The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

Based on a lecture by Aline Helg

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The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

The Americas on the eve of independence ● The independence of the United States ● The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society ● The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas ● The independence of Latin American nations ● Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies ● The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery ● The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877 ● The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900 ● Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910 ● The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940 ● American society in the 1920s ● The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940 ● From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy ● Coups d'état and Latin American populisms ● The United States and World War II ● Latin America during the Second World War ● US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty ● The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution ● The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

Between 1877 and 1900, the United States lived through a tumultuous and transformative era, often referred to as the 'Gilded Age'. This term, popularised by Mark Twain, evokes a period of brilliant prosperity on the surface, but which concealed depths of poverty and social inequality. It was a time of accelerating industrialisation and urbanisation, giving rise to industrial giants and powerful monopolies. However, the government of the day seemed to favour the interests of these conglomerates and the wealthy elite, often to the detriment of the working class.

A central element of this transformation was the railway. Following the American Civil War, it became a vital instrument for reconstruction, particularly in the ravaged South. More than just a means of transport, the railway welded the country together, linking its vast regions and facilitating an unprecedented exchange of goods and people. This transport revolution stimulated economic growth, propelling the United States into the ranks of a major industrial power. However, this prosperity was not without its shadows. The end of Reconstruction in the South saw the return of strict white political control, leading to the suppression of voting rights for African Americans and the introduction of Jim Crow laws, which codified racial segregation and discrimination.

The period ended on a note of imperial expansion, with the Spanish-American War of 1898. This confrontation not only affirmed the United States' position on the world stage, but also led to the acquisition of key territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippines. In this way, the Gilded Age, with its striking contrasts of wealth and poverty, opportunity and injustice, shaped modern America, preparing it to play a leading role in the twentieth century.

The role of railways

During the ceremony to drive the "last spike" into the summit of Promontory, Utah, 10 May 1869.

Railways, the arteries of the American nation at the end of the 19th century, profoundly transformed the economic, social and cultural landscape of the United States. By forging physical links between remote regions, they literally reduced distances, making the vastness of America a more accessible and interconnected territory. The rapid expansion of the rail network catalysed a revolution in freight transport. Agricultural produce, raw materials and manufactured goods could now be transported over long distances in record time. This not only made products more accessible to a greater number of consumers, but also gave producers access to more distant markets, boosting production and competitiveness. Alongside the economic boom, the railways also facilitated people's mobility. People could travel from coast to coast, seeking employment opportunities, land or simply a new life. This mobility also encouraged the intermingling of cultures and ideas, contributing to the formation of a more homogenous national identity. By linking metropolises to small towns and agricultural regions to industrial centres, the railways created an immense internal market. This interconnection not only stimulated trade, but also encouraged investment and innovation. Companies were able to benefit from economies of scale, mass-producing for an expanding national market. By the end of the 19th century, railways were much more than just a means of transport in the United States. They were the symbol of a nation on the move, a booming economy and an increasingly united people. They shaped modern America, preparing it to become an economic superpower in the 20th century.

At the end of the 19th century, railways became the backbone of American development, acting as a catalyst for unprecedented economic and social transformation. By linking East to West and North to South, the rail network wove together a vast and diverse country, creating national cohesion and stimulating robust economic growth. The impact of the railways on industrialisation is undeniable. By facilitating the rapid and efficient transport of raw materials to industrial centres and bringing finished products to market, they enabled American industry to prosper. Factories could now obtain resources from distant regions and distribute their products across the country, creating an integrated national market. In addition to their role in industrialisation, the railways opened the door to the colonisation of the West. Territories once considered inaccessible or too remote became viable destinations for those seeking new opportunities. Towns began to spring up along the railways, and with them a new wave of settlers, entrepreneurs and adventurers. The mining, farming and forestry industries also benefited exponentially from this rail expansion. Mines could ship their ores to refining centres, farmers could reach distant markets, and the country's vast forests became lucrative sources of timber, all fed by the ever-expanding rail network. In short, the railways were the driving force behind the transformation of the United States into a dominant industrial power. Not only did they redefine the economic landscape, they also shaped American society, influencing demographics, culture and politics. This period, marked by the meteoric rise of the railway, laid the foundations of modern America, paving the way for American global leadership in the 20th century.

The explosion of the rail network in the United States at the end of the 19th century is eloquent testimony to the industrial revolution and national ambition of that era. In the space of just thirty years, from 1870 to 1900, the total length of the railways leapt from 85,000 kilometres to 320,000 kilometres, reflecting phenomenal growth. The Conquest of the West played a major role in this expansion. With the promise of land and opportunity, the American West attracted many settlers. Railways facilitated this migration, making travel faster and less hazardous. What's more, the federal government encouraged the construction of railways by offering land in exchange for building tracks. At the same time, the country's economic growth fuelled the need for a robust transport infrastructure. Increasing industrialisation required efficient means of transport to move raw materials to factories and distribute finished products. Railways became the preferred means of transport for these goods. This period also saw an influx of capital, both domestic and foreign, into the railway sector. Investors, recognising the profit potential in the construction and operation of railways, injected huge sums of money. Technological innovation has also played a crucial role. Advances in railway construction and technology meant that tracks could be built more quickly and more cheaply. In addition, the US government, recognising the strategic importance of railways for economic and territorial development, provided significant support for major projects such as the transcontinental railway. The impact of this expansion has been profound. Isolated regions became accessible, local markets became national markets, and once modest cities like Chicago became major rail hubs and industrial metropolises. In short, the spectacular increase in the rail network at the end of the 19th century was not just a feat of engineering, but also a reflection of a nation in the throes of change, seeking to make full use of its vast territory and abundant resources.

At the end of the 19th century, the development of the railways in the United States was a monumental undertaking, dominated by private interests. To meet the logistical challenges posed by such a vast country, coordination was needed. This led to the introduction of the four Eastern time zones, an innovation that harmonised train schedules across the country. However, the construction of these railways was not without controversy. In the race for dominance and profitability, many railway companies have been implicated in corruption scandals, often in collusion with politicians. The fierce competition between them has sometimes led to hasty decisions, favouring speed of construction at the expense of quality and safety. As a result, parts of the network were not always well maintained, posing risks to passengers and freight. Nevertheless, despite these problems, the importance of the railways to the country's economic and territorial development was undeniable. Recognising their strategic value, both state and federal governments provided substantial subsidies to support their construction. This public investment, combined with the ingenuity and ambition of the private sector, was the driving force behind the rapid expansion of the rail network. Although fraught with challenges and controversy, the construction of the railways shaped the geography, economy and culture of the United States, laying the foundations for a modern, interconnected nation.

The meteoric rise of the railways in the United States at the end of the 19th century had a profound impact on the country's economic and social structure. The railway companies, benefiting from enormous land subsidies from the government, acquired colossal tracts of land along their tracks. These often strategic acquisitions enabled them not only to control transport, but also to dictate the economic development of the regions they served. This concentration of power and wealth led to the formation of monopolies and trusts. In the absence of adequate regulation, these entities were able to set fares as they saw fit, eliminate competition and exert considerable influence over national policy. The rail barons, as they were often called, became emblematic figures of the Gilded Age, embodying both entrepreneurial ingenuity and the excesses of unregulated capitalism. Railways, once celebrated as engineering marvels and symbols of progress, became for many the face of inequality. Wealth disparities have widened, with a wealthy elite on one side enjoying the fruits of industrialisation, and workers and small farmers on the other, often at the mercy of the fares and practices of the big rail companies. This situation fuelled social and political tensions, giving rise to movements such as the Populists, who called for stricter regulation of the railways and a fairer distribution of wealth. Ultimately, the history of railways in the United States is a reflection of the complexities of industrialisation, mixing progress and inequality, innovation and exploitation.

The expansion of railways in the United States in the late 19th century, despite its challenges and controversies, undeniably brought significant benefits to the country, shaping its development and economic trajectory. First and foremost, railways revolutionised transport. With tracks stretching from coast to coast, they enabled the fluid movement of goods and people. Not only did this make interstate commerce more efficient, it also opened the door to national markets, where Western products could be sold in Eastern cities and vice versa. This interconnectivity also stimulated economic growth. Regions that were once isolated became centres of activity, with towns emerging and prospering around railway stations and hubs. The accessibility offered by the railways has attracted investors, entrepreneurs and workers, creating a virtuous circle of development. The impact of the railways on the colonisation of the West is also indisputable. Territories once considered remote and inhospitable became accessible. Settlers, attracted by the promise of land and opportunity, flocked to the West, often using the railways as their primary means of transport. Various industries also benefited directly from this expansion. Mining, for example, was able to transport its ores to refining centres in the East. Farmers were able to transport their crops to more distant markets, and the forestry industry was able to ship timber across the country to meet the growing demand for construction and industrialisation.

At the end of the 19th century, as the United States underwent an unprecedented industrial and territorial transformation, the country also witnessed a revolution in communications. Alongside the impressive expansion of the rail network, the development of the telegraph and the improvement of the postal system played a crucial role in creating a more interconnected nation. The telegraph, in particular, marked a radical break with the past. Before its invention, long-distance communication was slow and unreliable. With the introduction of telegraph lines, messages that once took days or even weeks to deliver could now be transmitted in a matter of minutes. This had a profound impact on the way business was conducted. Companies could obtain market and stock information almost in real time, enabling them to make informed and rapid decisions. It also made it easier to coordinate railway timetables and disseminate important information across the country. The postal system also underwent significant improvements. With westward expansion and the growth of cities, it became essential to have a reliable postal service to connect citizens, businesses and government. Postal routes expanded, and new services such as home delivery and airmail were introduced at the turn of the century. These innovations not only facilitated personal communication, but also played a key role in the growth of businesses, particularly in the mail order and distribution sectors. The end of the 19th century saw the United States transformed not only in terms of physical infrastructure, but also in terms of communications. The telegraph and postal system created a network that connected people and businesses as never before, laying the foundations for a modern economy and an interconnected society.

