The United States and World War II

The United States and World War II

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The Second World War had a profound impact on the Americas, particularly the United States. The US entered the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 and became one of the major Allied powers. The war effort led to a massive mobilization of resources, which helped the US emerge from the Great Depression.

The war brought about significant economic changes, such as an increase in government spending, which led to the creation of new jobs and industries. This resulted in a boom in the economy, as demand for goods and services increased dramatically. The government also implemented policies such as rationing and price controls to ensure a fair distribution of resources.

On the social front, the war had a significant impact on American society. Women entered the workforce in large numbers, as men went off to fight. Minorities, particularly African Americans and Mexican Americans, faced discrimination in the military and civilian jobs, but also saw increased opportunities as a result of the war. The war also led to the growth of the middle class and the beginning of the Baby Boom.

The relative isolation of the Americas during the Second World War allowed the US to solidify its position as a dominant power in the region. The US used its economic and military power to influence events in other countries in the Americas and to advance its interests in the region. This marked a period of increased American imperialism in the Americas, as the US sought to establish itself as the dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.

While some Latin American countries may have maintained the illusion of autonomy after the Second World War, the launch of the Cold War by the US led to a significant erosion of social, political, and economic gains in the region.

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U.S. Entry into World War II

A few points of reference

The US was economically and politically active in Latin America during the 1920s and 1930s. During this time, the US implemented policies aimed at promoting stability and economic development in the region. This included investment in infrastructure, such as roads and ports, and support for trade and commerce.

At the same time, the US followed a policy of neutrality with respect to the growing conflict in Europe in the years following the stock market crash of 1929. This reflected the American public's desire to avoid involvement in another foreign conflict and to focus on domestic issues.

Aerial view of the attack on Pearl Harbor.

However, this changed on December 7, 1941, with the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Japan, which prompted the US to enter the Second World War. The US quickly became one of the major Allied powers and began to mobilize its resources to support the war effort. This marked a turning point in American foreign policy, as the US became more active in world affairs and more engaged in international conflicts.

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor resulted in the deaths of 2400 people, but did not completely destroy the American base. Nevertheless, it served as a catalyst for a shift in American public opinion in favor of entering the war.

The attack on Pearl Harbor is often compared to other significant events in American history, such as the sinking of the USS Maine and the September 11 attacks, as they have served as catalysts for American military action.

The sinking of the USS Maine in 1898, which was attributed to Spain, led to the Spanish-American War and marked the emergence of the US as a world power. Similarly, the September 11 attacks in 2001, which were carried out by terrorists linked to Al-Qaeda, led to the US-led War on Terror and the ongoing conflict in the Middle East.

In each of these cases, the attacks served as a catalyst for a shift in American foreign policy and a change in the role of the US in world affairs. The attacks on Pearl Harbor, the USS Maine, and the World Trade Center have each had a profound impact on American society and have been used to justify military action and the use of military force.

In the US, the decision to go to war must be approved by the American public and its representatives in Congress. The attack on Pearl Harbor galvanized public opinion and led to a widespread sense of outrage and a desire for revenge. This made it easier for the US government to make the case for entering the war and to secure the necessary support from the American people.

As a result of the attack, the US declared war on Japan the following day and soon thereafter entered the Second World War as one of the major Allied powers. This marked a turning point in American foreign policy and a significant change in the role of the US in world affairs.

Following the attack on Pearl Harbor, there was a strong consensus among the American public in favor of declaring war on Japan. This sentiment was reflected in the immediate response of the US government, which declared war on Japan the following day.

In the days and weeks that followed the attack, the American Congress voted to mobilize all able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 44 in order to support the war effort. This was part of a larger effort to fully mobilize the American economy and society in support of the war.

The attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent US declaration of war marked a significant turning point in the Second World War, as it brought the full resources of the United States into the conflict. This played a critical role in the eventual defeat of the Axis powers and shaped the post-war world order.

American troops advancing in the water at Omaha Beach, June 6, 1944.

During the early years of the Second World War, the United States focused its efforts on the war in the Pacific. This was largely due to the proximity of the Japanese threat, as well as the need to secure American interests in the region.

However, after the United States achieved a string of victories against Japan in 1942, President Roosevelt shifted his focus to Europe and the war against Nazi Germany. This decision was motivated by a growing recognition of the threat posed by Nazi Germany and the need to bring an end to the war in Europe as soon as possible.

