US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty

De Baripedia
US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
Faculté Lettres
Département Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s) Aline Helg[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
Cours The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures


The phrase "under God" was added to the Pledge of Allegiance in 1954 during the Cold War, when the US was trying to differentiate itself from the Soviet Union, which was perceived as an atheist state. The change was made by a Congressional decision and was aimed at emphasizing the religious and patriotic values of the US. Until 2003, the Pledge of Allegiance was recited in Texas schools and elsewhere, with the phrase "under God" included.[8] During the Cold War, children in the US, as well as in other countries, participated in civil defense drills that simulated a Soviet nuclear attack. These drills were meant to prepare them for a potential nuclear attack and teach them how to protect themselves from radioactive fallout. This was part of the larger effort by governments to prepare their citizens for the possibility of a nuclear war.

After World War II, the United States emerged as a superpower, with a strong economy and a rapidly growing middle class. This period, sometimes referred to as the "Society of Plenty," was characterized by widespread prosperity and economic growth, as well as advances in technology and consumer culture. The country was able to achieve this level of prosperity due to several factors, including a highly productive workforce, favorable government policies, and a booming consumer market. The US was also able to capitalize on its status as the world's leading industrial power, as well as its dominant position in the global political and military spheres, to maintain and enhance its prosperity during the Cold War era.

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The United States and the Cold War

The use of atomic bombs by the United States on Japan marked the end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War, a period of political and military tension between the US and the Soviet Union. The US believed that its possession of nuclear weapons gave it an advantage over the Soviets in the post-war negotiations, but this action also intensified the arms race between the two nations, leading to a state of global insecurity and fear of nuclear war. This period was characterized by the US' efforts to contain the spread of communism, through military, economic, and political means, and the Soviet Union's efforts to expand its sphere of influence. The Cold War greatly impacted society in the US and around the world, shaping international relations, economics, and domestic policies for decades to come.

At the end of World War II, the United States was in a unique position compared to other major powers. Its territory was largely untouched by the war and its economy was thriving, but the US was unable to force its liberal ideals on the Soviet Union. The US saw the spread of communism as a threat to its way of life and sought to contain its spread through a combination of political, economic, and military means. However, the Soviet Union was not receptive to these efforts, and instead pursued a policy of closed markets and state-controlled economic development. This created significant barriers to the expansion of American economic interests and the US' ability to dominate global markets. The result was a period of intense economic and political competition between the two superpowers, which would come to define the Cold War era.

The Yalta Conference, held in February 1945, was attended by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin. The leaders discussed a range of issues related to the post-World War II reorganization of Europe and the future of the Soviet Union. One of the key outcomes of the conference was the establishment of the United Nations (UN), an international organization aimed at promoting peace, security, and cooperation among nations. However, the leaders were unable to resolve many of the economic and political issues that were dividing them. The US and Britain sought to promote free trade and open markets, while the Soviet Union sought to maintain control over its economy and limit Western influence. These differences would lay the foundation for the Cold War and continued to shape international relations for many years to come.

The United States aimed to establish its financial and commercial hegemony over the world through the creation of international financial institutions such as the World Bank, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). These institutions were intended to promote economic growth and stability in the aftermath of World War II and to provide a framework for international economic cooperation. However, the USSR saw these institutions as a means for the US to assert its dominance over the global economy and feared that participating in them would undermine its own control over its economy. As a result, the USSR refused to join these institutions, further deepening the divide between the US and the USSR and contributing to the tensions of the Cold War. The refusal of the USSR to participate in these institutions was seen as a rejection of American financial and commercial hegemony and a demonstration of the political and economic differences between the two superpowers.

The fears that fuel the Cold War

The fears that fueled the Cold War were rooted in the differences between the political, economic, and ideological systems of the United States and the Soviet Union. These fears led to a period of intense political, economic, and military competition between the two superpowers, as each sought to assert its dominance and protect its interests. The result was the Cold War, a decades-long struggle for global influence that shaped international relations and defined a generation.