Although the 19th century saw the United States develop and interconnect dramatically thanks to railways and advances in communications, regional distinctions persisted, reflecting deep-rooted historical, economic and cultural legacies. The West was a frontier in constant flux. Characterised by its varied topography, from the Rocky Mountains to the vast plains, the West was a land of opportunity and challenge. The gold rush, ranching and agriculture shaped its economy. It was also a region of conflict, where European settlers, indigenous peoples and immigrants of diverse origins clashed and mingled, creating a unique cultural mosaic. The South, with its history of plantation farming and slavery, underwent a period of profound transformation after the American Civil War. The agrarian economy, dominated by cotton growing, was turned upside down by the end of slavery. Reconstruction attempted, with varying degrees of success, to integrate the newly liberated African Americans into civil society. The South has also retained a distinct culture, with its own musical, culinary and literary traditions. The North East, the country's industrial and financial centre, was the engine of innovation and progress. Cities like New York, Boston and Philadelphia became hubs for industry, commerce and culture. Mass immigration from Europe enriched the region, bringing a diversity of traditions, skills and cultures. The North East was also home to progressive social and political movements, seeking to respond to the challenges of urbanisation and industrialisation. These regional distinctions, although sometimes blurred by modernisation and interconnection, have continued to influence the politics, economy and culture of the United States. Each region, with its particularities, has contributed to the richness and complexity of American tapestry, making the United States both a unified and diverse nation.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States was a mosaic of regions with distinct characteristics, shaped by different histories, economies and cultures. The West, with its sweeping vistas and vast territories, was a land of promise and challenge. Its vast expanses were dotted with booming towns, often established as a result of mining discoveries or trade routes. Gold, silver and other minerals attracted adventurers and entrepreneurs, while the vast plains offered opportunities for agriculture and livestock farming. Despite these opportunities, population density remained low, giving the region a frontier feel. The South, still scarred by the civil war, was in the midst of a period of reconstruction and readjustment. Its economy, once dominated by cotton plantations supported by slavery, needed to find a new path. Although agriculture remained predominant, the end of slavery brought profound changes to the social and economic structure. African-Americans, although officially free, were often confronted with segregationist laws and discriminatory practices that limited their rights and opportunities. The North East, on the other hand, was the beating heart of American industrialisation. The cities, with their steaming factories and bustling streets, were centres of innovation and commerce. The massive influx of immigrants in search of opportunity fuelled the factory workforce and added to the region's cultural diversity. This rapid urbanisation and industrialisation has created a dynamic economy, but it has also given rise to social challenges such as overcrowding, inequality and tensions between different communities. Each of these regions, with its particularities and challenges, has contributed to the national dynamic of the United States, reflecting the diversity and complexity of a nation in the midst of transformation.

At the turn of the 19th century, the United States underwent an unprecedented technological and infrastructural transformation. Railways criss-crossed the continent, linking previously isolated towns and regions, while telegraph lines enabled instant communication over long distances. These innovations undeniably fostered economic integration and mobility, creating a national market and facilitating the exchange of information. However, despite this growing interconnectedness, deep-rooted regional distinctions persisted. The West, with its vast expanses and natural resources, continued to attract those seeking opportunities in mining, agriculture and livestock farming. Its frontier character and cultural diversity, with an often tense coexistence between settlers, indigenous peoples and immigrants, gave it a distinct identity. The South, scarred by the aftermath of the Civil War and a history of slavery, has struggled to redefine its economy and society. Although connected to the rest of the country by rail and telegraph, it retained a distinct culture and economy, largely centred on agriculture and facing the challenges of reconstruction and segregation. The North East, as the industrial and financial centre of the country, embraced modernity with enthusiasm. Factories, banks and ports flourished, fuelled by a diverse immigrant workforce. However, despite its relative prosperity, the region had its own social and economic challenges, distinct from those in the West or South. In short, although the railways and telegraph created a unifying infrastructure, they could not homogenize the rich tapestry of cultures, economies and histories in the United States. These regional distinctions, rooted in centuries of history and experience, have continued to influence the trajectory of the country, reminding us that technology, however powerful, cannot always reshape deeply rooted cultural and historical identities.

The West

Conquest of Amerindian territories

Mass grave with Lakota dead after the Wounded Knee massacre.

In the mid to late 19th century, the American West became the scene of a series of conflicts and government policies that profoundly affected the indigenous peoples of the region. As the United States sought to expand its territory and consolidate its control over newly acquired lands, indigenous peoples found themselves caught up in the turmoil of American expansionism. Although the Indian Removal policy is often associated with the 1830 Act and the deportation of southeastern tribes such as the Cherokee along the infamous Trail of Tears, the spirit of the policy continued throughout the 19th century, affecting many other tribes across the country. In the West, territories formerly under the sovereignty of nations such as the Sioux, Cheyenne, Nez Perce and many others were coveted for their resources and strategic value. As settlers, gold miners and railway builders flocked to the region, tensions mounted. Promises made to indigenous peoples through treaties were often broken, and lands once guaranteed to them were invaded. The US government's response to these tensions was often to use force. Numerous wars and skirmishes, such as the Sioux Wars, the Nez Perce War and the Battle of Little Bighorn, erupted when native peoples resisted encroachment on their lands. Eventually, government policy shifted towards the creation of reserves, demarcated areas where indigenous peoples were expected to live, often far from their ancestral lands and in harsh conditions. Reserve confinement has had devastating consequences for indigenous peoples. Traditional ways of life, based on hunting, fishing or nomadic agriculture, became impossible in these confined spaces. In addition, the reserves were often poorly managed, with insufficient resources, leading to hunger, disease and dependence on government aid.

The policy of expansion and displacement of indigenous peoples in the United States in the 19th century is one of the darkest pages in American history. Underpinned by a combination of desire for land, racial prejudice and economic pressures, this policy had devastating consequences for the indigenous peoples. The US government, under pressure from white settlers to exploit fertile land for agriculture, mining and other commercial interests, often chose to prioritise these interests over the rights and well-being of indigenous peoples. Treaties, often signed under duress or deception, were regularly breached when new economic opportunities were discovered, reinforcing the cycle of displacement and dispossession. The Trail of Tears is the most notorious and tragic example of this policy. In the mid-1830s, during the presidency of Andrew Jackson, the US government passed the Indian Evacuation Act, which authorised the forced removal of several southeastern tribes, including the Cherokees, Choctaws, Creeks, Chickasaws and Seminoles. These peoples were forced to leave their ancestral lands and move to territories west of the Mississippi River, mainly in what is now Oklahoma. The journey was brutal. The displaced were forced to walk hundreds of miles, often without adequate supplies, through harsh weather conditions. Disease, exposure and hunger decimated the ranks of the marchers, and it is estimated that thousands, perhaps as many as a quarter of those who undertook the journey, died along the way. The Trail of Tears is a poignant testament to the impact of American expansion policy on indigenous peoples. It serves as a reminder of the human costs of colonisation and the importance of recognising and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples.

The United States' policy of expansion and colonisation in the 19th century had tragic consequences for the country's indigenous peoples. As the nation sought to expand its borders and exploit new lands for agriculture, industry and other economic interests, indigenous peoples found themselves in the path of this expansion and often paid a high price. Violence was commonly used to evict indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands. Wars, skirmishes and massacres were frequent, with military forces and local militias used to subdue or expel indigenous communities. These confrontations often resulted in the deaths of many indigenous people, including women, children and the elderly. Those who survived these violent displacements were forced to leave their lands, homes and sacred places. They were moved to remote, often barren and inhospitable territories. These new lands, known as reserves, were generally small and did not allow the indigenous peoples to practise their traditional ways of life. Hunting, fishing and farming, essential to their subsistence, were often impossible or limited in these new regions. Life on the reserves was difficult. Conditions were often precarious, with a lack of access to basic resources such as food, water and medical care. In addition, aboriginal peoples were subject to the jurisdiction and control of the federal government, which often imposed policies aimed at assimilating and eradicating their cultures and traditions. Children were frequently sent to residential schools where they were forbidden to speak their mother tongue or practise their culture. Ultimately, the United States' policy of expansion and displacement left a deep scar on the history of indigenous peoples. The loss of life, land and culture is immeasurable, and the effects of these policies are still being felt today. Recognising and understanding this history is essential to forging a fairer and more balanced relationship between the United States and its original inhabitants.

The mass hunting of bison during the period of westward expansion is one of the most significant ecological and cultural tragedies in American history. Before the arrival of European settlers, an estimated 30 to 60 million bison roamed freely across the plains of North America. By the turn of the 20th century, however, this number had dwindled to just a few hundred. For many indigenous peoples of the plains, the bison was much more than just a source of food. It was at the heart of their existence. Every part of the animal was used: the meat for food, the hides for clothing and shelter, the bones for tools and weapons, and even the sinews for thread. Bison also had profound spiritual significance for many tribes, often being central to their ceremonies and myths. Industrial buffalo hunting, encouraged by the arrival of the railways and the demand for buffalo hides for the market, saw thousands of animals slaughtered every day. Many were hunted purely for their hides, leaving the carcasses to rot on the plains. But this extermination was not just motivated by profit. It was also seen by some as a means of "taming" the West and controlling the indigenous peoples. By destroying the indigenous peoples' main source of subsistence, the settlers hoped to make them dependent on government supplies and force them to abandon their nomadic way of life. The impact of this extermination on the indigenous peoples was devastating. Deprived of their main source of food and materials, many communities suffered from hunger and poverty. Their way of life, which had evolved over millennia around the bison, was shattered in the space of a few decades. Awareness of this tragedy finally led to conservation efforts in the early 20th century, and the bison population has since increased, although nowhere near its original numbers. However, the history of bison hunting remains a poignant testament to the human and ecological costs of westward expansion.

The Wounded Knee massacre, which took place on 29 December 1890 in South Dakota, is one of the darkest and most tragic events in the history of relations between the United States and indigenous peoples. It symbolised not only the brutality of American expansionist policy, but also the end of what might be called the 'Indian Wars' on the plains. At the end of the 19th century, the indigenous peoples of the plains, displaced from their ancestral lands and confined to reserves, were faced with difficult living conditions. The pressure to assimilate, the loss of land and the depletion of the buffalo had left many tribes dependent on government rations for their survival. Against this backdrop of despair, the Spirit Dance movement emerged among the plains peoples, including the Lakota Sioux. This religious movement promised the return of the buffalo, the departure of the white settlers and a return to life as it had been before colonisation. Alarmed by the growing popularity of the Spirit Dance and misinterpreting it as a military threat, the American authorities sought to suppress the movement. This led to a series of tensions and confrontations, culminating in Wounded Knee. On that day, a detachment of the 7th Cavalry, attempting to disarm a group of Lakota, opened fire on the unarmed men, women and children. Exact figures vary, but it is estimated that nearly 200 Sioux, including many women and children, were killed. American soldiers also suffered casualties, many of them probably caused by friendly fire. The Wounded Knee massacre was widely condemned, even at the time, and remains a subject of shame and controversy. For indigenous peoples, it is a painful reminder of the injustices and brutalities they have suffered throughout American history. For the American nation as a whole, it is a testament to the human costs of expansion and colonisation, and to the need to recognise and right the wrongs of the past.

The history of indigenous peoples in the United States is marked by centuries of dispossession, violence and marginalisation. The events at Wounded Knee, the systematic policy of displacement and assimilation, and the deliberate extermination of the buffalo are just a few examples of the many injustices suffered by indigenous peoples. The Wounded Knee massacre is particularly emblematic of this history. It was not only a brutal attack on unarmed men, women and children, but also an attempt to suppress a cultural and spiritual expression - the Spirit Dance - that offered hope and resilience to a people facing overwhelming challenges. The extermination of the bison, over and above its ecological consequences, was intended to break the economic and cultural back of the plains peoples, for whom the bison was much more than just a source of food. It was central to their cosmology, their spirituality and their daily way of life. These actions, among many others, have left deep and lasting scars. The consequences of these policies are still evident today in the form of high poverty rates, poor health, high suicide rates and other social and economic challenges faced by many indigenous communities.

