Middle East on the part of the United States. This period saw America emerge as a global superpower, seeking to extend its influence in strategically important regions, not least because of the presence of vast oil reserves. The Middle East, with its energy resources and key geopolitical position, became a central focus of American foreign policy.
The Middle East Institute's role has been to provide analysis, information and advice on the region, helping to shape US foreign policy as well as academic and public understanding of the Middle East. By bringing together experts, diplomats, academics and practitioners, the Institute has contributed to a better appreciation of the political, cultural, economic and social complexities of the region. Increased US involvement in the Middle East after the Second World War was also marked by key events such as the Truman Doctrine in 1947, which aimed to contain Soviet expansion and involved increased support for countries in the region, and the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, a development that profoundly affected regional dynamics. The emergence of the Middle East Institute and the growing involvement of the United States in the region not only reinforced the concept of the Middle East in geopolitical discourse, but also signalled an era of significant change in international politics, where the Middle East became a focal point of American interest and intervention.
The Cold War period saw the emergence of the concept of the 'Greater Middle East', a geographical extension of the traditional term 'Middle East'. This redefinition was influenced by the geopolitical strategies and interests of the superpowers of the time, the United States and the Soviet Union, in the context of their global rivalry. The "Greater Middle East" encompasses a much wider region than the one traditionally referred to as the "Middle East". It stretches from the Western Sahara in North Africa to India in South Asia, including sub-Saharan African countries such as Ethiopia. This extension reflects a broader understanding of strategic issues and zones of influence that go beyond the traditional borders of the Middle East. During the Cold War, this wider region was a key battleground in the struggle for influence between the USA and the USSR. The superpowers engaged in a series of proxy conflicts and supported various regimes and movements according to their strategic and ideological interests. Countries such as Egypt, Iran, Afghanistan and others have played significant roles in this dynamic.
The notion of a "Greater Middle East" has also been associated with more recent political initiatives, notably the post-9/11 American vision for a democratic and economic transformation of the region. This vision, promoted under the George W. Bush administration, envisaged a reshaping of politics and social structures in a vast area encompassing not only the traditional Middle East but also parts of North Africa and South Asia. The use of the term "Greater Middle East" therefore reflects changes in the perception and political engagement of world powers in the region. It also highlights how geopolitical concepts can evolve and adapt in line with global political and strategic realities.
The popularisation and expansion of the concept of the 'Middle East' has given rise to debate and reflection, with figures such as Winston Churchill expressing reservations about the sometimes vague and expansive use of the term. Churchill, as a central figure in the redefinition of borders and policies in the Middle East after the First World War, was particularly aware of the complexities and regional specificities that risked being obscured by an overly generic use of the term "Middle East". At the UN, the use of the term "Western Asia" to designate part of what many consider to be the Middle East is an example of these attempts at more precise and geographically oriented categorisation. It aims to define the region more geographically than politically or culturally, offering an alternative to the more loaded and ambiguous terminology of "Middle East".
At the same time, traditional and historical names for different sub-regions and geographical areas have not disappeared and continue to be used. Terms such as "Maghreb" (North-West Africa), "Mashreq" (Arab Near East), "Anatolia" (Asian part of Turkey), "Mesopotamia" (historically used for Iraq until 1921), and "Fertile Crescent" (region encompassing the Levant and parts of Mesopotamia) have a specific historical and cultural richness. These terms reflect not only a particular geography, but also distinct histories, cultures and identities. The persistence of these names underlines the diversity and complexity of the Middle East as a region. It highlights the difficulty of capturing the multitude of its characteristics under a single label. It also reflects a crucial aspect of geopolitical and cultural study: the need to recognise and respect local and historical specificities while addressing regional and international issues.
The three strategic areas of the Muslim world
This map represents a strategic vision of the Muslim world, divided into three distinct regions that highlight the political, economic and cultural diversity and complexities within Islam. The first region, the traditional heartland of the Middle East, stretches from Egypt to the Gulf states and on to Iran and Yemen. This area is steeped in history, having been the cradle of civilisation and the scene of major conflicts such as the Arab-Israeli wars, the Iranian revolution of 1979 and the Gulf wars. These territories are at the heart of the world's geopolitical concerns, notably because of their vast hydrocarbon reserves, which have attracted the attention of world powers for decades. The second region, the Maghreb, which includes Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, presents a mosaic of identities influenced by the Berber, Arab and European heritages. Events such as the Algerian war for independence and the Arab Spring, which began in Tunisia in 2010, bear witness to the ongoing quest for autonomy and democracy. The Maghreb's proximity to Europe also makes it a crucial region for migration and security issues. The third region, Central Asia and the Caucasus, is often overlooked in discussions of the Middle East but is essential to understanding trans-regional relations. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, states such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan gained in strategic importance due to their natural resources and their position in the 'new geopolitical games' involving Russia, China and the United States. The war in Afghanistan, which saw the intervention of foreign powers from the Soviet period to the post-9/11 era, illustrates the complexity and instability that can emanate from this region.