Among the Soviet leaders, there was a fear of encirclement by capitalist powers, which they believed justified their expansion to the West and the establishment of communist regimes in buffer states. These states were created after World War I to prevent the advance of the Soviet Union and were seen as a threat to Soviet security. Soviet leaders feared that these states could be used by the US and its allies to encircle and isolate the Soviet Union, both politically and militarily. As a result, they sought to expand their influence and establish friendly regimes in these states to protect themselves from the perceived threat of encirclement. This fear of encirclement was a major driver of Soviet foreign policy during the Cold War, and contributed to the tense relationship between the Soviet Union and the West.

Among Americans, there was a fear that the USSR represented a global threat to which the US should respond with comprehensive military responses. After World War II, the world was in a period of transition, with many countries, including Europe and Japan, experiencing economic ruin. In some countries, such as Greece and China, there were civil wars, with opposing factions supported by either the US or the Soviets. The British and French colonial empires were facing pressure from national liberation movements, and the stability of the world seemed uncertain. This fear of Soviet expansion and influence, combined with the chaos and instability in many regions, led many Americans to view the USSR as a major threat to US security and interests. As a result, the US pursued a strategy of containment, aimed at limiting Soviet expansion and influence through a combination of military, economic, and diplomatic means. This fear of the USSR and the perceived threat it posed to US security and interests was a major driver of US foreign policy during the Cold War.

U.S. Internal Factors

There were several internal factors in the United States that contributed to the heightened fears of the Soviet threat during the Cold War.

  • Truman, Roosevelt's successor, was seen as less capable and experienced than his predecessor, which increased concerns about US preparedness to face the Soviet threat.
  • The war industry had made significant profits during World War II, and many in this sector sought to maintain this profit by continuing to produce and sell weapons.
  • There was a long tradition of anti-socialist and anti-Bolshevik sentiment in the US, dating back to the 1880s. During the war, there was also strong anti-communist propaganda that contributed to negative views of communism.
  • There was a fear that the poverty and instability in many countries after the war would lead to the rise of communist parties in these countries, particularly in France and Italy, and that this would pose a threat to US interests and security.

These internal factors, combined with the external threat posed by the Soviet Union, contributed to a sense of heightened fear and urgency among policy makers and the public in the United States during the Cold War.

The general idea behind the US foreign policy during the Cold War was that the prosperity and well-being of the country was closely tied to its economic growth, which in turn was dependent on access to new markets for exports and supplies of raw materials. The US saw any restrictions or limitations on its plans for global expansion as a threat to its interests, and was therefore motivated to maintain its economic and military power in order to secure its dominance and protect its economic and strategic interests around the world. This idea helped shape the US response to the Soviet Union and its approach to the international order during the Cold War, as the US sought to prevent the spread of communism and maintain its global influence and dominance.

Doctrine Truman

The labeling used on Marshall Plan aid packages.

The Truman Doctrine was a foreign policy doctrine announced by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947. The Doctrine stated that the United States would provide political, military, and economic support to any country threatened by communism or totalitarianism, with the goal of containing the spread of communism and promoting the spread of democracy and capitalism. The Truman Doctrine was a response to the growing threat posed by the Soviet Union, which had expanded its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe and was seen as a threat to Western democracy and capitalism. The Doctrine marked a significant shift in US foreign policy, as it marked the beginning of the US's involvement in containing Soviet expansion and maintaining its global dominance during the Cold War.[9][10][11][12]

The Truman Doctrine and the policy of containment formulated by George Kennan are closely related and often seen as complementary. The policy of containment, as articulated by Kennan, sought to prevent the spread of communism and the expansion of Soviet influence by containing Soviet power within its existing borders and limiting its ability to project power beyond those borders. The Truman Doctrine built upon the policy of containment by providing concrete military and economic support to countries threatened by communism or totalitarianism, and thus making it a key component of the US's Cold War strategy. The Truman Doctrine and the policy of containment together helped to shape US foreign policy during the Cold War, as the US sought to maintain its global dominance and protect its interests in the face of perceived threats from the Soviet Union.