One of the most tragic consequences of American colonisation and expansion was the drastic decline in the population of the indigenous peoples of the United States during the period of westward expansion. This reduction was not simply the result of armed conflict, although this did play a role. It was also due to a combination of disease, displacement, deprivation, forced assimilation and other factors. Aboriginal peoples had no immunity to many of the diseases brought by Europeans, including smallpox, influenza, measles and tuberculosis. These diseases often resulted in high mortality rates among indigenous populations. In addition, wars and skirmishes with American forces and militias resulted in many casualties among indigenous peoples. Forced relocations, such as the infamous "Trail of Tears", have resulted in the deaths of many indigenous people due to exposure, malnutrition and disease. Once displaced, living conditions on reserves, often located on barren or marginal land, led to malnutrition, disease and dependence on government rations, which were often inadequate. Government policies, such as residential schools for aboriginals, aimed to assimilate aboriginal peoples into the dominant culture. This often resulted in a loss of traditions, languages and ways of life, as well as psychological trauma. In addition, the extermination of the bison, essential to the survival of many plains tribes, left these peoples without their main source of food and materials. The combination of these factors led to a drastic decline in the indigenous population during this period. However, it is essential to note that, despite these challenges and tragedies, native peoples survived and continue to play a vital role in American society, preserving their cultures, languages and traditions in the face of considerable challenges.

The westward expansion of the United States in the second half of the 19th century was marked by explosive population growth. The promise of abundant land, mineral wealth and economic opportunities attracted large numbers of people to the West, rapidly transforming the region. The Homestead Act of 1862 played a crucial role in this migration. It offered citizens the opportunity to claim up to 160 acres of public land on condition that they farmed it and built a home on it. This offer attracted many settlers, including families looking to establish farms and individuals hoping to start a new life. In addition, the discovery of gold, silver and other precious minerals in states such as California, Nevada and Colorado triggered several gold rushes. These discoveries attracted miners and entrepreneurs from all over, hoping to make their fortune. Towns quickly sprang up around the mining sites, some becoming prosperous metropolises, while others were abandoned once the mines were exhausted. The construction of the transcontinental railway, completed in 1869, also stimulated growth in the West. It not only facilitated the movement of people westwards, but also enabled the rapid transport of goods across the country, thereby strengthening the economic integration of the region. However, this rapid growth was not without consequences. The massive influx of settlers exacerbated tensions with indigenous peoples, who saw their lands and traditional ways of life increasingly under threat. In addition, the intensive exploitation of natural resources often had lasting environmental consequences. Nevertheless, the late 19th century saw the West transformed from a largely unexplored frontier into a region integrated into the nation, with its own unique cities, industries and cultures.

The period from 1860 to 1900 witnessed unprecedented population growth in the United States. In the space of four decades, the population jumped from 31 million to 76 million, reflecting an impressive increase of almost 145%. Several factors have converged to make this expansion possible. One of the main drivers of this growth has been natural increase, resulting from a surplus of births over deaths. This period saw improvements in medical care, nutrition and general living conditions, which contributed to an increase in life expectancy and high birth rates. Alongside natural increase, immigration played a crucial role in population growth. Successive waves of immigrants arrived on American shores, mainly from Europe. Lured by the promise of a better life, economic opportunities and personal freedoms, millions of immigrants from countries such as Ireland, Germany, Italy and Russia flocked to America's booming cities. Finally, westward expansion was also a key factor in population growth. The promise of land, the discovery of gold and other resources, and the construction of the transcontinental railway attracted large numbers of settlers to the western territories. These regions, once considered wilderness, quickly became centres of activity, with the establishment of towns, farms and industries. The combination of natural increase, immigration and territorial expansion shaped the demographic growth of the United States during this pivotal period, laying the foundations for the nation as we know it today.

The period of expansion and colonisation in the United States in the 19th century had devastating consequences for the country's indigenous peoples. Their history during this period is marked by suffering, loss and resilience in the face of often hostile government policies. The US government's policies of territorial expansion and assimilation of indigenous peoples had direct and often deadly consequences. The strategy of forced displacement, such as that implemented with the Trail of Tears, has seen entire tribes uprooted from their ancestral lands and moved to distant, often less fertile and less hospitable territories. Thousands of indigenous people died as a result of disease, malnutrition and exhaustion. Diseases introduced by European settlers, to which the indigenous peoples had no immunity, also played a major role in the decline of their populations. Epidemics of smallpox, influenza and measles, among others, decimated entire communities, sometimes in the space of a few months. Armed conflict has also been a constant source of suffering. Numerous wars and skirmishes between American forces and indigenous tribes took place throughout the 19th century, with each conflict further reducing the population and territory of the native peoples. This dark chapter in American history is a testament to the human costs of expansion and colonisation. The loss of indigenous lives, lands and cultures is a deep scar in the fabric of the nation. Recognising and understanding this history is essential to honouring the memory of indigenous peoples and to ensuring that such injustices do not occur in the future.

The indigenous population of the United States fell drastically between 1860 and 1900. In 1860, the indigenous population numbered around 330,000, representing 1.06% of the total US population of 31 million. By 1900, however, the number of natives had fallen to 237,000, or just 0.31% of the total population, which had grown to 76 million. As a proportion of the total population, this represents a 70% drop in just 40 years. These figures highlight the devastating impact of disease, conflict, forced displacement and assimilation policies on the indigenous population during this period. The significant decline in the indigenous population of the United States between 1860 and 1900 was the result of a series of tragic events and policies. Forced removals, such as the infamous Trail of Tears, saw entire tribes uprooted from their ancestral lands and moved to distant, often less fertile and hospitable territories. These displacements led to the deaths of many indigenous people from disease, malnutrition and exhaustion. Armed conflicts with US forces also led to heavy losses among the indigenous peoples. These confrontations were often the result of tensions over the possession of land, resources and the sovereignty of indigenous peoples. Diseases introduced by the European settlers, to which the indigenous peoples had no immunity, decimated many communities. Epidemics such as smallpox, influenza and measles were particularly fatal. Finally, assimilation policies, which aimed to integrate indigenous peoples into the dominant white American society, contributed to marginalisation and cultural erasure. Attempts to suppress indigenous languages, traditions and beliefs had a profound impact on the identity and cohesion of indigenous communities. This period in American history is marked by a series of injustices against indigenous peoples, the consequences of which are still felt today. Recognising and understanding this history is essential to honouring the memory of indigenous peoples and to ensuring that such injustices do not occur in the future.

Rapid colonisation

The American West beyond the Mississippi River. In dark red, the states that are still considered to be part of it: California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, plus Alaska and Hawaii. In hatched red, the states that are sometimes considered to be part of the South or Middle West: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota.

The colonisation of the American West in the 19th century is a complex chapter in the history of the United States, marked by ambition, opportunism and, sadly, tragedy for the indigenous peoples. After forcibly removing indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands and exterminating the bison, a vital resource for many tribes, the US government and private entrepreneurs paved the way for the rapid colonisation of these vast areas. The development of the rail network was a key element in this expansion. The railways, crossing the continent, not only facilitated the transport of goods, but also made travel to the West more accessible for settlers. Railway stations became anchor points for new towns, and adjacent land was promoted and sold to potential settlers, often at attractive prices. The promise of abundant, cheap land was a powerful magnet for many Americans and immigrants. Farmers, attracted by the prospect of vast tracts of arable land, migrated en masse, hoping to establish prosperous farms. Miners, attracted by rumours of deposits of gold, silver and other precious minerals, flocked to regions such as California, Nevada and Colorado. Cattlemen, meanwhile, were attracted by the vast pastures for their livestock. This diversity of settlers has contributed to the cultural and economic richness of the West, but it has also been a source of conflict, particularly over land rights, access to resources and interactions with the remaining indigenous peoples. Despite these challenges, the West quickly became a symbol of American opportunity and promise, even if this promise was realised at the expense of indigenous peoples and ecosystems.

Cattle ranching became an economic mainstay of the American West in the 19th century. With the expansion of the rail network, markets in the East and Midwest became more accessible, creating a growing demand for cattle. Texas, with its vast expanses of land and favourable climate, quickly became a major centre for cattle farming. Cowboys, often romantically idealised in popular culture, were the key players in this industry. They drove large herds of cattle over hundreds of miles, on trails such as the famous Chisholm Trail, to the railway stations where the cattle would be loaded and shipped to eastern markets. These drives were arduous undertakings, requiring weeks, even months, of hard work, perseverance and bravery in the face of the elements and potential dangers such as cattle rustlers. What many people don't realise is that among these cowboys were a significant number of African-Americans. After the Civil War, many freed African-Americans sought employment opportunities and ended up in cattle ranching, a sector which, although still facing discrimination, offered more opportunities than other industries of the time. It is estimated that African-Americans made up between 15% and 25% of all cowboys during this period. These African-American cowboys, while facing the discrimination and challenges inherent in life in the West, played an essential role in shaping the culture and economy of the region. Their contribution, though often overlooked in traditional accounts, is a testament to the diversity and complexity of the history of the American West.

The rise of the railroad industry in the 19th century had a profound impact on many sectors of the American economy, and the cattle industry was no exception. With the ability to rapidly transport large quantities of goods over long distances, the railway opened up markets previously inaccessible to western livestock producers. Chicago, with its strategic geographic location, quickly became a major crossroads for the rail industry and, as a result, a nerve centre for the meat packing industry. The city's slaughterhouses and packing plants innovated with assembly-line production methods, enabling livestock to be processed quickly and efficiently into ready-to-ship meat products. The introduction of refrigeration was a real revolution for the industry. Prior to this, transporting meat over long distances without it spoiling was a major challenge. With the advent of refrigerated wagons, meat could be kept cool during transport, opening the door to national distribution. This not only allowed Western producers to reach markets in the East and Midwest, but also made beef more accessible and affordable to American consumers. As a result, beef consumption increased significantly, and beef quickly became a mainstay of the American diet. This transformation of the food industry is a perfect example of how technological innovation, combined with entrepreneurial ingenuity, can reshape entire sectors and influence the consumption habits of a nation.

The westward expansion of the United States in the 19th century was a period of radical transformation. This mass migration into uncharted territory not only reshaped the country's geographical map, but also shaped its economic and cultural identity. Rail infrastructure was a key catalyst in this transformation. By linking the densely populated East with the wild, resource-rich West, the railways opened up new routes for trade and migration. Towns that were once isolated became hubs of activity, attracting entrepreneurs, workers and families in search of opportunity. Cattle farming, in particular, has flourished thanks to these new connections. The vast plains of the West proved ideal for large-scale ranching, and cowboys, those icons of American culture, drove huge herds of cattle to railway stations, from where they were shipped to markets in the East. This industry not only strengthened the economy of the West, but also influenced American culture, with the birth of myths, songs and stories centred on the lives of cowboys. The rise of the meat-packing industry, particularly in centres like Chicago, marked a major step in the modernisation of food production. With innovative techniques and the use of refrigeration, meat could be processed on a large scale, preserved and transported over long distances, meeting the growing demand of urban centres. Ultimately, the colonisation of the West was not just a physical migration to new territories. It was a period of economic and cultural renaissance, when innovation, ambition and enterprise converged to transform a young nation into a major industrial power, redefining the identity and destiny of the United States.

