The independence of the United States

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The independence of the United States
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Fac-similé de la Déclaration d'indépendance américaine avec les portraits des signataires.

Faculté Lettres
Département Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s) Aline Helg[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]
Cours The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures


The independence of the United States refers to the process by which the thirteen British colonies in North America declared their independence from the British Empire and became the United States of America. The Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776, proclaimed that the thirteen colonies were no longer subject to British rule and were now an independent nation.

It is important to understand that historical events result from complex interactions between multiple factors, both long-term structural elements and short-term conjunctural events. The Seven Years' War and the Enlightenment were both significant factors that contributed to the eventual independence of the United States. The Seven Years' War, also known as the French and Indian War, left Great Britain heavily in debt and led to increased taxes on the American colonies. This, combined with the ideas of the Enlightenment, which emphasized individual rights and freedoms, led to growing discontent among the colonists and ultimately to the American Revolution. Additionally, the British government's attempts to exert more control over the colonies, such as the Quartering Acts and the Proclamation of 1763, further contributed to the desire for independence.

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Causes of Independence

The demographic growth and the expansion of the American colonies in the 18th century played a significant role in the eventual independence of the United States. The increased population, as a result of both high birth rates and immigration (the territory of the United States goes from 300,000 inhabitants in 1700 to 2.5 million in 1770), put pressure on the limited resources of the colonies and led to the development of distinct regional identities.

The Seven Years' War (1756 - 1763), also known as the French and Indian War in the United States, was another important factor that contributed to the independence of the United States. The British victory in the war led to the Treaty of Paris, which resulted in the transfer of French territory to the British, including the territories west of the Mississippi River. This change in colonization was made at the expense of the indigenous nations, which were weakened by the war. In addition, the newly acquired territory led to increased competition for land, resources and power between the colonies, the British Empire and the Indigenous Nations.

Additionally, the Treaty of Paris also led to the Proclamation of 1763, which forbade the colonies from settling beyond the Appalachian Mountains, further contributing to the colonists' resentment and anger towards the British Government. The Proclamation of 1763 was seen as a violation of the colonists’ rights to expand and expand their economic activities. All these factors contributed to the growing desire for independence among the colonists, ultimately leading to the American Revolution.

The Stamp Act Congress was held in New York's (now defunct) Federal Hall.

The end of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), tensions between the colonies and the British government increased. The British government sought to control the colonists' access to Indian territories by signing treaties with Indian chiefs. Still, the settlers continued to encroach on Indian land by buying territories from the Cherokees and the Apaches.

The British government's attempts to raise revenue to pay off its war debt by imposing new taxes and stronger customs regulations were met with resistance from the colonists, who were used to a high degree of autonomy and decentralization. The imposition of the Stamp Act, a mail tax that was not decided by the colonial assemblies, was particularly contentious as it was seen as an attack on the colonists' system of representation, economic progress, and freedom.

The ideas of the Enlightenment, which emphasized individual rights and freedoms, also played a role in the resistance to British rule. Many of the educated men in the colonies echoed the ideas of Locke, who believed that the state's role was to bring welfare and security to individuals with inalienable rights to life, liberty and property. These ideas, along with the growing resentment towards British rule and the desire for greater autonomy, ultimately led to the American Revolution and the independence of the United States.

Response of the colonies

The colonies' response to the new taxes and regulations imposed by the British government was one of resistance and disobedience. The colonists petitioned against the taxes and refused to pay them, and launched boycotts of taxed products. They also used violence against British officers, such as in the "Boston Massacre" in 1770, where English soldiers killed five demonstrators. The "Boston Tea Party" in December 1773, where Bostonians disguised as Indians boarded an English ship carrying tea from the East India Company and threw the cargo of tea into the sea as a protest against the tea tax and the monopoly of the British East India Company over the American tea trade. These events were significant in escalating tensions between the colonies and the British government and ultimately contributed to the outbreak of the American Revolution.

  • British cartoon: John Malcolm tarred and feathered four weeks after the Boston Tea Party. In the background, a freedom tree, a rope and the Stamp Act displayed.

  • Le massacre sanglant perpétré à King Street Boston le 5 mars 1770 (« The bloody massacre on Boston's King Street on March 5, 1770 »), by Paul Walker (1735–1818), 1770.

  • A performance of the Boston Tea Party of 1773.

British reaction

This British cartoon depicting the "acts" as the rape of the anthropomorphic Boston, was quickly copied and distributed by Paul Revere throughout the colonies.

London's reaction will be to punish Boston by imposing the Coercive Acts in 1774. The Coercive Acts blockaded and closed the port of Boston to all trade, imposed the King's authority over the colony of Massachusetts so that the Legislative Assembly no longer had any power, and transferred to England trials that could lead to the death penalty, while all of the Thirteen Colonies were obliged to house British troops in their own homes. The entire colonial administration was affected.