The policy of containment during the Cold War can be seen as an extension of the Monroe Doctrine in some ways, although there are also important differences between the two. The Monroe Doctrine, first articulated by President James Monroe in 1823, warned European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the Americas and proclaimed that the Western Hemisphere was closed to further European colonization. The policy of containment during the Cold War similarly sought to protect US interests and prevent the spread of communism, but it was more global in scope and focused on containing Soviet influence rather than European influence.

Like the Monroe Doctrine, the policy of containment during the Cold War reflected a belief in American exceptionalism and a desire to protect US interests and maintain US dominance. However, the policy of containment also reflected the unique geopolitical realities of the Cold War, as the US sought to prevent the spread of Soviet influence and protect its allies in Europe and around the world. Ultimately, the policy of containment was a central component of US foreign policy during the Cold War, shaping US relations with the Soviet Union and shaping global politics for decades to come.[13][14][15][16][17]

The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, was a U.S. initiative launched in 1948 to provide aid to Western European countries to rebuild their economies after the devastation of World War II. The idea behind the plan was to prevent the spread of communism and stabilize the region, as well as to promote the growth of U.S. exports and boost its own economy. Over the course of four years, the United States provided more than $13 billion in aid to Western Europe, which helped the region to recover and become a major trading partner for the United States. The Marshall Plan is considered one of the most successful U.S. foreign policy initiatives of the 20th century and is often cited as a key factor in the success of the post-war economic boom in Europe.[18][19][20][21]

National Security Act

The National Security Act of 1947 was a significant piece of legislation passed by the U.S. Congress during the early years of the Cold War. The act created several new institutions and reorganized existing ones to meet the challenges posed by the Soviet Union. The most significant changes brought about by the act included the creation of the National Security Council (NSC), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and the Department of Defense. The NSC was tasked with advising the President on national security matters and coordinating the various agencies involved in the country's defense. The CIA was established as an independent intelligence agency responsible for gathering and analyzing foreign intelligence. The Department of Defense was created to coordinate and oversee all military activities, including the newly created U.S. Air Force. The National Security Act of 1947 is considered one of the key pieces of legislation that helped the United States meet the challenges of the Cold War.[22][23]

The CIA was involved in several covert operations in the 1950s and beyond, aimed at overthrowing foreign governments seen as hostile to the interests of the United States. These operations were carried out as part of the larger Cold War effort to contain the spread of communism and promote American interests abroad. Some of the most well-known examples of these operations include the 1953 coup in Iran, the Bay of Pigs invasion in Cuba in 1961, and the overthrow of Salvador Allende's government in Chile in 1973.[24][25][26][27]

  • President Truman signing the National Security Act Amendment of 1949 in the Oval Office.

  • The National Security Council logo.

  • Emblem on the first CIA building in Washington.

The development of McCarthyism: 1947 - 1962

The anti-communist sentiment in the United States has a long history dating back to the late 19th century. This sentiment was fueled by a mixture of political, economic, and ideological factors, including concerns about the rise of socialist and communist movements, the perceived threat to American business interests, and a strong anti-Bolshevik ideology. Fears and suspicions intensified during the early Cold War period with events such as the Soviet Union's acquisition of atomic weapons, and the perceived spread of communism in Eastern Europe and Asia. Additionally, the fear of espionage and subversion within the US government fueled the creation of the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) in 1938, which investigated alleged Communist activities. The committee, along with McCarthy's sensationalized speeches, led to a widespread "Red Scare" and a climate of fear and mistrust in the 1950s. This ultimately resulted in the blacklisting of numerous individuals in the entertainment industry, as well as the firing of federal employees suspected of Communist sympathies. The fear of communist subversion was used by political leaders to justify the pursuit of anti-communist policies both domestically and internationally.