The colonisation of the Great Plains by European immigrants is another fascinating chapter in the story of westward expansion. These vast expanses, once considered the "Great American Desert", were transformed into one of the most productive granaries in the world thanks to the effort and determination of these new arrivals. Eastern, Central and Oriental Europe in the 19th century was in the throes of political, economic and social upheaval. Many farmers, in particular, faced poverty, overpopulation and limited opportunities. Stories of vast tracts of fertile land in the United States, available for next to nothing, were irresistible to many. Countries such as Poland, Russia and Ireland saw a mass exodus of their citizens, seeking a better life on American soil. Once here, these immigrants brought with them farming techniques, traditions and cultures that enriched the American landscape. On the Great Plains, they discovered rich, fertile soil, ideal for growing corn, wheat and other grains. Entire communities were formed, with churches, schools and businesses reflecting the heritage of their homelands. The American government played an active role in this migration. The Homestead Act of 1862, in particular, was a bold initiative to populate and develop the West. By offering 160 acres of land to anyone willing to farm it and build a home on it, the government not only stimulated settlement, but also promoted the agricultural development of the region. These policies, combined with the entrepreneurial spirit of the immigrants, transformed the Great Plains into a bastion of agricultural production. The contributions of these immigrant communities shaped the identity of the region and left a lasting legacy that continues to influence the culture and economy of the United States today.

Homesteaders were truly the pioneers of rural America. Despite the promise of fertile land and opportunity, life on the Great Plains was not without its challenges. The vast open spaces, while picturesque, were often the scene of extreme weather conditions, from winter snowstorms to scorching dry summers and the dreaded tornadoes. The prairie soil, although fertile, was woven with a thick layer of grass roots that made it difficult to plough. Initial efforts to cultivate the land were often laborious, requiring sturdy animals and strong ploughs to break the earth's crust. What's more, the absence of trees in vast stretches of the plains meant that wood, essential for building and heating, was a rare commodity. Isolation was also a constant challenge. Early homesteaders were often far from neighbours and towns, making access to markets, supplies and human companionship difficult. Infrastructure, such as roads and railways, was still under development, making the transportation of goods and people costly and inefficient. However, despite these challenges, homesteaders were resolute. They built houses from sod, an abundant resource, created communities and established schools and churches. Over time, through innovation and determination, they adapted their farming methods to the conditions of the plains, introducing drought-resistant crops and water conservation techniques. Their perseverance paid off. The Great Plains became the "breadbasket" of America, feeding not only the country but many parts of the world. Towns and villages prospered as infrastructure developed, attracting other industries and services. The story of the homesteaders is a testament to human tenacity in the face of adversity and the ability to transform a difficult landscape into a land of opportunity and abundance.

The massive arrival of immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe in the United States at the end of the 19th century had a profound impact on the country's economic and social development. These immigrants, seeking a better life away from the political and economic turmoil of their homeland, were attracted by the promise of jobs and opportunities in the United States. The railway industry was booming, with a constant need for labour to build, maintain and operate the lines. Immigrants, with their willingness to work hard and their diverse skills, were ideally placed to fill this need. They worked on the building sites, laying track across difficult terrain, and in the repair workshops, keeping locomotives and wagons running smoothly. Similarly, the mining industry in the West, from the gold mines of Colorado to the copper mines of Montana, relied heavily on immigrant labour. Conditions in these mines were often dangerous, but the promise of a steady wage and, for some, the possibility of finding gold or other precious minerals, attracted many workers. In the Midwest, rapid industrialisation created an unprecedented demand for workers in factories and mills. Cities like Chicago, Detroit and Cleveland became major industrial centres, producing everything from machinery to consumer products. Immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe, with their experience and work ethic, found jobs in these industries, often in difficult conditions but contributing significantly to the nation's industrial output. In addition to their economic contribution, these immigrants also enriched American culture. They brought with them traditions, languages, cuisines and arts that have added to the cultural mosaic of the United States. The neighbourhoods where they settled became centres of cultural activity, with churches, schools, theatres and markets reflecting their unique heritages.

The settlement of the Great Plains by farmers from Eastern, Central and Southeastern Europe marked a significant period in the history of American expansion. These immigrants, often fleeing poverty, persecution or political upheaval in their countries of origin, were attracted by the vast expanses of fertile land in the United States and the promise of a better life. The Great Plains, with their rich soils and vast expanses, offered ideal opportunities for farming. Immigrants brought with them traditional farming techniques, adapted to conditions in their countries of origin, and combined them with the innovations available in America. This led to a spectacular increase in agricultural production, making the United States one of the world's leading producers of products such as wheat, corn and cattle. These farmers also played a crucial role in the settlement of the country's interior regions. They established communities, built schools, churches and infrastructure, laying the foundations for sustained demographic and economic growth. Towns that were once small outposts or stops along railway lines were transformed into thriving commercial centres, fuelled by the surrounding agriculture. Alongside this agricultural growth, the arrival of these immigrants also stimulated industrialisation. Many of them, particularly those who settled in the Midwest, found work in the factories and workshops that were springing up at the time. Their skills, work ethic and willingness to integrate were essential in meeting the labour needs of the burgeoning American industry.

The arrival of Chinese immigrants on the west coast of the United States in the mid-19th century marked a distinctive chapter in the history of American expansion. Lured by tales of the "Mountain of Gold", thousands of Chinese crossed the ocean in the hope of finding their fortune in the California Gold Rush of 1849. However, the reality they encountered was often quite different from their golden dreams. Although some were successful in the goldfields, the majority of Chinese immigrants found themselves working in difficult conditions for minimal pay, often exploited by their employers. Faced with competition and xenophobia, they were pushed into less desirable jobs and less lucrative areas of the goldfields. Beyond the mines, Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in the construction of the first transcontinental railway. Employed by the Central Pacific Railroad, thousands of Chinese workers faced dangerous conditions to lay track through the Sierra Nevada mountains. Their hard work, expertise with explosives and determination were essential to the completion of this monumental undertaking. As well as manual labour, many Chinese have set up businesses to serve their communities. They opened laundries, restaurants, herbalist shops and other small businesses, forming Chinatowns in cities like San Francisco. These neighbourhoods quickly became cultural and economic centres, offering support and camaraderie to a population that often faced discrimination and isolation. However, despite their significant contributions, Chinese immigrants have faced increasing hostility. Discriminatory laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, limited Chinese immigration and restricted the rights of Chinese already in the United States. These measures, combined with daily violence and discrimination, made life difficult for many Chinese in America.

The story of Chinese immigrants in California is one of perseverance in the face of adversity. Arriving in large numbers during the gold rush of 1849, they sought to build a better life in what was then considered the land of opportunity. However, despite their hard work and significant contributions to the Californian economy and society, they faced systematic hostility and discrimination. Discrimination against the Chinese was institutionalised. Specific laws, such as the Foreign Miners' Tax Act of 1852, imposed high taxes on Chinese miners, often making them unprofitable. Later, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned Chinese immigration for a decade, reflecting growing hostility towards the Chinese community. Violence was also common. Riots broke out regularly in Californian cities, with angry mobs attacking Chinatowns, burning businesses and homes and assaulting residents. These acts were often motivated by economic fears, racial stereotypes and competition for jobs. In response to these challenges, many Chinese chose to live in segregated Chinatowns, where they could find safety, camaraderie and a sense of belonging. These neighbourhoods became centres of economic and cultural activity, with shops, temples, theatres and schools serving the community. Despite discrimination and obstacles, Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in the development of California. In the mines, they extracted gold and other precious minerals. In the cities, they opened shops, restaurants and laundries. They also played an essential role in the construction of the transcontinental railway, braving dangerous conditions to link the West Coast with the rest of the country. The story of Chinese immigrants in California is a testament to their resilience, determination and ability to overcome considerable challenges. Their legacy lives on today, not only in the tangible contributions they have made to the state, but also in the spirit of perseverance and determination they embody.

The construction of the transcontinental railway is one of the most remarkable achievements of the 19th century in the United States, and Chinese immigrants were at the heart of this monumental feat. Their role in this enterprise was essential, but often underestimated or omitted from mainstream historical accounts. The Central Pacific Railroad, the company that built the western portion of the railway, began hiring Chinese workers in 1865, largely due to a labour shortage. Company officials were initially sceptical about the Chinese's ability to do such demanding work, but were soon impressed by their efficiency, work ethic and stamina. The working conditions were extremely difficult. The Chinese workers were often tasked with the most perilous jobs, including laying dynamite to create tunnels through the solid mountains of the Sierra Nevada. They worked in extreme weather conditions, from scorching heat to freezing winters, and were exposed to constant dangers, such as explosions, rockslides and accidents. Despite this, they were generally paid less than their white counterparts and lived in rudimentary work camps. Despite these challenges, the Chinese workers showed remarkable ingenuity. They used traditional Chinese construction techniques, adapting their skills to the American environment. For example, when faced with the arduous task of tunneling through solid rock, they used fires to heat the rock and then cold water to break it up, a method they had learned in China. Their contribution was so significant that when the last golden spike was driven at Promontory Summit, Utah, in 1869, marking the completion of the railway, the presence of Chinese workers was undeniable. However, despite their crucial role, they were often marginalised in the celebrations and commemorations that followed.

Settling the interior of the United States, particularly the Great Plains, was an arduous undertaking for many pioneers. Although the promise of abundant and fertile land attracted many settlers, the reality of life in these regions was often quite different from what they had imagined. The geographic isolation of the Great Plains posed many challenges. Before the railways were built, settlers relied mainly on wagons and waterways to transport their goods. This meant that access to markets, where they could sell their produce and buy supplies, was limited. In addition, the distances between farms and small towns were often great, making it difficult to create close-knit communities and access essential services such as schools, doctors or churches. The climatic conditions of the Great Plains were another major challenge. Summers could be hot and dry, making farming difficult without adequate irrigation. Winters, on the other hand, were often harsh, with snowstorms and freezing temperatures that could endanger livestock and crops. Tornadoes and hailstorms were also common threats to settlers. In addition, the soil of the Great Plains, although fertile, was covered by a thick layer of deep-rooted grass. This made initial ploughing extremely difficult. Settlers had to innovate, using special ploughs to break up the hard crust of the soil. Despite these challenges, many settlers persevered, adapting their farming methods and lifestyles to succeed in this difficult environment. They developed farming techniques specific to the region, such as strip ploughing to reduce soil erosion and planting trees to act as windbreaks. Over time, the arrival of the railway also facilitated access to markets and reduced the isolation of the Great Plains, allowing the region to prosper.