The United States prioritized the war in Europe for the remainder of the conflict, working closely with its Allies to defeat Nazi Germany and bring an end to the war. This involved a massive military effort, including the landing of American and Allied forces in Italy and the Normandy beaches in France, as well as a sustained bombing campaign against German cities and industrial targets.

Ultimately, the US-led efforts in Europe helped bring an end to the Second World War and shaped the post-war world order.

The Allies, under the leadership of Churchill and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, planned and executed the North Africa campaign (Operation Torch) in 1942, followed by the Normandy landings (D-Day) in 1944. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union, fighting on the Eastern Front, made significant progress against the Germans, culminating in the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942-1943.

The Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943 was a turning point in the war in Europe and led to the fall of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. The Normandy landings in June 1944, also known as D-Day, marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi control. The Normandy landing was a massive undertaking, involving 156,000 troops, and resulted in heavy casualties for both the Allies and the Germans. Despite the high cost, the success of the Normandy landing was a critical moment in the war and paved the way for the eventual defeat of the Axis powers.

The Normandy landings marked the beginning of the liberation of France and Western Europe from Nazi control. After the landing, the Allies continued their push into France and defeated German forces in several key battles. Meanwhile, the Allies launched intense bombing campaigns against German cities, causing significant damage and undermining the German war effort. The German army eventually surrendered in May 1945, after the death of US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the appointment of Harry S. Truman as the new president. The end of the war in Europe marked a major victory for the Allies and the defeat of Nazi Germany.

Despite the end of the war in Europe, Japan continued to resist the Allies in the Pacific theater. The US, under Truman's presidency, sought to bring a swift end to the war and limit American casualties. In an effort to force Japan to surrender, the US dropped napalm bombs on Tokyo and conducted a series of bombing raids against other cities. To end the war quickly, the US made the controversial decision to use atomic bombs, which had only been developed recently. The US tested an atomic bomb in Mexico and then dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, leading to Japan's surrender and the end of World War II. The use of atomic bombs remains one of the most heavily debated decisions of the war and its consequences are still felt today.

Overall assessment of the Second World War

World War II was a catastrophic global conflict that resulted in the deaths of millions of people and widespread destruction. The war caused between 40 and 50 million casualties, making it one of the deadliest conflicts in human history. The losses were particularly heavy in Europe, where the majority of the fighting took place. The Soviet Union suffered the highest number of casualties, with estimates suggesting that up to 10% of its population was killed during the war. The Second World War had far-reaching impacts on the world, shaping the course of international relations and leading to the rise of the US and the Soviet Union as superpowers. Its legacy continues to shape the world today.

Europe was the hardest hit region during World War II and suffered significant losses and damage. The continent had already been devastated by World War I and the interwar period, and World War II only compounded the suffering and destruction. The war resulted in the deaths of millions of Europeans, the displacement of millions more, and widespread destruction of cities and infrastructure. The war also had profound political and social effects, leading to the decline of European colonial empires and the rise of the US and the Soviet Union as dominant powers. Europe took many years to recover from the war and its aftermath, and the continent continues to be shaped by its legacy to this day.

Although the US was not directly impacted by the fighting on its own territory, the country was heavily involved in World War II, both militarily and economically. About 12 million American soldiers and Marines took part in the war, representing a significant portion of the country's population. Approximately 100,000 women also served in various capacities, including as nurses and in other support roles. The US economy was also mobilized for the war effort, with the country supplying crucial resources and materials to support the Allies. The war had a major impact on the US, both at home and abroad, and played a crucial role in shaping the country's post-war role as a superpower.

Although World War II was a major global conflict, the number of casualties suffered by the US was relatively small compared to other countries. Approximately 405,000 American soldiers were killed during the war and around 670,000 were wounded. It's worth noting that the Civil War was indeed the deadliest conflict in American history, with an estimated 620,000 deaths. The impact of World War II on the US was significant, however, and helped to establish the country as a global superpower in the post-war period.

The United States during the War

No institutional or political change, but an extraordinary economic boom

Joseph Staline, Harry S. Truman and Winston Churchill in Potsdam in July 1945.

The US did not experience major institutional or political changes during or immediately after World War II, despite being deeply involved in the conflict. Franklin D. Roosevelt served as president until his death in April 1945, and was succeeded by Harry S. Truman. Truman was elected to a full term in 1948, and his presidency was marked by the beginning of the Cold War and the development of the US as a superpower. In the USSR, Joseph Stalin remained in power throughout the war and for several years thereafter, until his death in 1953.