McCarthyism was a period of intense anti-communist suspicion and persecution in the United States during the 1950s, led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. It was characterized by widespread accusations of political subversion and espionage, often without evidence, and resulted in the blacklisting of numerous people in the entertainment and other industries. The term "McCarthyism" has since become a byword for unjust and reckless political persecution.

McCarthy chats with Roy Cohn (right) at the Army-McCarthy hearings.

The term "McCarthyism" is often used as a shorthand for this period and is synonymous with the broader phenomenon of anti-Communist hysteria. Senator Joseph McCarthy led the charge against Communism, often making accusations without evidence and destroying the careers and reputations of many innocent people. The anti-Communist fervor of the time was fueled by fear of Communist infiltration in American society and the perceived threat posed by the Soviet Union.[28][29]

Truman, as President of the United States, was concerned about the growing influence of the Communist Party in America, especially after the Soviet Union became a global superpower after the end of World War II. The strikes, along with the growing membership of the Communist Party of America, contributed to Truman's concern and eventually led him to launch the anti-communist crusade. The post-war period was characterized by economic uncertainty and social unrest, which created an environment ripe for the spread of communist ideology. This, in turn, fueled the fear that communism could take root in the United States, leading Truman to take action to protect American interests. This concern and his belief in the threat of Communist ideology led to a series of actions, including the implementation of the Truman Doctrine and the creation of the National Security Council. [30][31][32]

/Truman demanded an assessment of the loyalty of members of the federal government. The victory of Mao Tse tong in China, which proclaimed the People's Republic of China in 1949, will only accentuate this suspicion, as the People's Republic of China will not be recognized until 1979 by the United States.

The outbreak of cases of transmission of confidential documents to the USSR will allow McCarthy to accuse the government of being infested with communists. He felt that the anti-communist argument would give the Republicans a political advantage.

In creating a sense of fear and internal enemy, everyone plays along, and Congress approves a Homeland Security Act that makes it illegal for anyone to contribute to the establishment of a totalitarian dictatorship ordering all members of communist organizations to register with the government.

These people are excluded from certain positions and their passports are seized in order to prevent them from travelling, and Truman evicts certain elements.

In 1954, North Korean troops entered South Korean territory; Truman ordered U.S. intervention approved by the Security Council, but approved because of the absence of the USSR, which protested China's lack of permanent membership by practicing the "empty chair policy".[33][34][35]

Ethel and Julius Rosenberg.

A couple of scientists, the Rosenbergs, are arrested for having "supposedly" transmitted information about the atomic bomb to the Soviets during the war. Even though there was a protest movement they were executed in the electric chair.[36][37][38][39]

In the same year 1953, after twenty years of Democratic presidency, a Republican, military hero, Dwight Eisenhower became president with Richard Nixon as vice-president, at that time American WASP nationalism and McCarthyism were in full swing.

It was then that in 1954, Eisenhower added a "nation under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance that children must do under the American flag. It was also at this time that Congress passed a 265-2 vote in favor of a law banning the Communist Party[40][41][42][43] Reinforcing the need for loyalty among federal employees, to lose one's job as a public servant a simple whistle-blower was all that was needed, no evidence was required and no recourse was available.

In a case where the United States is very legalistic, it does not protect the accused by law.

McCarthy is challenged when he tries to denounce the penetration of the army by the communists.

The Soviet Union is in full expansion, it is also exploring its first H-bomb. At the same time, Moscow established the Warsaw Defence Pact in 1955, which was a response to the NATO pact established by the United States in 1949.[44][45][46][47][48] The repression of the Soviet invasion reinforced this, as did the first intercontinental missile launch and the sending of the world's first Sputnik satellite into the atmosphere in 1957.

Even if the USSR does not directly threaten the United States, this is enough to justify the Truman policy.