The South

The end of the Civil War in 1865 marked the end of the Confederacy and of legal slavery in the United States. However, the promise of freedom and equality for African Americans was not fully realised, particularly in the South. The post-war period, known as Reconstruction, was an attempt to bring the Southern states back into the Union and to secure the rights of the newly freed African Americans. But this period was marked by intense resistance from white Southerners who were determined to restore white domination. The "Black Codes" were a set of laws passed by Southern state legislatures after the Civil War. Although these laws recognised certain rights for African Americans, such as the right to own property and to marry, they also imposed many restrictions. For example, the Black Codes prohibited African-Americans from voting, testifying against whites in court, owning weapons or meeting in groups without a white person present. In addition, these laws imposed annual work contracts, forcing many African-Americans to work in conditions that closely resembled slavery. In addition to the Black Codes, other laws and practices, known as Jim Crow laws, were put in place to reinforce racial segregation and white supremacy. These laws enforced the separation of the races in public places, such as schools, hospitals, public transport and even cemeteries. African Americans were also disenfranchised through tactics such as poll taxes, literacy tests and threats of violence. The implementation of these laws and practices was supported by violence and intimidation. Groups like the Ku Klux Klan terrorised African Americans and the whites who supported them, using lynchings, arson and other acts of violence to maintain the racial status quo.

Faced with a legal and social system deeply rooted in discrimination, African-Americans had to use perseverance and ingenuity to challenge the injustices they faced. Despite the obstacles, they have used every means at their disposal to fight for their rights. African-Americans formed organisations to support their efforts. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), founded in 1909, became a major player in the fight for civil rights. It used the courts as its primary means of challenging discriminatory laws, hiring lawyers to represent African-Americans in key court cases. However, these efforts were often hampered by hostile courts, particularly in the South. Judges, often in line with the prevailing prejudices of their communities, were reluctant to rule in favour of black plaintiffs. Moreover, African-Americans who dared to challenge the existing system risked reprisals, ranging from intimidation to physical violence. Despite these challenges, there were some notable victories. One of the most famous is the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education case, in which the US Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Although this decision did not put an immediate end to segregation, it did mark a turning point in the struggle for civil rights. Apart from the courts, African-Americans also used other means to challenge discrimination. They organised boycotts, sit-ins, marches and other forms of non-violent protest to draw attention to their cause. Iconic figures such as Martin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and others emerged as leaders of this civil rights movement.

The resilience and determination of African Americans in the face of systemic oppression was remarkable. In the post-Civil War South, where discrimination was at its deepest and most institutionalised, African Americans found ways to resist and organise. Creating their own organisations was an essential way for African Americans to fight for their rights. Groups such as the NAACP, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) have played a crucial role in mobilising black communities for the cause of civil rights. These organisations provided a platform for training, strategy and coordination of protest actions. Membership of the Republican Party, once the party of Lincoln and emancipation, was another way for African Americans to claim their political rights. Although this affiliation changed over time, not least because of the Republican Party's 'southern strategy' in the 1960s, during Reconstruction and beyond many African Americans saw the Republican Party as an ally in their struggle for equality. Participation in grassroots movements was also crucial. Iconic figures such as Rosa Parks, whose refusal to give up her seat on a bus sparked the Montgomery bus boycott, and Martin Luther King Jr, with his philosophy of non-violent civil disobedience, inspired thousands to stand up against injustice. Sit-ins, marches and boycotts have become common tools of protest and resistance. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s culminated in events such as the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963, where Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. These collective efforts led to major legislative changes, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, colour, religion, sex or national origin, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to remove barriers to voting for African-Americans. These victories, while significant, were only the beginning of an ongoing struggle for equality and justice in the United States. But they are a testament to the strength, determination and resilience of African-Americans in the face of centuries of oppression.

After the Civil War, the period of Reconstruction offered a glimmer of hope for African Americans. With the passage of the 13th, 14th and 15th amendments, slavery was abolished, citizenship guaranteed and the right to vote extended to black men. However, this period of progress was short-lived. With the withdrawal of federal troops from the South in 1877, the Southern states quickly adopted the "Black Codes", laws that severely restricted the freedoms of African-Americans and established systems of forced labour, segregation and disenfranchisement. In the face of these injustices, African Americans showed remarkable resilience and determination. They established churches, schools and institutions that became pillars of their communities. These institutions provided spaces for education, worship and political mobilisation, essential to the struggle for civil rights. Despite legal and social obstacles, African-Americans also sought to challenge their status through the courts, although these efforts were often hampered by a discriminatory legal system. Figures such as Ida B. Wells courageously denounced lynchings and other forms of racial violence, despite personal threats. Over time, resistance became organised and intensified. Organisations such as the NAACP were created to fight racial discrimination and promote the rights of African-Americans. Emblematic figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington and later Martin Luther King Jr. emerged as powerful voices for justice and equality. The struggle for civil rights intensified in the mid-20th century, with boycotts, sit-ins, marches and other forms of non-violent protest. These collective efforts, combined with key court decisions and federal legislation, eventually led to the dismantling of the segregation system and the establishment of equal rights for all citizens, regardless of race.

The US Supreme Court, in the years following the Civil War, had a profound impact on the trajectory of civil rights for African Americans. Although the 14th Amendment was adopted in 1868 to guarantee citizenship and equal protection under the law to all citizens, including African Americans, the Court interpreted this amendment restrictively in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883. In these cases, the Court considered the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which prohibited racial discrimination in public places such as hotels, theatres and railways. The Court ruled that the 14th Amendment did not give Congress the power to legislate against discriminatory acts committed by private individuals or companies. According to the Court, the 14th Amendment only applied to discriminatory acts committed by the States, not by private individuals. The effect of this decision was to leave African-Americans without legal recourse against racial discrimination in many areas of public life. It also paved the way for the adoption of racial segregation laws in the South, known as Jim Crow laws, which institutionalised racial segregation and deprived African Americans of many civil and political rights. The Court's decision in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 is a striking example of how the judiciary can influence the trajectory of civil rights and how constitutional interpretations can have lasting consequences on the lives of citizens. It would take decades of struggle and activism for the civil rights of African Americans to be fully recognised and protected by law.

The Supreme Court, in its 1883 Civil Rights Cases decision, drew a distinction between discriminatory acts committed by the federal government and those committed by state governments or private entities. In interpreting the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment narrowly, the Court held that the clause applied only to discrimination by the federal government. This interpretation has left the states, particularly those in the South, with considerable leeway to regulate their own race relations. As a result, many Southern states quickly passed a series of laws known as "Jim Crow" laws. These laws established strict racial segregation in almost every aspect of public life, from schools to public transport to public places such as restaurants and theatres. Moreover, these laws were supplemented by discriminatory practices that deprived African-Americans of their fundamental rights, such as the right to vote. The Supreme Court's decision therefore had a profound and lasting impact on the lives of African-Americans, reinforcing racial segregation and discrimination for almost a century, until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s succeeded in overturning these unjust practices.

The Civil Rights Cases decision of 1883 marked a major turning point in the trajectory of civil rights in the United States. By ruling that the 14th Amendment applied only to the actions of the federal government and not to those of the states or individuals, the Supreme Court essentially gave the green light to the southern states to establish a regime of segregation and racial discrimination. These laws, known as "Jim Crow" laws, affected almost every aspect of life, from education to transportation, and deprived African Americans of their fundamental rights. In the face of this institutionalised reality, African-Americans had to show resilience, ingenuity and determination to claim their rights. Although efforts were made throughout the early 20th century to challenge segregation and discrimination, it was the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s that finally succeeded in mobilising national action. Emblematic figures such as Martin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and many others galvanised the country around the cause of equality. This movement, with its boycotts, marches and court actions, eventually led to major legislative changes, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. These laws prohibited racial discrimination in employment, education, housing and public places, and protected the right of citizens to vote, regardless of their race. So while the 1883 ruling was a major setback for civil rights, it also served as a catalyst for a movement that ultimately transformed the nation and brought the United States closer to its ideal of equality for all. Overall, the Supreme Court's decision in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 was a major setback for the rights of African Americans in the United States and paved the way for a long and difficult struggle for civil rights. The Court's decision left the regulation of race relations to the individual states, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement that the issue was addressed.

Plessy v Ferguson was decided following an incident in 1892 when Homer Plessy, a light-skinned African-American man, defied Louisiana law by sitting in a car reserved for whites. Plessy, who was seven-eighths white and one-eighth black, was arrested and convicted of breaking state law requiring the segregation of passengers on trains. The case went to the Supreme Court, where Plessy's lawyers argued that the Louisiana law violated the 13th and 14th Amendments of the US Constitution. However, the Court, in a 7-1 decision, ruled that the Louisiana law did not violate the Constitution as long as the separate facilities were equal in quality. The "separate but equal" doctrine established by this ruling has been used to justify racial segregation in almost every aspect of public life in the United States, particularly in the South. In reality, the facilities and services provided to African Americans were often inferior to those provided to whites. Schools, hospitals, parks and even water fountains for African Americans were often in poor condition, underfunded and overcrowded. The Plessy v Ferguson decision reinforced the legal legitimacy of racial segregation and was a major obstacle to racial equality for over half a century. It was not until 1954, with Brown v Board of Education, that the Supreme Court overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine and declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The impact of Plessy v Ferguson was profound and lasting. It not only legalised segregation, but also reinforced racist attitudes and practices in American society. The struggle to end segregation and achieve equal rights for all American citizens required decades of effort and sacrifice by many courageous individuals.

Plessy v Ferguson reinforced the legal legitimacy of racial segregation and set a precedent that has been used to justify a multitude of discriminatory practices. The Jim Crow laws that followed affected almost every aspect of daily life, from education and public transport to public places and leisure facilities. These laws not only physically separated African-Americans from whites, but also reinforced a system of white supremacy that marginalised and oppressed African-Americans for decades. Under the guise of the "separate but equal" doctrine, Southern states were able to establish separate educational systems, transportation and other public services for whites and blacks. In reality, services and facilities for African-Americans were often far inferior to those for whites. For example, black schools were often underfunded, dilapidated and overcrowded, depriving African-American students of an education of equal quality to their white counterparts. The Plessy decision also had a profound psychological impact on the nation, reinforcing the idea that African-Americans were inferior and deserved unequal treatment. It also gave white Southerners the green light to continue oppressing African-Americans, often with violence and intimidation. It was only after decades of struggle for civil rights, led by courageous and determined activists, that the doctrine of 'separate but equal' was finally overturned. Brown v Board of Education in 1954 was a crucial step in this struggle, declaring that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. However, even after Brown, the fight for equal rights continued, as many Southern states resisted integration and continued to implement discriminatory policies.