The US experienced a significant economic boom during World War II, due in large part to the country's increased production efforts to support the war. The government implemented several measures to stimulate the economy and encourage production, such as implementing a draft and investing heavily in war-related industries. As a result, employment rose and the country's industrial capacity expanded dramatically. The war also created new opportunities for technological innovation and growth in industries such as aviation and electronics.

In addition to these direct effects, the war also had a broader impact on the US economy by ending the Great Depression. The increased production and employment generated by the war helped to bring the country out of the economic downturn, and the US emerged from the war as the world's dominant economic power. The economic boom of World War II laid the foundation for the post-war economic expansion and prosperity that defined the second half of the 20th century.

The economic boom during World War II was indeed much stronger than the boom of the 1920s and the effects of the New Deal. During the war, the US government implemented several measures to stimulate the economy, such as investing heavily in war-related industries and implementing a draft, which led to a significant increase in employment. This helped to bring the country out of the Great Depression and created a strong economic foundation for post-war expansion and prosperity. As a result, unemployment decreased dramatically from 1938-1939, and the country's economy continued to grow throughout the war and beyond.

The economic boom during World War II was largely centered around the arms industry, which was heavily invested in by the US government. As a result, the largest and wealthiest corporations, especially those in the defense industry, benefited the most from the war-related economic expansion. However, the boom also had broader effects on American society, as it led to an acceleration of the social, cultural, and technological changes that had already begun in the 1920s. This period marked a turning point in American history and helped to establish the country as a leading global economic and military power.

During the war, it is estimated that as many as 20 million Americans moved to new locations within the country, as they sought to take advantage of the economic opportunities created by the war. This was a significant increase from the earlier decade, when 15% of the US population had moved internally. The migration had a major impact on many parts of the country, especially in areas that were home to military installations and defense factories. For example, California, which was home to a number of key military bases and defense plants, saw its population grow significantly during the war. This migration helped to spur economic growth in the state and contributed to the transformation of California into one of the leading economic and cultural centers of the country.

This context of economic recovery and large migrations during the Second World War had a significant impact on the development of the United States. The war effort required a massive increase in industrial production, which led to a decrease in unemployment and a boost to the economy. At the same time, the migration of millions of Americans to new cities and regions created new opportunities for growth and contributed to the overall prosperity of the country.

during the 1940s, there was a significant shift in population from rural areas and central states to urban areas and coastal states. As a result, many rural areas faced population decline and faced difficulty in finding labor for their farms, leading to the exemption of farm workers from military service through the Selective Service Act.

Increasing the role of the federal government

This increased role of the federal government in the economy during the war was a major factor in the growth of the US economy, with the government investing heavily in war-related industries and services. The federal government also played a role in financing the war effort through the sale of war bonds and the creation of new taxes. The war also led to the expansion of the welfare state, with the government providing benefits to families of soldiers and veterans, as well as funding programs to provide healthcare and education to those in need. These efforts helped to strengthen the role of the federal government in American society and laid the foundation for many of the social programs that are still in place today.

The attack on Pearl Harbor led to President Roosevelt declaring the creation of the War Production Board, which shifted the focus of civilian production towards military purposes. This resulted in a significant increase in production, with output being tripled. The move highlighted the increased role of the federal government during the war effort.

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  Trophy celebrating the productivity of the "Department 2" team, awarded on January 5, 1943 by the War Production Committee

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  Poster inviting the public to preserve rubber stocks by taking public transport or car-pooling rather than private cars to avoid wearing out their tyres. Source: National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).

The federal government played a significant role in the war effort by signing contracts with companies through the War Production Board, which was established by Roosevelt just after the Pearl Harbor attack. These contracts guaranteed the payment of production costs plus a profit margin for the companies, totaling $175 billion. However, the majority of these contracts went to the 100 largest companies, resulting in a concentration of production and leading to the closure of many small businesses who could no longer access raw materials that were controlled by the larger companies. This concentration of production was a continuation of a trend that had been occurring over the previous two decades.

The federal government also signed major research contracts with universities, including MIT, Harvard, and the University of California, which included a secret contract worth $4 billion divided among a few universities to develop the atomic bomb. Despite being a renowned physicist, Albert Einstein was rejected from the American project due to concerns about his peace-loving stance and his Zionist beliefs, leading him to be considered an unreliable individual.