Each of these regions, although sharing the Muslim faith, has its own historical trajectory and contemporary challenges. From the Ottoman Empire to the modern Arab revolutions, via the Cold War and contemporary conflicts, the histories of these regions are intertwined with the great movements of world history. The borders and identities of these regions have been shaped by a combination of internal factors and foreign interventions, reflecting power dynamics and issues that go far beyond their immediate geographies. For political science and history, such a map is a reminder of the importance of the regional approach, while recognising the interconnections that define contemporary international relations.
Governance in the regions shown on the map is marked by substantial complexity, resulting from ethnic, cultural and political diversity. Xinjiang, for example, is an autonomous region in north-west China, inhabited mainly by the Uyghurs, a Turkic-speaking Muslim ethnic group. The region has become a focal point of international human rights debate because of Chinese policies, which are seen as attempts to forcibly assimilate and repress distinct cultural and religious identities. Xinjiang illustrates how governance in geopolitically sensitive regions can involve complex state strategies that interact with issues of national security, economic development and minority rights. China justifies its actions in Xinjiang by the need to combat extremism and separatism, while international critics see it as a violation of minority rights and religious freedom.
Beyond Xinjiang, the map also shows that the dynamics of governance in the 'Greater Middle East' are influenced by a variety of factors, including sectarian tensions, inter-state conflicts, foreign intervention and popular protest movements. The region is a complex chessboard of local, regional and international powers, where nation-states, non-governmental organisations, rebel groups and foreign powers clash and cooperate in a variety of configurations. This complexity is particularly apparent in countries such as Syria and Iraq, where foreign intervention, sectarian conflict and terrorism have led to humanitarian crises and national reconstruction challenges. In North Africa, countries such as Libya show how the absence of stable governance can lead to political fragmentation and civil wars. At the same time, states such as Iran and Turkey are playing influential regional roles, both as economic and military powers and as cultural and political players. In this way, the map serves as a reminder that governance strategies in the Greater Middle East cannot be understood without taking into account the richness and complexity of regional identities, strategic alliances, economic stakes and political aspirations. These elements shape domestic politics and international relations in dynamic and often unpredictable ways.
Key geographical features of the Middle East
This map highlights the main geographical features of the Middle East and surrounding regions, an area that has historically been a crossroads of civilisations and continues to be a centre of strategic geopolitical interest.
The Maghreb: a crossroads of civilisations and terrains
The Maghreb region, located in north-west Africa, is a unique area at the intersection of several worlds. It is defined by remarkable geographical features, including the Atlas mountain ranges that stretch across several of its countries, notably Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. These mountains are not only a striking feature of the natural landscape, but have also shaped lifestyles and trade routes in the region. The Sahara, bordering the Maghreb to the south, is the world's largest hot desert and acts as both a barrier and a bridge between sub-Saharan Africa and the Mediterranean shores of the Maghreb. This arid vastness has been crossed for millennia by trade caravans carrying goods such as salt, gold and cloth, linking the Maghreb to sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. Historically, the Maghreb has been an area of intense cultural and commercial exchange. Phoenicians, Romans, Byzantines and later Arabs and Europeans left their mark on the region, resulting in a rich cultural and architectural heritage. The Arab influence is particularly notable from the seventh century onwards with the introduction of Islam, which had a profound influence on the region's culture, language and identity.
Over the centuries, the Maghreb has seen centres of knowledge and culture flourish, such as the city of Fez in Morocco and the Qarawiyyin, one of the oldest universities in the world still in operation. The region has also been the scene of major battles and conflicts, including resistance campaigns against French and Spanish colonisation, ultimately leading to the independence of the Maghreb nations in the mid-twentieth century. Today, the Maghreb continues to play a strategic role due to its geographical position at the gateway to Europe, its natural resources, particularly hydrocarbons in Algeria and Libya, and its contemporary challenges such as migratory movements and regional security issues. Understanding the geography of the Maghreb is therefore essential to grasping the current dynamics shaping the region and its interaction with the rest of the world.
The Sahara: A desert connecting worlds
To the east of the Maghreb lies the Sahara, a vast desert that runs through many African countries. This vast expanse of arid land represents one of the most imposing natural barriers on Earth, profoundly affecting settlement patterns, trade routes and cultural exchanges. The Sahara is more than a desert; it is an ecological frontier, a space that has historically separated the verdant north of Africa from its wetter sub-Saharan regions. The "Libyan Desert" refers to the part of the Sahara that lies in Libya and Egypt. This region is particularly well known for its extreme landscapes and geological formations, such as the Akakus mountain massifs in Libya or the scattered oases that have served as vital stopping points for caravans throughout the ages. These oases, such as Siwa in Egypt, were centres of trade and cultural contact, linking North Africa to the Nile Valley and beyond.