The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, guaranteed equal protection under the law for all citizens, regardless of race. The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, explicitly prohibited disenfranchisement on the basis of race, colour or previous condition of servitude. These amendments were supposed to guarantee the civil rights of African-Americans, particularly those who had recently been freed after the Civil War. However, despite these constitutional guarantees, the Southern states quickly adopted a series of laws, known as 'Jim Crow' laws, which established a system of racial segregation in almost every aspect of daily life. These laws were reinforced by social and economic practices that marginalised African Americans and kept them in a subordinate position. The courts have often upheld these practices. The 1896 Plessy v Ferguson decision, for example, validated the "separate but equal" doctrine, allowing segregation as long as separate facilities were considered equal. In reality, facilities for African-Americans were often inferior. In addition, intimidation tactics, poll taxes, literacy tests and other barriers were used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote, despite the 15th Amendment. It was not until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s that these practices were seriously challenged and finally dismantled. Court rulings, such as Brown v Board of Education in 1954, began to overturn previous case law supporting segregation. Civil rights activists, through direct action, protest and litigation, pushed the country to recognise and rectify the injustices that had been perpetrated for decades.

After the Civil War, the Reconstruction period saw a significant increase in the political participation of African Americans, particularly in the South. However, this period of progress was short-lived. With the end of Reconstruction in 1877, the Southern states began to pass a series of laws and regulations aimed at restricting and eliminating the right of African Americans to vote. The "Black Codes" were initially laws passed in the immediate aftermath of the Civil War to control and restrict the freedom of newly freed African Americans. These were quickly followed by Jim Crow laws, which institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination in the South. Literacy tests were one of many tactics used to prevent African Americans from voting. These tests were often worded in a deliberately confusing or ambiguous way, making it difficult for anyone with any level of education to pass. In addition, polling place officials had wide latitude in deciding who should take the test, allowing for discriminatory enforcement. Poll taxes were another method used to prevent African-Americans from voting. These taxes, which had to be paid in order to vote, were often too high for many African-Americans, who lived in poverty. In addition, some jurisdictions had "grandfather clauses", which exempted voters whose grandfathers had the right to vote before the Civil War, effectively excluding most African-Americans. Other discriminatory practices included the use of 'white' ballots, where candidates' names were printed on different coloured backgrounds, allowing officials to reject African-American ballots. Threats, violence and intimidation were also commonly used to dissuade African-Americans from voting. These practices had a devastating impact on African-American voter turnout. In many Southern counties, the number of registered African-American voters dropped to zero or close to it. It was not until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, and in particular the enactment of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, that these discriminatory practices were eliminated and the voting rights of African-Americans were fully restored.

The 1896 decision in Plessy v Ferguson was a major turning point in the history of civil rights in the United States. By validating the doctrine of "separate but equal", the Supreme Court gave its approval to systematic racial segregation, as long as separate facilities were considered equivalent. In practice, however, facilities and services for African-Americans were often inferior to those for whites. This decision reinforced and legitimised the Jim Crow laws that were already in place in many Southern states. These laws, which covered almost every aspect of life, from education to transport to public places, created institutionalised segregation that lasted for several decades. They were also used to justify the disenfranchisement of African-Americans through means such as literacy tests, poll taxes and other bureaucratic hurdles. Legalised segregation also reinforced racist attitudes and prejudices, creating an atmosphere of discrimination and oppression for African Americans. It also helped perpetuate economic, educational and social inequalities between whites and African-Americans. It is important to note that Plessy v Ferguson was not successfully challenged until Brown v Board of Education in 1954, when the Supreme Court overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine for education. This decision marked the beginning of the end of institutionalised segregation in the United States, although the struggle for civil rights and equality continues to this day.

The Supreme Court of the United States, as the highest judicial body in the land, plays a crucial role in interpreting the Constitution and determining the fundamental rights of citizens. Its decisions have a lasting impact, often shaping the legal and social landscape for generations. After the Civil War, the 13th, 14th and 15th Amendments were adopted to abolish slavery, guarantee citizenship and equal rights for all, and protect the right of African-Americans to vote. However, despite these constitutional protections, the rights of African Americans have been systematically violated, particularly in the South. Discriminatory laws, known as "Jim Crow" laws, were passed to restrict the rights of African-Americans, including their right to vote. Supreme Court decisions often reinforced these discriminatory practices. The Plessy v Ferguson decision of 1896 is a flagrant example, where the Court validated the doctrine of "separate but equal", thereby legalising racial segregation. This decision gave the green light to the states to institutionalise racial discrimination, with devastating consequences for African-Americans. It wasn't until the mid-twentieth century, with the Civil Rights Movement, that the fight for equality for African Americans gained ground. Iconic figures such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks, along with thousands of other activists, protested, demonstrated and fought to end segregation and secure civil rights for African Americans. The Supreme Court, in later decisions such as Brown v Board of Education in 1954, finally began to correct some of its earlier miscarriages of justice, declaring that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. The struggle for civil rights for African Americans in the United States illustrates the tension between constitutional protections and their actual implementation. It also shows the crucial importance of the Supreme Court in defining and protecting the fundamental rights of citizens.

Around 1890, the American South was deeply entrenched in a system of segregation, violence and discrimination against African-Americans. Although slavery was abolished after the Civil War, the Southern states quickly adopted a series of laws and regulations, known as "Black Codes", to restrict the rights and freedoms of African-Americans. These codes imposed severe restrictions on the daily lives of African Americans, from where they could live and work to how they could interact with whites. Segregation was rampant, with separate schools, transport, restaurants, hotels and even water fountains for whites and blacks. African Americans were also disenfranchised through tactics such as poll taxes, literacy tests and threats or acts of violence. Violence against African-Americans was common and often went unpunished. Lynchings, in particular, were a brutal form of racial violence that terrorised the black community. These acts were often perpetrated under the pretext of punishing a real or perceived crime, but in reality served to reinforce white control and domination over African Americans. The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v Ferguson in 1896 reinforced this system of segregation. By ruling that segregation was constitutional as long as separate facilities were "equal", the Court endorsed the "separate but equal" doctrine. In reality, facilities and services for African-Americans were often inferior to those for whites. The Plessy decision gave the southern states the green light to codify and extend racial segregation and discrimination. It also sent a clear message that the federal government would not stand in the way of these practices. It would take decades of struggle, protest and advocacy before this decision was finally overturned and the civil rights of African Americans were fully recognised.

The sharecropping system became predominant in the post-Civil War South, particularly with the end of slavery. Large plantations, which had previously depended on slave labour to grow cotton and other crops, were broken up into smaller plots. These plots were then rented out to sharecroppers, who were often former slaves with no land or resources to start their own farms. In theory, sharecropping seemed to offer an opportunity for African Americans to work the land and earn a living. In reality, it was a deeply unequal and exploitative system. Sharecroppers were given a plot of land to cultivate, as well as tools, seeds and other supplies needed to grow crops. In exchange, they had to give a substantial share of their harvest to the landowner. The landowners often set the prices for supplies and commodities, resulting in debts for the tenant farmers. With the fall in cotton prices on the international market at the end of the 19th century, the situation of sharecroppers deteriorated further. Many found themselves trapped in a cycle of debt, borrowing money from the landowner for seed and supplies, then repaying these debts with their harvest. If the harvest failed or prices were low, they went further into debt. The sharecropping system perpetuated the poverty and economic dependence of African Americans in the South for decades. It also reinforced racial and economic power structures, with white landowners controlling the land and resources, and black sharecroppers working the land without ever really having the opportunity to rise economically or socially.

The economy of the South, once dominated by vast cotton plantations and supported by slave labour, underwent a radical transformation after the Civil War. The end of slavery meant the end of an economic system that had enriched a white elite for generations. However, the promise of Reconstruction, a post-Civil War period aimed at integrating freed African Americans into society as full citizens, was quickly betrayed. Jim Crow laws, black codes and other discriminatory measures were put in place to maintain white supremacy and marginalise the black population. The sharecropping system, which emerged as a response to the economic crisis of the post-Civil War South, trapped many African Americans in a cycle of dependency and debt. Sharecroppers were often at the mercy of landowners, who controlled not only the land but also the supplies needed to grow it and the markets where the crops were sold. With the fall in cotton prices at the end of the 19th century, many tenant farmers found themselves in debt, unable to escape their precarious situation. Endemic poverty, exacerbated by a declining economy and discriminatory laws, created difficult living conditions for many African Americans in the South. Limited access to education, healthcare and economic opportunities has reinforced racial and economic inequalities. Many African Americans sought to escape these conditions by migrating north and west during the Great Migration, seeking better opportunities and escaping the segregation and violence of the South.

The industrialisation of the South after the Civil War represented a major change for a region that had been dominated by an agrarian economy based on plantations. Although agriculture, particularly cotton growing, remained central to the Southern economy, the emergence of the steel and textile industries provided new economic opportunities and helped to diversify the region's economy. The steel industry, in particular, experienced significant growth in coal- and iron-rich areas such as Alabama. The city of Birmingham, for example, has become a major centre for steel production due to its proximity to coal and iron ore deposits. These industries have attracted investment from the North and abroad, stimulating economic growth. The textile industry, meanwhile, benefited from the South's long tradition of cotton production. Mills were established throughout the South, transforming raw cotton into fabrics and other products. Cities such as Charlotte in North Carolina became important centres for the textile industry. However, this industrialisation came at a cost. Southern workers, including many poor African-Americans and whites, were often employed in harsh conditions and for very low wages. Trade unions were weak and labour laws were either non-existent or not enforced, allowing factory owners to exploit their workers. In addition, dependence on cheap labour hampered technological innovation in certain industries, making the South less competitive with the more industrialised regions of the North. Despite these challenges, industrialisation has played a crucial role in transforming the South from a predominantly agrarian economy to a more diversified one, marking the beginning of a period of change and modernisation for the region.

Logging became a major industry in the South in the post-Civil War period, particularly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The vast pine and other woodlands of the South were a valuable natural resource that had not been exploited on a large scale before this period. The combination of the expansion of the rail network, which facilitated the transport of timber to national markets, and the growing demand for timber for construction, furniture and other uses led to a rapid increase in logging. Many northern companies invested in the southern forestry industry, attracted by the availability of vast tracts of forest land at relatively low prices. However, this rapid exploitation has had environmental consequences. Massive deforestation has led to soil erosion, disruption of natural habitats and loss of biodiversity. Vast tracts of old-growth forest have been felled, often without any effort at reforestation or sustainable management. The forestry industry has also had socio-economic implications. It created jobs for many residents of the South, but these jobs were often insecure and poorly paid. Forestry workers, often referred to as "loggers", worked in difficult and dangerous conditions. Logging camps were often isolated and rudimentary, and workers were dependent on the companies for housing, food and other necessities. Over time, as deforestation increased and awareness of the environmental consequences grew, efforts were made to promote more sustainable forest management. However, the impacts of this period of intensive exploitation are still visible today in many regions of the South.