Increase in the number and influence of industrial workers and members of major unions (AFL, CIO)

During the war, the number of industrial workers in the US increased significantly. This led to a corresponding growth in the number of members of major unions, such as the AFL and CIO. The period of the war saw a peak in unionization in the US, with the number of union members nearly doubling. This increase in the size and influence of the unionized workforce was a result of several factors, including the need for a stable and motivated workforce during the war effort, as well as the demands of workers for better wages and working conditions. The war marked a turning point for the labor movement in the US, as workers gained new leverage and bargaining power that would shape the country's economic and political landscape for decades to come.

This increase in union membership and influence was a major factor in Roosevelt's successful re-election for his fourth term as president, which is the longest in U.S. history. After Roosevelt's presidency, Republicans passed a law limiting a president to serve no more than two terms in office. The growth of unions and the increased influence of industrial workers played a significant role in American politics during this time period.

During this time, the unions faced opposition from Republicans and conservative Democrats who gained control of Congress in 1948. As a result, they passed laws that limited workers' rights and weakened the power of unions. These laws, such as the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, restricted the power of labor unions by banning certain union practices and allowing states to pass right-to-work laws, which prohibited union membership as a condition of employment. These actions effectively limited the ability of unions to advocate for their members and bargain for better wages and working conditions. In response to Franklin D. Roosevelt's long tenure as president, serving an unprecedented four terms in office, the 22nd Amendment to the US Constitution was enacted. This amendment placed a limit on the number of terms a President could serve, restricting them to a maximum of two terms. The passage of this amendment reflected the changing political landscape, with Republicans and conservative Democrats gaining control of Congress in 1948 and seeking to limit the power of unions and workers' rights through legislation.

Growth of large mechanized farm businesses

During this period, there was a significant growth in large, mechanized farm businesses, as they received financial support from banks and insurance companies. This resulted in the decline of small family-owned farms, leading to the great migration of small farmers who could no longer make a living. The rise of big agriculture resulted in the decline of small family businesses, which played a major role in the population shift from rural to urban areas.

The large mechanized farms often had access to more resources, including finances and technology, which allowed them to expand their operations and take advantage of the high demand for food during the war. Small family farms, on the other hand, struggled to compete with these larger businesses and many were forced to close or sell their land. This shift in agriculture contributed to the migration of small farmers and rural residents to urban areas in search of better economic opportunities. The growth of these large farming businesses marked a major change in the agricultural landscape of the United States and laid the foundation for the modern agribusiness industry.

Multiplication of debt

To fund the war effort and its various initiatives, the federal government significantly increased its control over the economy and finance, including by issuing bonds and borrowing large sums of money. This resulted in a substantial increase in the overall national debt, which would have long-term implications for the US economy and government spending. The government's increased role in the economy and finance also set the stage for future debates and discussions about the role of government in the economy and the appropriate level of government intervention.

Between 1941 and 1945, the US national debt rose dramatically, increasing from $51 billion to a staggering $260 billion, representing a five-fold increase in just four years. This significant increase in debt was a result of the government's expansive control over the economy and finance, primarily through its issuance of bonds to fund the country's war effort.

US federal debt held by the public as a percentage of GDP, from 1790 to 2013, projected to 2038.

The great transformations of American society during the war

Industrial workers

The post-World War II period in the United States, referred to as the "economic boom" or the "Golden Age of Capitalism," witnessed a substantial transformation in the economic and political power of industrial workers. During this time, prices increased by 28% and wages rose by 40%, resulting in a heightened purchasing power among industrial workers.

The demands of the war had led to a substantial need for production of goods and services, which in turn created increased employment opportunities within industries and higher wages. This trend of increased economic power among industrial workers and overall economic growth was reflective of the broader trend of industrialization and the decline of the agrarian economy, as the influence of small farmers continued to decrease.

Increasing the economic and social role of women with the war economy

In many nations women were encouraged to join female branches of the armed forces or participate in industrial or farm work.

The war economy of World War II had a significant impact on the economic and social role of women in American society. With the increased demand for goods and services during the war, there was a corresponding increase in the need for women's paid labor. This resulted in 6 million women joining the workforce, with 60% of women employed.

The shift towards greater employment and participation in the economy was particularly impactful for both white women and African-American women, as it allowed them to increase their economic and social independence. This change was part of a larger movement towards greater equality and empowerment for women in the 20th century.