The American Society of Plenty

These are years of fear, of enormous inner control, but at the same time, they are years of abundance. At this time, the United States is probably establishing, for the first time in human history, a society of abundance.

What is curious is that usually the mobilization of the population against an internal enemy takes place in a period of economic crisis and against a group that leads the popular fury and does not question the system.

Causes and characteristics

En 1945, the United States entered a period of economic boom that would consolidate its domestic hierarchy and last 25 years.

At that time, Americans did not know that it would last, and many still feared a return to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Anti-communism will consolidate interventionist nationalism and justify to the public that the United States is sending its boys to war outside the United States. With this anticommunist rhetoric, young men were still being sent to fight outside the United States.

This boom is based first and foremost on the building and automobile construction and the arms industry. It is going to benefit the Americans at ¾.

United States birth rate (births per 1000 population).[49] The United States Census Bureau defines the demographic birth boom as between 1946 and 1964[50] (red).

Starting in 1945 there is a baby boom, in the United States 63.5 million children were born between 1945 and 1961. In 1940 there were 132 million, in 1960 almost 189 million.[51][52]

When you compare with other countries there is always the birth boom at the end of a war. What is interesting in the United States is that it will last until the 1960s. This will be reflected in the construction industry with the building of houses and schools. At the same time, factories, supermarkets, and airports are being built. A large part of these constructions are in new areas called "suburban" areas with villa zones.

This is going to generate the boom in automobile construction, which requires a densification of transport networks between housing and consumption centres. It is an economy and a society based on the car that is being formed with drive-in theatres as its symbol.

It is also the boom in military spending, which quadrupled between 1949 and 1954, and has continued to rise ever since. A large part of the military budget is used to fund research and the production of increasingly sophisticated weapons in line with the Cold War's globalisation - the so-called "arms race", which was mainly launched with the Soviet Union.

In the United States, the war industry is privately owned, but depends on contracts with the federal government. This is why the arms industries have a vested interest in applying the Monroe doctrine to the whole world by creating a sense of insecurity.

A transistor radio made by Sanyo in 1959. Japan manufactured much of the world's consumer electronics during this period.

It is also worth noting the invention of the transistor in 1947 which led to the electronic revolution leading to the automation of many industries; there is a consequent decrease in industrial employment and a new wave of concentration of production which is materialized by mergers by large corporations that have financial and technological power that will acquire other subsidiary industries to assemble them in large consortiums where a central industry will acquire all the subsidiaries that will allow it to manufacture the final products.

We are in the fourth wave of concentration, the first and the end of the 19th century, the 1920s, the New Deal and the post-war period; we have reached a situation of unprecedented concentration of industrial capital.

This concentration also manifests itself in capitalism, where the AFL and the CIO merge into an anti-communist trade union movement. At the same time, the number of union members is not increasing. The new jobs created are mostly for "white collar" workers and for sectors where there is not a strong trade unionist tradition.

At the same time, there is a movement of concentration in agriculture with an ever-increasing mechanisation of all agricultural production processes thanks to technological development, machinery, the use of pesticides and fertilisers that allow for huge productions and a new movement of concentration.

It is interesting to see that agricultural productivity has doubled in 15 years and at the same time the number of families making a living from agriculture has halved.

In the southern United States, this will drive out 4 million Americans, mostly blacks and sharecroppers, who will be chased away to northern cities and California.

Birth of the symbols of America's affluent society

It is in these years that the great symbols of the American society of abundance were born with television, it is also the beginning of symbols such as Macdonald, Barbie, Marilyn Monroe or Elvis Presley.

Presley in the 1950s really shocked WASP circles since he was inspired by black circles and was subjectively contorted.

  • Marilyn Monroe in the 1950s.

  • The first Barbie doll was introduced in both blonde and brunette in March 1959.