The South's dependence on the cotton economy, combined with the destruction caused by the civil war, created a precarious economic situation. Cotton, known as "white gold", had been the South's main export crop before the war, and the region had invested heavily in this monoculture. However, after the war, several factors contributed to the fall in cotton prices: overproduction, international competition and reduced demand. The sharecropping system, which developed after the war to replace the slave system, also contributed to economic insecurity. Sharecroppers, often former slaves, rented land from landowners in exchange for a share of the harvest. But this system often led to a cycle of debt, as sharecroppers had to buy supplies on credit and were tied to the land by debt. The South's precarious financial situation after the war attracted many investors from the North, often referred to by Southerners as 'carpetbaggers'. These investors took advantage of the South's economic situation to buy land, businesses and other assets at derisory prices. This massive acquisition of assets by outside interests reinforced the feeling of occupation and loss of control among Southerners. In addition, the reconstruction of the South was marked by political and racial tensions. The federal government's efforts to rebuild the region and guarantee the rights of African-Americans were often thwarted by local groups resistant to change. Overall, the post-Civil War period was a time of upheaval and transformation for the South. While the region experienced industrial and economic progress, it also faced major challenges, including Reconstruction, the transition to a post-slavery economy and the struggle for civil rights.

The economic history of the American South is marked by a slow but steady transition from agriculture to industrialisation. For a long time, the South was defined by its agrarian economy, dominated by cotton growing. This dependence was reinforced by the sharecropping system, which kept many poor African-Americans and whites in a cycle of debt and dependence on landowners. The industrialisation of the South was delayed by several factors. The destruction caused by the Civil War, lack of investment in infrastructure and education, and conservative economic and social policies all played a part. In addition, the availability of cheap, non-unionised labour was often used to attract labour-intensive industries, rather than high-tech or innovative ones. However, in the 20th century, a number of factors began to transform the economy of the South. The expansion of the road network and the increase in education made the region more attractive to investors. In addition, the civil rights movement ended legal segregation, opening up economic opportunities for African-Americans and creating a fairer labour market. In the 1960s and 1970s, the South began to attract manufacturing industries, particularly in the automotive sector, with the installation of factories by foreign companies. Favourable tax policies, lower labour costs and a generally anti-union attitude made the South attractive to business. Economic diversification has also been reflected in the growth of the service, technology and financial sectors. Cities such as Atlanta, Charlotte and Dallas have become major centres in these areas. Despite this progress, economic disparities persist. Many rural areas in the South continue to struggle with poverty and lack of economic opportunity. However, the transformation of the South from a predominantly agrarian economy to a diversified economy is a testament to its ability to adapt and evolve in the face of challenges.

After the Civil War, the American South went through a period of economic and social reconstruction. The devastation of the war, combined with the end of slavery, turned the region's traditional agrarian economy on its head. Although agriculture remained the mainstay of the Southern economy, the system on which it was based changed. The large plantations gave way to a system of sharecropping, where farmers rented land and paid their rent in cotton or other crops. Cotton remained the main cash crop, but its dominance was undermined by falling world market prices and pests such as the cotton weevil. Other crops, such as tobacco and timber, have also played an important role in the economy of the South. The forests of the South have been exploited to meet the growing demand for timber, pulp and other forest products. However, despite its wealth of raw materials, the South lagged behind the North in terms of industrialisation. Capital and technological innovation were concentrated in the North, and the South found it difficult to attract the investment needed to develop its own industries. In addition, the lack of infrastructure, such as railways and ports, made it difficult to export raw materials from the South to world markets. It was only in the twentieth century, with the arrival of new industries and the expansion of infrastructure, that the South began to industrialise and urbanise. The textile industry, for example, developed in the South because of the availability of cotton and cheap labour. Similarly, the exploitation of natural resources such as coal, oil and iron led to the emergence of new industries in the region. Urbanisation also began to take hold, with cities such as Atlanta, Dallas and Charlotte becoming major economic centres. However, despite these developments, for much of the twentieth century the South remained an economically disadvantaged region compared to the rest of the country, with higher rates of poverty and lower levels of education.

The South's economic dependence on the North has had profound implications for the region. After the civil war, the South was economically devastated. Infrastructure was in ruins, plantations were destroyed, and the end of slavery meant that the economic system on which the South was based had to be completely rethought. Against this backdrop of vulnerability, the South desperately needed capital to rebuild. The North, having emerged from the war in a much stronger economic position, was in a position to provide this capital. However, this investment was not without conditions. Northern industrialists saw the South as an investment opportunity. They bought land, factories, railways and other assets at derisory prices. As a result, much of the Southern economy became the property of Northern interests. These owners often had little interest in the long-term welfare of the region, seeking instead to maximise their short-term profits. This dynamic reinforced the economic dependence of the South. Workers in the South found themselves working for companies based in the North, and often at lower wages than their counterparts in the North. In addition, profits generated in the South were often reinvested in the North, rather than in the region where they were earned. This situation also had political implications. Northern economic elites with financial interests in the South often influenced the politics of the region to protect those interests. This sometimes led to policies that favoured Northern companies at the expense of local workers and entrepreneurs. Ultimately, the South's economic dependence on the North helped to perpetuate the region's economic and social inequalities. Although the South has experienced periods of economic growth, the fundamental structure of its economy, marked by dependence and external control, has made it difficult for the region to close the gap with the rest of the country.

Despite these historical challenges, the South has shown remarkable resilience and adaptability. In the 20th century, the region began to attract national and international investment, thanks in part to its low labour costs, favourable tax policies and improved infrastructure. The southern states also invested in education and vocational training, recognising the importance of human capital for economic development. The industrialisation of the South has been stimulated by the establishment of foreign and domestic automotive plants, as well as the development of technology hubs such as the Research Triangle Park in North Carolina. In addition, the South has become a major centre for the aerospace industry, with companies such as Boeing, Lockheed Martin and Airbus having major operations in the region. The growth of service industries, particularly in finance, healthcare and education, has also played a crucial role in the South's economic transformation. Cities such as Atlanta, Charlotte and Dallas have become major financial and commercial centres. However, despite this progress, the South continues to face challenges. Economic and social disparities persist, and in some rural areas, poverty and unemployment remain high. In addition, the region must face up to the challenges posed by globalisation, international competition and technological change. Nevertheless, the history of the South shows that the region is capable of change and adaptation. With continued investment in education, infrastructure and innovation, the South has the potential to overcome its historical challenges and continue to prosper in the future.

The "Black Codes" created a system that trapped many African Americans in a cycle of poverty and dependency. These laws allowed white landlords to hire out prisoners for forced labour, often under brutal and inhumane conditions. This system, known as "peonage", was essentially a form of slavery by another method. African-Americans who were unable to pay fines or debts could be 'hired out' to white landlords to work until their 'debt' was repaid. In reality, this 'debt' was often manipulated to ensure that the individual remained in indefinite servitude. In addition, vagrancy laws were often used to specifically target African-Americans. For example, if an African-American was found to be unemployed, he could be arrested for vagrancy. Once arrested, he was often fined a sum he could not pay, leading to him being 'hired out' to work for a white landlord to 'pay off' the fine. These practices not only deprived African-Americans of their freedom, but also strengthened the economic power of the white elites in the South. White landlords benefited from cheap labour, while African-Americans were denied any opportunity for economic advancement. It is important to note that although the 'black codes' were adopted in the South, racial prejudice and discrimination were widespread throughout the country. However, in the South, these prejudices were institutionalised through laws that actively reinforced white supremacy and the subordination of African Americans. It took decades of struggle, including the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s, to begin to dismantle these oppressive systems and secure the civil and political rights of African Americans.

Working conditions were often comparable to those of antebellum slavery. Workers were subjected to extremely long working days, with little or no rest. They were often poorly fed and housed in precarious conditions. Shelters were rudimentary, offering little protection from the elements. Medical care was virtually non-existent, meaning that illness and injury were common and often fatal. Supervisors and owners used violence to maintain order and discipline. Corporal punishment, such as whippings, was commonly used to punish minor offences or to encourage workers to work harder. Attempts to escape were severely punished, and it was not uncommon for workers to be chained or shackled to prevent them from escaping. Families were often separated, with children sometimes rented out to different landlords, far from their parents. This forced separation of families was another form of psychological control, as it created a constant fear of losing loved ones. The forced labour system also had profound psychological effects on African-Americans. The constant dehumanisation, violence and deprivation left lasting scars on African-American communities. Fear and distrust of the authorities, as well as a sense of powerlessness in the face of an oppressive system, have been passed down from generation to generation.

The industrialised North had its own economic interests to protect and promote. The cheap labour of the South was attractive to industrialists seeking to maximise their profits. Agricultural products and raw materials, such as cotton, were essential for Northern factories. So, even though slavery had been abolished, the system of forced labour that emerged after the Civil War was tacitly accepted by many economic players in the North because it continued to provide low-cost raw materials. In addition, the geographical and cultural distance between the North and the South meant that many citizens of the North remained indifferent to, or ignorant of, the living conditions of African-Americans in the South. The media of the time did not always cover injustices in the South exhaustively or accurately, and it was easy for Northerners to focus on their own economic and social challenges. However, it is also important to note that some Northern citizens and groups attempted to intervene or protest against injustices in the South. Abolitionists, for example, continued to advocate for the rights of African-Americans after the Civil War. But these voices were often marginalised or ignored in the dominant discourse. It was only with the Civil Rights Movement, when the injustices of the South were brought to national attention through television and the media, that the country as a whole began to become aware of and actively oppose discrimination and segregation. The images of peaceful demonstrators being attacked by the police, the accounts of brutality and the testimonies of the victims finally spurred the country into action to put an end to centuries of racial injustice.

The economic situation in the South after the Civil War was complex. The end of slavery disrupted the previous economic system, based on slave labour on plantations. Although slavery had been abolished, racial and economic inequalities persisted. African-Americans, freed from slavery, found themselves in a precarious situation. Without land or resources, many were forced to work as sharecroppers or farm labourers, often for their former masters. Under this system, they rented land and paid the owner in kind, usually a share of the harvest. This often kept them in a cycle of debt and dependency. At the same time, industrialisation in the South was slower than in the North. The industries that developed, such as textile mills and mines, offered jobs mainly to whites. However, these jobs were not well paid. White workers in the South, often from poor rural backgrounds, were also exploited, albeit in a different way to African-Americans. They were often paid in vouchers that could only be used in company-owned shops, which also kept them in a cycle of debt. Competition for these low-paid jobs and racial tensions were often fuelled by factory owners and managers to prevent solidarity between white and black workers. Managers feared that if workers united, they might demand better wages and working conditions. The post-Civil War South was a region where race and class were closely intertwined, and where racial divisions were often used to maintain an economic status quo that favoured a white elite while exploiting both white and black workers.

These small industrial towns, often called 'company towns' in the US, were a feature of the post-Civil War South. They were built and managed by a single company, usually a textile mill or a mine. These companies provided not only employment, but also housing, shops, schools, churches and sometimes even the currency used in the town. Everything was under the control of the company. Life in these company towns was both protective and restrictive. On the one hand, workers had housing, jobs and services on their doorstep. On the other hand, they were often paid in vouchers that could only be used in the company's shops, which kept them in a cycle of debt. In addition, companies often exercised strict control over workers' lives, regulating everything from alcohol consumption to trade union membership. African-Americans were generally excluded from these company towns. Although they were an essential workforce in the agrarian South, they were largely excluded from the new industrial opportunities. Factory jobs were reserved for whites, while African-Americans were relegated to low-paid service or agricultural work. This exclusion was both the result of racial prejudice and a deliberate strategy on the part of business leaders to divide the workforce and prevent unity between white and black workers. So although the South underwent economic change after the Civil War, structures of racial power and inequality persisted, just in a different form. The company towns are an example of how economics and race were inextricably linked in the post-Civil War South.