Additionally, the transformation in the role of women during the war economy challenged traditional gender norms and expectations. Women were no longer limited to the "female" professions and instead had access to a wider range of employment opportunities, including physical work as road workers, woodcutters, police officers, taxi drivers, and more. Moreover, the profile of employed women shifted, as they were no longer solely single women, but instead included married women with children and older women.

These changes had a profound impact on society and challenged traditional gender roles, as women were able to participate in a wider range of employment opportunities and take on roles previously considered male-dominated. This shift towards greater equality and empowerment for women was an important step towards a more inclusive and equitable society.

Moreover, African-American women were also able to take advantage of the changing economic landscape and make gains in their employment opportunities. Approximately 400,000 African-American women left their domestic jobs and entered the factory workforce, where they experienced higher wages, greater autonomy, and the benefits of unionization.

This shift represented a significant change for African-American women, as they were able to gain greater economic independence and participate more fully in the economy. The combination of increased employment opportunities and unionization allowed African-American women to improve their working conditions and negotiate for better wages and benefits.

Additionally, the transformation in the role of women during the war economy was particularly evident in the aeronautics industry. The number of women employed in the industry rose from 320,000 to 410,000, reflecting the increased demand for production and the recognition of women's contributions to the war effort.

The changing public perception of women workers was a significant shift in society. Victorian morality, which had long dominated the media and public opinion, was challenged as women's contributions to the economy became more widely recognized and valued. The mocking of women workers stopped and was replaced with support for their benefit to the population.

Although significant progress was made in terms of women's participation in the workforce and recognition of their contributions during World War II, there is still a long way to go towards gender equality. The persistent pay gap between men and women for equal work is a testament to this, with women earning only 65% of a man's salary. Lack of workplace support systems, such as crèches or canteens for working mothers, also demonstrate the ongoing challenges faced by women in balancing work and family responsibilities.

The shift towards greater economic and social independence for women during World War II was a major change in mentality. Women who became autonomous while their husbands were away at war will face significant challenges and complicated adjustments upon their return. This is because many men may want to return to the pre-war status quo and resist the changes in gender roles and expectations. The return of soldiers after the war will require a lot of adaptation and negotiation to reconcile these changes in society.

A turning point for African-Americans

The 332nd Fighter Group attends a briefing in Italy in 1945.

World War II was a turning point for African-Americans as they fully participated in the national effort. One million of them were mobilized in the army and navy, and over a million segregated southerners left rural areas to work in northern cities or in the war industry in Washington. This migration allowed African-Americans to escape the poverty and discrimination of the rural South and experience greater economic opportunities and improved working conditions in the North and East. It was a significant moment in their history, as it allowed them to gain greater economic independence and participate more fully in the economy, challenging long-standing racial inequalities and segregation.

African-Americans who migrated to the North and East during World War II experienced new conditions and stayed in touch with those who remained in the rural South. Despite this migration, they faced significant challenges and often poor reception from the local population. The US military was still segregated, with African Americans housed in separate regiments, but some African-American soldiers were able to become pilots and advance through the ranks, distinguishing themselves with bravery and receiving medals. Despite these limitations and challenges, the migration and involvement in the war effort marked a turning point in African-American history and helped lay the foundation for future advancements in civil rights and equality.

The segregation in the US military during World War II was indeed a source of embarrassment for the image of the United States as a defender of civilization and democracy. Despite the country's stance against fascism and Nazism, the segregation within its own military was a major contradiction and put into question the country's commitment to democracy and equality. This discrepancy between the US's stated values and its internal practices was widely criticized and served as a catalyst for the civil rights movement and efforts to end segregation in the US.

African-Americans were asked to be patriotic and make sacrifices for their country, but were still denied the basic right to vote due to widespread segregation and discrimination. The Nazi propaganda capitalized on this contradiction to further discredit the image of the United States as a defender of democracy and freedom. This criticism eventually led to the passing of the Soldier Voting Act of 1942, which allowed soldiers in the armed forces to vote, including black Southerners participating in the war effort. This was an important step towards granting equal rights and representation to African-Americans, but it was only the beginning of the long road towards true equality and justice for all citizens.

However, despite facing ongoing racism and discrimination, African-Americans continued to fight for their rights and the end of segregation. The contributions and sacrifices made by African-Americans during World War II helped to lay the foundation for the modern Civil Rights Movement, as their increased visibility and demands for equality helped to galvanize support for change. The efforts of African-Americans during World War II ultimately helped to bring about greater equality and opportunities for future generations.