  • The oldest McDonald's restaurant still in operation, in Downey, California, at the corner of Lakewood Bvd and Florence Ave. This is the third restaurant built by the chain and the second built with the golden arches. Its appearance has changed little since it opened in 1953.

  • Elvis Presley in 1957.

The ¾ of Americans enjoying the affluent society

The vast majority are white middle-class people, many of whom will leave the east coast to migrate to the sun-belt; these regions are gradually industrialising, thanks in particular to the development of air conditioning, which allows work in factories.

In these regions, the arms industry, aeronautics, oil extraction and agribusiness are developing.

Middle class women are completely challenged since they had been integrated into the industrial workforce. The idea is to follow salaried work while being in conflict with a traditionalist value system.

The white middle classes are the big winners not only because they are the ones working in the expanding sectors and regions, but also because they are the ones benefiting from federal programs.

The Federal Housing Administration provides mortgages to finance real estate purchases, but these insurances "do not accept the poor, non-whites, Jews, and other racially disharmonious groups.[53][54]

Federal investments are also being made in the highway system, which are increasing 38-fold. At the same time, public transport and railways were completely abandoned, and until the end of the 1960s there was no construction of social housing for the poor.

The ¼ of Americans in Poverty

They are mostly elderly or children, the majority are single women who are widowed or divorced, 70 per cent live in cities and 30 per cent in smaller, more rural communities.

The poorest category is that of Amerindians, whose annual income is half the average income of the poor.[55][56]

In 1953, Congress decided to eliminate Indian reservations. It was the Indian termination policy that removed federal assistance to reserves, encouraging Native Americans to abandon their reserves in exchange for the payment of meager bonuses that swelled the miserable population of the cities.[57][58]

Quand cette politique est stoppée en 1960, de nombreuses tribus ont été décimées.[59][60][61][62]

They are also the urban poor and Puerto Rican immigrants, especially Mexicans, as well as sharecroppers and migrant workers.

Until the early 1960s, the United States did not care about the poor; it was Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson who arrived after Kennedy's assassination and launched the war against poverty which, unfortunately, was to be curbed very dramatically because of the Vietnam War. However, this aid bore fruit, poverty was reduced and 25% of pollution classified as poor fell to 11% in 1973.[63][64][65][66][67][68][69]