Trans-Saharan dynamics, influenced by the Libyan Desert and the Sahara as a whole, have been crucial throughout history. Trans-Saharan trade routes facilitated the trade of precious goods, including gold, salt and slaves, between sub-Saharan Africa and Mediterranean markets. These exchanges also enabled the spread of Islam and other cultural traditions, weaving a complex web of influences that continue to shape the identity of Saharan and Sahelian societies.
In addition, the desert has been and remains a theatre for security issues and conflicts. The region has seen cross-border tensions and the activities of militant groups, exacerbated by the vastness of the terrain and the challenges of governance. In the contemporary context, the Libyan desert has become a transit point for migrants seeking to reach Europe, placing the region at the heart of discussions on migration policies and international security. Understanding the geography of the Sahara and the Libyan desert is therefore essential for grasping the political, economic and social issues that characterise these regions and their impact on wider African and Mediterranean dynamics.
Anatolia: a land of empire and topographical diversity
Anatolia, or Asia Minor, which makes up most of modern Turkey, is a region of exceptional historical and cultural wealth. Its geographical position, straddling two continents, has made Anatolia a crossroads of civilisations since ancient times. Ancient empires such as the Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines and, later, the Ottomans left their mark on the peninsula, making it a mosaic of cultures and historical legacies. Geologically, Anatolia lies at the meeting point of several tectonic plates, which explains its significant seismic activity. This activity has helped to shape the region's diverse topography, with mountain ranges such as the Taurus and Pontic mountains, and inland plateaux containing salt lakes and fertile basins. The latter were the scene of the rise of agriculture and the development of the first city-states. Anatolia's mountains and plateaux also play an important role in determining the region's climate, with coastal areas enjoying a Mediterranean climate and inland areas experiencing more continental conditions. These climatic variations, combined with the richness of the soils, have enabled the development of varied agriculture and supported dense populations throughout history.
The Byzantine and Ottoman empires, with their capitals in what is now Istanbul, took advantage of Anatolia's strategic position, controlling crucial trade routes between East and West and exerting a major cultural and political influence on neighbouring regions. Anatolia is dotted with the remains of these flourishing periods, including palaces, mosques, churches and citadels, which continue to attract scholars and tourists from all over the world. Today, Anatolia continues to play a central geopolitical role, not only for Turkey but also for the Middle East and Europe. Its geographical location, cultural wealth and natural resources make it a pivotal region in discussions of security, economics and diplomacy in the wider Middle East.
The Fertile Crescent: the cradle of agriculture and civilisation
The Fertile Crescent is a historically rich strip of land stretching from the Levant to Iraq. This area is central to the history of mankind, recognised as the place where agriculture first developed due to its exceptionally rich soils and access to water provided by major rivers such as the Tigris and Euphrates. Conditions conducive to agriculture enabled sedentary societies to establish themselves and were the foundation of the first urban civilisations.
Syria and Iraq, in particular, are lands where ancient Mesopotamian civilisations such as the Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians emerged and prospered, creating complex cities, writing systems and legal codes that shaped the early stages of human development. Mesopotamia is often referred to as the "cradle of civilisation" for this reason. In the Levant, which includes Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and Palestine, the Phoenicians were renowned for their maritime navigation and trade, establishing colonies and trading networks across the Mediterranean. The cities of the Levant, thanks to their strategic location, have been centres of exchange and cultural interaction between various empires and cultures throughout history.
Today, the Fertile Crescent remains of vital importance to the region, despite the challenges posed by modernisation, conflict and the management of water resources. Syria and Iraq, for example, are facing difficulties linked to the over-exploitation and pollution of their water resources. Tensions over water resources are exacerbated by regional conflicts and demographic pressure, making regional cooperation on water management all the more crucial. The region continues to be a hotbed of agricultural activity, supporting local economies and providing livelihoods for millions of people. However, agriculture in the Fertile Crescent is subject to the vagaries of climate change, requiring adaptation and innovative strategies to preserve soil fertility and the sustainability of farming practices. The current challenges facing the Fertile Crescent reflect the interaction between its rich past and the complex realities of the present.
The Arabian Peninsula: the nerve centre of religion and resources
The Arabian Peninsula is a particularly significant geographical region, both culturally and economically. It is the cradle of Islam, with holy cities such as Mecca and Medina in Saudi Arabia attracting millions of Muslim faithful from all over the world for the annual Hajj pilgrimage, one of the five pillars of Islam. The spiritual dimension of these places gives the peninsula an undeniable importance in the collective identity and consciousness of the Muslim world.