The changing economic and social landscape in the wake of World War II also led to greater civil rights and equality for African Americans. The war effort and increased demand for labor allowed many African Americans to leave the rural South and move to the North and East, where they were able to escape segregation and experience new freedoms.

Despite the tensions and violent incidents that took place, the war had a lasting impact on the struggle for civil rights in the United States. The ban on segregation in army transport and recreation facilities, as well as the Soldier Voting Act, were important steps towards greater equality and the eventual passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

The World War II era was a catalyst for significant changes and progress towards equality for African Americans and women in the US. The war effort brought attention to the contradictions of segregation and discrimination in a country fighting for democracy, leading to some legal changes and shifts in public attitudes. During the war, France was occupied by the Germans and faced numerous challenges. The presence of African-American soldiers as liberators was well received by the French people and gave them a new sense of pride. This positive experience contributed to the growth of trade unionism among black soldiers and provided them with the strength to continue the fight for civil rights in the face of strong opposition from Southern whites. The experiences and exposure to different cultures during the war empowered marginalized groups to fight for their rights and push for further progress.

Braceros Agreement

The Braceros Agreement was a guest worker program signed between the United States and Mexico during World War II. It allowed Mexican farmworkers to temporarily work in the U.S. to alleviate labor shortages caused by the war. The program was controversial and faced criticism for its treatment of workers, who often faced poor working and living conditions, and for its impact on Mexican-American communities and the U.S. labor market. The 1942 Bracero Agreement between the US and Mexico did bring some temporary work opportunities for Mexican migrant workers, primarily in agriculture. This agreement, which lasted until 1964, allowed Mexican workers to come to the US as guest workers and address the labor shortage caused by the war effort. However, Mexican Americans still faced discrimination and mistreatment.

Before the Great Depression and the Bracero Agreement, Mexican workers came to the United States as part of the large wave of immigration from Mexico to the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were attracted by the labor demand in the United States, particularly in the Southwest, where they worked in agriculture, mining, and railroad construction. Mexican immigration to the United States declined after the Great Depression due to increased immigration restrictions and economic conditions in the US and Mexico. The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to 1939. During this time, many countries were hit by a rapid decrease in economic activity, leading to high levels of unemployment and poverty. In the United States, the Great Depression resulted in a mass deportation of Mexican workers who were forced to return to Mexico. Many Mexican-Americans lost their jobs and homes, and were subjected to discrimination and prejudice. The Bracero Agreement was a program established during World War II to bring Mexican workers to the United States to fill the labor shortage created by the war. The agreement allowed for the temporary migration of Mexican workers to work in agriculture, and it had a significant impact on Mexican-American communities, both positive and negative.

The Great Depression of the 1930s marked a significant turning point in the treatment of Mexican workers in the United States. At that time, mass deportations of Mexican workers took place, forcing them to return to Mexico. However, during World War II, the United States faced a labor shortage in its agricultural sector, leading to the signing of the Bracero Agreement in 1942. This agreement allowed for the temporary immigration of Mexican workers, referred to as "braceros," to meet the labor demands of the agriculture industry. These braceros also found employment in the shipyards of the West Coast. The Bracero Agreement marked a significant change in the treatment of Mexican workers in the United States and set the stage for future immigration policies.

Despite the growing demand for labor during the war, Mexican-Americans faced persistent discrimination and exclusion from many aspects of society. They experienced a hostile environment, characterized by segregation, race riots, and even lynchings. This was in stark contrast to the progress made by African-Americans, who were becoming more active in their struggle for civil rights and equality. Mexican-Americans, who were largely unorganized and lacked political representation, were unable to effectively respond to these challenges and push for their rights.

Internment in Japanese-American concentration camps

In 1942, following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which authorized the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans living on the West Coast. Over 120,000 Japanese Americans, two-thirds of whom were U.S. citizens, were forced to leave their homes and businesses and were relocated to internment camps for the duration of the war. This mass relocation was motivated by racism and unfounded fears that Japanese Americans posed a security threat to the US. The internment was later acknowledged as a grave injustice by the US government and in 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act, apologizing and compensating surviving Japanese Americans who were interned.

After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, many Americans held racist beliefs that Japanese Americans were enemies, despite the fact that many Japanese Americans had lived in the US for generations and some were serving in the US military. This led to the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans, which was a grave injustice and a violation of their civil liberties. The internment was later acknowledged as a mistake by the US government and the surviving Japanese Americans who were interned received a formal apology and compensation from the government.