Annexes

References

  1. ↑ Aline Helg - UNIGE
  2. ↑ Aline Helg - Academia.edu
  3. ↑ Aline Helg - Wikipedia
  4. ↑ Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com
  5. ↑ Aline Helg - Researchgate.net
  6. ↑ Aline Helg - Cairn.info
  7. ↑ Aline Helg - Google Scholar
  8. ↑ The phrase "under God" was added to the pledge by a Congressional act approved on June 14, 1954. At that time, President Eisenhower said: "in this way we are reaffirming the transcendence of religious faith in America's heritage and future; in this way, we shall constantly strengthen those spiritual weapons which forever will be our country's most powerful resource in peace and war."
  9. ↑ Full text and audio of the speech
  10. ↑ Freeland, Richard M. (1970). The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism. Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. pp. g. 90.
  11. ↑ Hinds, Lynn Boyd, and Theodore Otto Windt Jr. The Cold War as Rhetoric: The Beginnings, 1945–1950 (1991) online edition
  12. ↑ Merrill, Dennis (2006). "The Truman Doctrine: Containing Communism and Modernity". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 36 (1): 27–37. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x.
  13. ↑ "Present Status of the Monroe Doctrine". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 54: 1–129. 1914. ISSN 0002-7162. JSTOR i242639. 14 articles by experts
  14. ↑ Perkins, Dexter (1927). The Monroe Doctrine, 1823–1826. 3 vols.
  15. ↑ Rossi, Christopher R. (2019) "The Monroe Doctrine and the Standard of Civilization." Whiggish International Law (Brill Nijhoff, 2019) pp. 123-152.
  16. ↑ Sexton, Jay (2011). The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in 19th-Century America. Hill & Wang. 290 pages; competing and evolving conceptions of the doctrine after 1823
  17. ↑ Monroe Doctrine and related resources at the Library of Congress
  18. ↑ Diebold, William (1988). "The Marshall Plan in Retrospect: A Review of Recent Scholarship". Journal of International Affairs. 41 (2): 421–435. JSTOR 24356953.
  19. ↑ Bryan, Ferald J. "George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the 'Marshall Plan' Speech." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1991): 489-502. Online
  20. ↑ Mee, Charles L. The Marshall Plan: The Launching of the Pax Americana (1984).
  21. ↑ Weissman, Alexander D. "Pivotal politics—The Marshall Plan: A turning point in foreign aid and the struggle for democracy." History Teacher 47.1 (2013): 111-129. online
  22. ↑ Brown, Cody M. The National Security Council: A Legal History of the President's Most Powerful Advisers, Project on National Security Reform (2008).
  23. ↑ Encyclopedia of American foreign policy, 2nd ed. Vol. 2, New York: Scribner, 2002, National Security Council, 22 April 2009
  24. ↑ Warner, Michael (June 13, 2013). "CIA Cold War Records: THE CIA UNDER HARRY TRUMAN — Central Intelligence Agency"
  25. ↑ "Office of the General Counsel: History of the Office". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
  26. ↑ "CIA – History". Federation of American Scientists.
  27. ↑ Warner, Michael (1995). "The Creation of the Central Intelligence Group" (PDF). Studies in Intelligence. Center for the Study of Intelligence. 39 (5): 111–120.
  28. ↑ United States Congress. "Joseph McCarthy (id: M000315)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
  29. ↑ FBI file on Joseph McCarthy
  30. ↑ Caute, David (1978). The Great Fear: The Anti-Communist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-22682-7.
  31. ↑ Latham, Earl (ed.). The Meaning of McCarthyism (1965). excerpts from primary and secondary sources
  32. ↑ Schrecker, Ellen (1994). The Age of McCarthyism: A Brief History with Documents. Bedford Books of St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-08349-1.
  33. ↑ Luuk van Middelaar, Le passage à l'Europe, Paris, Galimard, 2012, 479 p. (ISBN 978-2-07-013033-7)
  34. ↑ « Le compromis de Luxembourg », sur cvce.eu
  35. ↑ Matthias Schönwald: Walter Hallstein and the „Empty chair“ Crisis 1965/66. In: Wilfried Loth (Hrsg.): Crises and compromises. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2001, ISBN 3-7890-6980-9, S. 157–172.
  36. ↑ Alman, Emily A. and David. Exoneration: The Trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg and Morton Sobell – Prosecutorial deceptions, suborned perjuries, anti-Semitism, and precedent for today's unconstitutional trials. Green Elms Press, 2010. ISBN 978-0-9779058-3-6 or ISBN 0-9779058-3-7.
  37. ↑ Carmichael, Virginia .Framing history: the Rosenberg story and the Cold War, (University of Minnesota Press, 1993).
  38. ↑ "David Greenglass grand jury testimony transcript" (PDF). National Security Archive, Gelman Library, George Washington University. August 7, 1950.