Decisive steps towards independence

Little by little, all the colonies will show their solidarity with Boston. It is the beginning of mutual aid and nationalism, which is done by defending besieged Bostonians.

In September 1774, delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies met in the first continental congress held in Philadelphia. During this congress, the delegates declare Coercive Acts illegal, inviting the colonists to form defense militias.

This does not mean that all American settlers follow the movement, many continue to support England, they are called "Loyalists", while others protest and sign petitions, but are not prepared to take up arms that would threaten their economic interests.

In Philadelphia, some went from activism against the king to rejection by the British parliament; however, at that point they continued to be loyal to the king. Loyalty to the king is still very much alive. However, the King of England Georges III is not up to the task, proving unable to cope with events.

Journée de Lexington, engraving on the battle of Lexington by Nicolas Ponce (undated 1775-1819).

The other thing to note is that most delegates and members, whether moderate or radical, come from the wealthiest families in the territory. They are mostly merchants, lawyers, a few craftsmen and others, but at heart they are mostly merchants, planters, the aristocracy of these 13 colonies.

In order to obtain the support of the population, they mobilized the merchants of the time, lawyers, skilled workers, craftsmen and taverns. However, these leaders are not revolutionaries, they want to overthrow the local hierarchy in order to regain their local power which collapses with the Coercive Acts.

It is only in 1775 that the settlers take up arms at Lexington, making Massachusetts the cradle of independence; this occurred following incidents with British troops and American militiamen that resulted in further deaths.

At that time, a Second Continental Congress is meeting in Philadelphia. It is there that the decision is made to form an army to defend the colonies against the British, which will be entrusted to George Washington.

The delegates choose Washington because he's patriotic, committed, rich with slaves and plantations. In the minds of the delegates, if one is rich, one is incorruptible because one will not want to get richer, especially since he is a man from Virginia, therefore from the South, with the idea of expanding the movement that has taken place until now, especially in the North.

With the election of a man from Virginia, the idea is that the union of the Thirteen Colonies will really be manifested.

The presentation of the final text of the declaration to Congress.
Table by John Trumbull.

The Declaration of Independence

Washington's task is not going to be easy. Many of these American settlers are not prepared to enlist to risk their lives in a war. Here comes a man who will allow a decisive step in this movement. He is an Englishman who is radical, Thomas Paine, which exposes England's predatory nature towards her colonies, describing her as ready to devour her colonies, breaking the taboo of the link with the king and his ministers. He asserts that there is nothing more England can put right, there is nothing left to negotiate, because the English monarchy has gone too far, it is necessary to focus on the American and consider its own future: "the last link is now broken".

Constitution of the United States as proposed by Thomas Paine in "Common Sense", 1776

In "Common Sense", he projects the idea that America is the only bastion of freedom on earth. The book sells 120,000 copies for a population of 300,000 including slaves. This shows the high literacy rate and the extraordinary resonance of this pamphlet.

It will sustain the enthusiasm of the Second Congress of Philadelphia at the same time as English troops begin to retreat and abandon the city of Boston.

Delegates from North Carolina, Virginia and Massachusetts put forward a motion to support colonial independence. On July 4, 1776, all the delegates from the Thirteen Colonies adopted a declaration of independence.

According to the declaration, all men were created equal and endowed by their creator with inalienable rights, including life, liberties and the pursuit of happiness. To guarantee these rights, governments must be just and have the consent of the governed. When a government destroys its rights, it is the duty of the governed to form another government and if necessary by revolt.

There follows a long list of 23 attacks and violations of the rights of settlers by the King of England. All these accusations establish that he is basically a Tiran. It goes on to state that the Americans tried everything before responding to England by war to liberate themselves, and that is why "we, the representatives of the United States of America assembled in assembly taking as our witness the supreme judge of the universe, and on behalf of the people and their colonies, publish that the United Colonies are entitled to be free and independent states free from all allegiance to England. The colonies may make peace, enter into alliances, display commerce, and do all that an independent state can do; and in support of this declaration we affirm our allegiance to divine providence.[8] ».

This is the first time that men have used these ideas to justify the birth of a political entity.

First of all, it is a "men's affair"; women are totally absent, Indians are mentioned among the accusations against the king as "merciless savages" while slaves and slavery are never mentioned. The equality of men declared in the opening is reserved for adult white men.

Continuation of the war

The war will continue until 1781, often it will be guerrilla warfare. The American troops, led by Washington, will count between 4,000 and 7,000 men. England, on the other hand, would have up to 35,000 men, including a number from Russia.

Capitulation of Cornwallis to Yorktown - John Trumbull (1820).