In geological terms, the Arabian Peninsula is famous for its vast oil and gas reserves, making it one of the richest energy regions on the planet. The discovery of oil in the 20th century transformed the economies of the countries of the peninsula, in particular Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Bahrain, propelling them onto the world stage as key players in the energy economy. The abundance of these resources has led to major investment in infrastructure and generated huge revenues, enabling these states to play an influential role in international politics and finance.
Yemen and Oman, while rich in history and culture, have economies that are not as dependent on hydrocarbons. Yemen, in particular, faces significant development challenges and a difficult humanitarian situation exacerbated by protracted conflict. The Arabian Peninsula is also a region of great strategic importance due to its geographical position, controlling key maritime routes such as the Strait of Hormuz and the Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. These crossings are essential for the global transport of oil, and their security is a major concern for energy-consuming countries around the world.
The Arabian Peninsula is an area that combines deep religious significance, an abundance of natural resources and a crucial strategic position, making it a pivotal point in the global economy and international politics. The countries of the peninsula navigate between preserving their cultural and religious heritage and adapting to contemporary economic and political dynamics, in a balance that continues to influence the region and beyond.
Ethiopia and its historical links with the Middle East
Ethiopia, located in the Horn of Africa, has deep ties with the Middle East that transcend geographical borders. These links are rooted in a shared history of trade, religion and cultural exchange. Historically, Ethiopia was known as the Kingdom of Abyssinia, an empire that maintained relations with the Arab kingdoms and the Middle East since antiquity.
Ethiopia is home to one of the world's oldest Christian traditions, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, which, according to tradition, was established in the fourth century AD. This religious tradition shares certain roots with Middle Eastern religious traditions, notably Eastern Christianity and Judaism. Ethiopian history is also closely linked to Islam, with one of the first hijras (exodus) of persecuted Muslims from Mecca to Abyssinia, seeking the protection of the Ethiopian Christian king of the time, an event respected in Islamic tradition.
Ethiopia's position as a crossroads between Africa and the Middle East is reinforced by its proximity to the Arabian Peninsula, separated only by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Trade has long traversed these waters, carrying spices, gold and other precious commodities, facilitating a rich intermingling of cultures and peoples. In geopolitical terms, Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa have become increasingly relevant to the security and politics of the Middle East, not least because of regional conflicts and maritime security issues. In addition, Ethiopia is a key player in the management of the Nile's water resources, a major concern for downstream countries such as Egypt and Sudan. In the current context, Ethiopia faces its own internal challenges, including ethnic and political tensions, but its role in the region continues to be influenced by its historical and contemporary links with the Middle East. These connections underline the interconnected nature of the region and how the histories of various nations are intertwined across time and space.
The map of the Middle East and its surrounding regions depicts an area of the world where geography has played a key role in shaping human history. The vast, arid deserts, such as the Sahara and the Arabian Desert, have served as natural barriers but also as corridors for communication and cultural exchange, influencing caravan routes and exchanges between civilisations. The fertile valleys of the Fertile Crescent, irrigated by the legendary Tigris and Euphrates river systems, saw the birth of agriculture and the first great cities in human history. These rich lands not only fostered the development of the first urban civilisations, but were also the scene of many historic conflicts due to their great agricultural and strategic value. Mountains, such as the Atlas Mountains in North Africa and the Taurus Mountains in Anatolia, have served as refuges and natural fortresses throughout history, offering protection and isolating peoples and cultures, allowing the development of unique languages and traditions. At the same time, they have acted as obstacles to advancing armies, shaping military strategies and the boundaries of empires. As for the historic urban centres that dot this region, from Baghdad to Damascus, from Jerusalem to Istanbul, they are living witnesses to bygone eras. These cities, often established because of their strategic geographical location or their proximity to water and fertile land, have been centres of power, trade and culture, greatly influencing the evolution of the region.
Today, these same geographical features continue to influence contemporary issues. Water resources have become crucial points of contention in international relations, fertile land is at the heart of environmental concerns, and historic trade routes are taken up in debates on globalisation and security. The geography of the Middle East and adjacent regions, with its diversity and complexity, remains a determining factor in political, economic and social dynamics.
Appendices
- Cleveland, William L., and Martin Bunton. A history of the modern Middle East. Hachette UK, 2016.
- Goldschmidt Jr, Arthur, and Aomar Boum. A concise history of the Middle East. Hachette UK, 2015.
- Lewis, Bernard. The multiple identities of the Middle East. New York: Schocken Books, 1998.
- Little, Douglas. American orientalism: the United States and the Middle East since 1945. Univ of North Carolina Press, 2008.