  39. ↑ Wexley, John. The Judgment of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg. Ballantine Books, 1977. ISBN 0-345-24869-4.
  40. ↑ Communist Control Act of 1954, August 24, 1954, An Act to outlaw the Communist Party, to prohibit members of Communist organizations from serving in certain representative capacities, and for other purposes.
  41. ↑ McAuliffe, Mary S. “Liberals and the Communist Control Act of 1954.” The Journal of American History. 63.2. (1976): 351-67.
  42. ↑ Haerle, Paul R. “Constitutional Law: Federal Anti-Subversive Legislation: The Communist Control act of 1954.” Michigan Law Review. 53.8 (1955): 1153–65.
  43. ↑ “The Communist Control Act of 1954.” The Yale Law Journal. 64.5 (1955): 712-65.
  44. ↑ "Text of Warsaw Pact" (PDF). United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived (PDF) from the original
  45. ↑ Yost, David S. (1998). NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Press. p. 31. ISBN 1-878379-81-X.
  46. ↑ Formation of Nato and Warsaw Pact. History Channel. Archived from the original.
  47. ↑ "The Warsaw Pact is formed". History Channel. Archived from the original.
  48. ↑ "In reaction to West Germany's NATO accession, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955." Citation from: NATO website. "A short history of NATO". nato.int. Archived from the original.
  49. ↑ CDC Bottom of this page http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/vsus.htm "Vital Statistics of the United States, 2003, Volume I, Natality", Table 1-1 "Live births, birth rates, and fertility rates, by race: United States, 1909-2003."
  50. ↑ U.S. Census Bureau — Oldest Boomers Turn 60 (2006)August 2010
  51. ↑ Van Bavel, Jan; Reher, David S. (2013). "The Baby Boom and Its Causes: What We Know and What We Need to Know". Population and Development Review. 39 (2): 264–265. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00591.x.
  52. ↑ Figures in Landon Y. Jones, "Swinging 60s?" in Smithsonian Magazine, January 2006, pp 102–107.
  53. ↑ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
  54. ↑ "Racial" Provisions of FHA Underwriting Manual, 1938 Recommended restrictions should include provision for the following: Prohibition of the occupancy of properties except by the race for which they are intended … Schools should be appropriate to the needs of the new community and they should not be attended in large numbers by inharmonious racial groups.
  55. ↑ Getches, David H.; Wilkinson, Charles F.; Williams, Robert L. (2005). Cases and Materials on Federal Indian Law. St. Paul, MN: Thomson/West. pp. 199–216. ISBN 978-0-314-14422-5.
  56. ↑ Wunder, John R. (1999). Native American Sovereignty. Taylor & Francis. pp. 248–249. ISBN 9780815336297. Retrieved December 26, 2014.
  57. ↑ House concurrent resolution 108 (HCR-108), passed August 1, 1953, declared it to be the sense of Congress that it should be policy of the United States to abolish federal supervision over American Indian tribes as soon as possible and to subject the Indians to the same laws, privileges, and responsibilities as other US citizens - US Statutes at Large 67:B132
  58. ↑ "Public Law 280" . The Tribal Court Clearinghouse. 1953-08-15. Retrieved 2007-05-01.
  59. ↑ Fixico, Donald Lee (1986). Termination and Relocation: Federal Indian Policy, 1945-1960. University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-0908-2.
  60. ↑ raska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-3723-0. Ulrich, Roberta (2010). American Indian Nations from Termination to Restoration, 1953-2006. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-3364-5.
  61. ↑ "Federal Indian Policies". Oneida Indian Nation. Archived from the original
  62. ↑ "List of Federal and State Recognized Tribes".
  63. ↑ Woods, Randall (2006). LBJ: Architect of American Ambition. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0684834580.
  64. ↑ Zarefsky, David. President Johnson's War on Poverty (1986).
  65. ↑ Califano Jr., Joseph A. (October 1999). "What Was Really Great About The Great Society: The truth behind the conservative myths". Washington Monthly. Archived from the original on March 26, 2014.
  66. ↑ Zachary A. Goldfarb (December 9, 2013). Study: U.S. poverty rate decreased over past half-century thanks to safety-net programs. The Washington Post.
  67. ↑ Bookbinder, Hyman (August 20, 1989). "Did the War on Poverty Fail?". The New York Times.
  68. ↑ Martha J. Bailey and Sheldon Danziger (eds.), Legacies of the War on Poverty. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2013. ISBN 9780871540072.
  69. ↑ Annelise Orleck and Lisa Gayle Hazirjian (eds.), The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964–1980. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2011. ISBN 9780820339498.
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