During World War II, the US government forcibly relocated and interned Japanese Americans living on the West Coast, including both first and second generation Americans. The internment camps were located in remote desert areas, including in Arizona and Texas, and other states. The forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans was motivated by racism and fears that they posed a security threat to the US, despite there being little evidence to support this. The internment of Japanese Americans is widely recognized as a dark chapter in American history and a violation of their civil rights.

During the forced relocation and internment of Japanese Americans, the US government seized their property, including homes, businesses, and personal possessions. This seizure resulted in the loss of an estimated $500 million in assets for Japanese Americans. The government also placed restrictions on their ability to sell or transfer their property, further exacerbating their financial losses. This seizure of property was a violation of the civil rights of Japanese Americans and added to the injustices they faced during their internment.

The story of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II was largely forgotten for many years, but has recently gained renewed attention. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act, which formally apologized to Japanese Americans who were interned and provided compensation to surviving internees. The act acknowledged the internment as a grave injustice and a violation of the civil rights of Japanese Americans. The compensation and apology provided some measure of justice for the injustices suffered by Japanese Americans during their internment, but the legacy of this dark chapter in American history continues to impact the community to this day.

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  San Francisco Examiner, February 1942.

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  A Challenge to Democracy (1944)

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  Official notice of exclusion and removal.

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  Friends say good-bye as family of Japanese ancestry await evacuation bus. Hayward, California, 8 May 1942.

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  Heart Mountain Relocation Center, January 10, 1943.

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  The baggage of Japanese Americans from the west coast, at a makeshift reception center located at a racetrack.

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  Dust storm at Manzanar War Relocation Center.

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  A monument at Manzanar, "to console the souls of the dead.

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  U.S. President Ronald Reagan signs the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which granted reparations for the internment of Japanese Americans.

Conclusion

The United States was deeply impacted by World War II, both domestically and globally. The war played a crucial role in the end of the Great Depression, with the stimulation of the economy through the allocation of significant government funding towards defense and the mobilization of resources. However, the underlying social and economic issues that contributed to the Depression were not resolved by the war. The effects of the war on American society were multifaceted and sometimes resulted in exacerbation of existing contradictions and inequalities. The internment of Japanese Americans and other instances of discrimination during the war serve as poignant illustrations of these complexities. Despite these challenges, the United States emerged from the war as a major world power and a dominant military force.

During World War II, certain ethnic groups, such as Japanese Americans, faced significant discrimination and mistreatment. However, the war also had a profound impact on other marginalized groups, particularly women and African Americans. The war marked a major turning point for women's involvement in the workforce, as many women entered the workforce for the first time to fill the jobs left by men who had gone to fight in the war. This was a key moment in the history of women's rights and marked a major shift in gender roles and expectations. At the same time, the war also renewed the struggle for civil rights among African Americans, who faced ongoing discrimination and segregation in many parts of the country. Despite these challenges, the war provided a catalyst for change and helped to lay the groundwork for the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s.

World War II had a profound impact on the role of the federal government in the American economy. The war represented a continuation of the trend towards increased government intervention in the economy that had begun with the New Deal in the 1930s. The massive government spending on defense and mobilization of resources during the war led to a significant expansion of the federal government's role in the economy. This trend towards greater government involvement in the economy continued after the war and became a defining characteristic of the post-war period. The federal government's role in regulating and guiding the economy through various programs and initiatives became an accepted and expected aspect of American life, and this legacy continues to shape the American political and economic landscape today.

After the end of World War II, the United States emerged as one of two superpowers, along with the Soviet Union. The US was the only country to emerge from the war with its economy and military intact, and it soon became the dominant global economic and military power. This resulted in a bipolar world order, with the US and the USSR locked in a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War. The rivalry between the two superpowers shaped international relations and dominated global affairs for much of the post-war period, as each side sought to promote its own interests and ideology on a global scale. This period of intense competition and tension had far-reaching impacts on the world, affecting everything from politics and diplomacy to science and technology. Despite the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, the US remains one of the world's leading military and economic powers and continues to play a dominant role in shaping international relations.

Annexes

• History.com Editors. “American Women in World War II.” History.com, A&E Television Networks, 5 Mar. 2010, www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/american-women-in-world-war-ii-1.