The English make two appeals to the slaves to flee their masters and join the English troops against a promise of freedom. They will serve in the army, but mostly as labour, few will win their freedom at the end of the war.

The end of the war is accelerated by the entry of France on the side of the independentists. It is a help from the loyalist France of Louis XVI for a revenge on England. The aid arrived in 1780 with 6,000 men under the command of the Count de Rochambeau. Many of these men will come from Haiti and Santo Domingo.

French aid will be decisive in contributing to Britain's surrender after the Siege of Yorktown which meant England's capitulation leading to the recognition of American independence in September 1783 by a peace treaty in Paris.

From then on, the frontiers will continue to widen.

In fact, the war began in 1776 and ended in 1781 and England did not recognize independence until 1783. Compared to other independences, this is a rapid process.

Revolution or reaction?

In the United States, independence is called "the American Revolution". Not all historians agree with this, it's a debate that has been going on for two centuries.

For the proponents of the revolution thesis, this independence represents a radical break from the Americans in the monarchical context of the time because it was not only a reaction against the British Empire, but it destroys all ties with the traditional monarchy. The relationship between state and society is completely upset and projects the "United States".

For those who support a conservative reaction, what is at the root of all this is an attempt by Americans to restore the freedoms they had before, particularly the freedoms of trade; it would be a movement that would have sought to take back what existed.

Both interpretations are true.

In order to have a revolution, you have to:

  1. mass mobilization of the population;
  2. Fighting between different ideologies;
  3. Concrete struggle for power.
  4. a profound transformation of social and economic structures.
Great Seal of the United States. It shows the 13 states and the 13 stripes that represent the 13 states that are part of the United States. The eagle represents war, holding in its paws the olive branches for peace and the arrows of war. It is written in Latin "e pluribis unum" which means "united in one".

As far as the Thirteen Colonies of the United States are concerned, we have the first three points, but not really the fourth, whereas as far as Santo Domingo and Haiti are concerned, we have all these elements.

In the framework of the United States, mobilization is weak, on the other hand, at the end of the war there is no real upheaval in society and structures; it is the same people who continue to govern, while serfdom remains and explodes.

The fact remains that the new nation innovates in many ways:

  • it is the first independent country in the Americas;
  • the United States adopts a republican and federalist system;
  • the idea of hereditary nobility is rejected.

However, this is far from a democracy, because for politicians, the people are the lower people, and democracy refers to disorder and violence.

The delegates at the constitutional convention will face each other in the design of a legitimate government that must represent the will of the governed, including the key question of who will be able to vote.

This new country, calling itself the United States of America, appropriates the name America and soon becomes, for the inhabitants of these former colonies, "The America". It is an appropriation that is being made to the great displeasure of the Americans when they gain their independence.

Annexes

  • Photographie interactive de la déclaration
  • Site des Archives nationales américaines
  • Bibliothèque Jeanne Hersche
  • Hérodote.net
  • Transatlantica, revue d'études américaines. Dossier spécial sur la Révolution, dirigé par Naomi Wulf.
  • Nova Atlantis in Bibliotheca Augustana (Latin version of New Atlantis)
  • Barnes, Ian, and Charles Royster. The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution (2000), maps and commentary excerpt and text search
  • Blanco, Richard L.; Sanborn, Paul J. (1993). The American Revolution, 1775–1783: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Publishing Inc. ISBN 978-0824056230.
  • Boatner, Mark Mayo III (1974). Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (2 ed.). New York: Charles Scribners and Sons. ISBN 978-0684315133.
  • Cappon, Lester J. Atlas of Early American History: The Revolutionary Era, 1760–1790 (1976)
  • Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2006) 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics
  • Gray, Edward G., and Jane Kamensky, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution (2013) 672 pp; 33 essays by scholars
  • Greene, Jack P. and J. R. Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2004), 777 pp – an expanded edition of Greene and Pole, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1994); comprehensive coverage of political and social themes and international dimension; thin on military
  • Herrera, Ricardo A. "American War of Independence" Oxford Bibliographies (2017) annotated guide to major scholarly books and articles online
  • Kennedy, Frances H. The American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook (2014) A guide to 150 famous historical sites.
  • Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution (1993); 1500 short biographies
  • Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005), articles by scholars
  • Symonds, Craig L. and William J. Clipson. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution (1986) new diagrams of each battle
Works by Thomas Paine

References

  1. ↑ Aline Helg - UNIGE
  2. ↑ Aline Helg - Academia.edu
  3. ↑ Aline Helg - Wikipedia
  4. ↑ Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com
  5. ↑ Aline Helg - Researchgate.net
  6. ↑ Aline Helg - Cairn.info
  7. ↑ Aline Helg - Google Scholar
  8. ↑ Déclaration unanime des treize États unis d’Amérique réunis en Congrès le 4 juillet 1776
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