The system of segregation and discrimination in the post-Civil War South was rooted in an ideology of white supremacy. Although many white Southerners lived in poverty and faced similar economic challenges to African Americans, the system of segregation offered them a social and psychological advantage. They could see themselves as superior simply because of the colour of their skin. This illusion of superiority was essential to maintaining social order in the South. It allowed white elites to divide the working class and prevent any potential alliance between white and black workers. By giving poor whites a group (blacks) they could consider inferior, the elites could maintain their control over the region. Jim Crow laws, black codes and other forms of institutional discrimination were tools used to reinforce this racial hierarchy. These laws and practices not only deprived African-Americans of their fundamental rights, but also served as a constant reminder of their inferior status in society. Lynching, racial violence and other forms of intimidation were also used to maintain this hierarchy and to discourage any form of resistance or challenge. The system of segregation and discrimination in the South was not just about economic control, but also about power and domination. It was designed to maintain a racial hierarchy and to ensure white supremacy in all aspects of life.

After the Civil War, the South sought to restore some form of control over the African-American population, even though slavery had been officially abolished. The "Black Codes" and later Jim Crow laws were put in place to restrict the rights of African Americans and keep them in a subordinate position. These laws affected almost every aspect of life, from education and employment to housing and transport. The sharecropping system, which emerged after the Civil War, chained many African Americans to the land in conditions that closely resembled slavery. Sharecroppers were often in debt to the landowners and were tied to the land by contracts that prevented them from leaving. They were often paid in kind rather than in money, which made them even more dependent on the landowners. In addition, limited access to quality education, discrimination in hiring and lower wages kept many African Americans in the South in a cycle of poverty. Economic opportunities were limited, and African-Americans were often relegated to the lowest paid and most precarious jobs. Violence and intimidation were also common. Lynchings, race riots and other forms of violence were used to maintain white supremacy and to discourage African Americans from demanding their rights. It took decades of struggle, resistance and sacrifice to begin to dismantle these systems of discrimination and oppression. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s was a turning point, with iconic figures such as Martin Luther King Jr, Rosa Parks and others leading the charge for change. Thanks to their efforts, and those of many others, significant progress was made in ending legal segregation and securing civil rights for African Americans. However, the legacy of these discriminatory systems is still felt today, and the fight for equality and justice continues.

The North-East

The period from 1877 to 1900, often referred to as the Gilded Age, saw the north-eastern United States undergo a major transformation. The region became the beating heart of American industrialisation. Industries such as steel, textiles, railways and machine building experienced explosive growth. Tycoons like Andrew Carnegie in steel and John D. Rockefeller in oil became dominant figures of the era. With industrialisation came rapid urbanisation. Cities such as New York and Boston grew at an unprecedented rate. New York, in particular, became the largest city in the United States, with skyscrapers beginning to define its skyline. To meet the needs of a growing urban population, infrastructure such as bridges, tunnels and metro systems were developed. The North East also became a major point of entry for immigrants, particularly through New York's Ellis Island. Millions of immigrants from Europe and other regions came to the United States in search of a better life. These immigrants not only provided essential labour for factories, but also enriched the cultural diversity of the cities. However, despite economic growth, this period was marked by enormous inequality. The "robber barons", as they were sometimes called, accumulated colossal wealth, while many workers lived in poverty and in often dangerous working conditions. In response to these conditions and inequalities, workers' movements emerged. Strikes and demonstrations were common, and trade union organisations such as the AFL (American Federation of Labor) began to gain influence. This period was also marked by numerous technological innovations, from telephones to light bulbs. These innovations transformed not only the economy, but also the everyday lives of Americans. At the same time, as cities grew, so did the cultural boom. Theatres, museums and libraries were founded, and education became more accessible with the creation of numerous public schools and universities.

The north-eastern region of the United States became the cradle of American industrialisation at the end of the 19th century. The textile, steel and machinery industries dominated the economic landscape, transforming the region into a nerve centre of production and innovation. The abundance of natural resources, particularly coal and iron, played a crucial role in this industrial rise. Coal, mined from the vast deposits in Pennsylvania and other nearby regions, fuelled factories and forges, while iron, an essential raw material, was used to manufacture everything from machinery to transport infrastructure. But it wasn't just natural resources that fuelled this industrial machine. The North East region also benefited from a massive influx of immigrants, mainly from Europe, seeking a better life and economic opportunities. These immigrants, with their diverse skills and willingness to work hard, became the backbone of the industrial workforce. They worked in factories, mines and workshops, often in difficult conditions, but they played a vital role in propelling the North East economy to new heights.

At the turn of the twentieth century, society in the North-East of the United States was in a state of flux. Rapid industrialisation had transformed not only the economic landscape, but also the social fabric of the region. One of the most notable consequences of this industrial transformation was the emergence of a robust middle class. Comprising mainly professionals, tradesmen and small businessmen, this new social class became a pillar of society in the North East, influencing culture, politics and the economy. However, while some enjoyed the fruits of industrialisation, many workers faced precarious working conditions. Long hours, low pay, dangerous working conditions and a lack of basic rights were commonplace in factories and workshops. Faced with these challenges, many workers saw the need to unite to improve their lot. So the labour movement took root in the North East. Unions began to form, organising strikes, demonstrations and other actions to demand better working conditions, higher wages and the right to organise. Major events, such as the Haymarket strike in Chicago and the Triangle Shirtwaist strike in New York, highlighted the tensions between workers and factory owners, but also strengthened the determination of workers to fight for their rights. The Northeast became an epicentre of union activity, and the battles fought there laid the foundations of the American labour movement. These collective efforts eventually led to major reforms, including regulation of working hours, improved workplace safety and recognition of union rights. Ultimately, the Northeastern workers' struggle for justice and fairness played a decisive role in shaping America's social and political consciousness.

Industrialisation

The United States underwent a period of rapid industrialisation between 1865 and 1900, during which the value of manufactured goods produced in the country increased significantly. The value of manufactured goods in the US was around $2 billion in 1865, rising to $13 billion by 1900, reflecting the considerable growth and expansion of the country's industrial sector. This period, often referred to as the Gilded Age or the Golden Era, saw the United States transformed from a predominantly agrarian economy into a major industrial power. Several factors contributed to this rapid transformation. Firstly, the end of the Civil War paved the way for a period of relative stability, allowing businesses to expand without fear of the major disruptions caused by the conflict. In addition, the war itself had stimulated certain industries, such as steel, which were essential for military needs. Secondly, there was a series of technological innovations during this period. The invention of the steam engine, electrification and the adoption of the Bessemer process for steel production all played a crucial role in increasing industrial output. Thirdly, the available workforce increased significantly. Immigration from Europe increased exponentially during this period, providing factories with an abundant source of workers willing to work for relatively low wages. Fourthly, the development of the rail network made it easier to transport raw materials to factories and finished goods to markets. This not only stimulated the growth of existing industries, but also enabled the emergence of new ones. Finally, there was a favourable business environment. Government policies, often influenced by powerful industrial tycoons, tended to favour business growth. In addition, the absence of major regulations allowed companies to grow rapidly, sometimes to the detriment of workers and the environment.

The industrial boom in the United States at the end of the 19th century transformed the nation into an industrial superpower. This remarkable transformation was fuelled by a combination of factors. The United States was endowed with immense reserves of coal, iron, copper and other minerals essential to industrialisation. These resources fuelled factories, locomotives and homes, as well as providing the materials needed to manufacture goods. The rapid expansion of the rail network played a crucial role in this transformation. Not only did it make it easier to transport raw materials to industrial centres, it also opened up new markets for manufactured goods. In addition, the development of the railways stimulated other industries, such as steel, which was needed for rails and locomotives. Alongside these developments, successive waves of immigration from Europe brought millions of workers to the United States. These people, seeking a better life, were often prepared to work in difficult conditions for low wages. These immigrants provided the manpower needed to supply the country's factories, mines and building sites. Technological innovations also played a key role. Advances such as the improved steam engine, the Bessemer process for steel production, and electrification increased production and efficiency. In addition, the capital available for investment, both domestic and foreign, saw the profit potential in American industrialisation. These investors were prepared to finance the necessary businesses and infrastructure. Government policies often supported these efforts. Measures such as protective tariffs protected infant industries from foreign competition. In addition, entrepreneurial figures such as Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller and J.P. Morgan played a crucial role in investing in, developing and consolidating key industries.

The late 19th century was a period of radical transformation for the United States, marked by a series of technological innovations that propelled the country to the forefront of industrialised nations. The Bessemer process, for example, revolutionised steel production, making the process faster, more efficient and less costly. This enabled large-scale steel production, essential to the construction of the skyscrapers, bridges and railways that were to shape the American landscape. The invention of the electric motor was another major breakthrough. It paved the way for the electrification of factories, transport and homes, radically changing the way people lived and worked. With electricity, factories could run longer and more efficiently, cities could expand thanks to electric trams, and homes benefited from safer, cleaner lighting. These and other innovations stimulated economic growth at an unprecedented rate. Businesses were able to produce goods on a scale never seen before, creating wealth, jobs and opportunities for millions of Americans. Entrepreneurs such as Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and Andrew Carnegie capitalised on these innovations, building industrial empires that dominated the American economy. But this growth was not without its challenges. Rapid industrialisation also brought economic inequalities, tensions between capital and labour, and environmental concerns. However, despite these challenges, the overall impact of this period on the US economy was profoundly positive. It laid the foundations for the United States' position as a global economic power, a position the country still maintains today.

The rapid industrialisation of the United States between 1877 and 1900 was the result of a unique combination of economic, technological and political factors. One of the key elements of this transformation was the creation of a national consumer market. The expansion of railways, telegraph and telephone lines, postal services and other communications and transport infrastructure linked remote parts of the country, creating a unified market. Companies could now sell their products across the country, which stimulated production and innovation. Technological innovations also played a crucial role. Inventions such as the telephone and the light bulb not only changed the daily lives of Americans, but also opened up new avenues for business. In addition, advances in steel production and other industrial processes enabled a significant increase in output. Mechanisation transformed the industrial landscape, with factories and production lines increasing efficiency and productivity. On the political front, economic protectionism provided a favourable environment for American industry. High tariffs protected domestic companies from foreign competition, guaranteeing a strong domestic market for their products. This policy not only stimulated industrial growth, but also encouraged entrepreneurs to invest and innovate. Finally, unbridled capitalism provided an environment where companies could operate with relative freedom. With little government regulation or interference, industrial tycoons, often referred to as 'robber barons', were able to amass huge fortunes and exert considerable influence over national politics. While this led to economic inequality and abuses of power, it also fuelled a period of innovation and growth unprecedented in American history.

The era of unbridled capitalism

During this period, often referred to as the Gilded Age, the American economy underwent a radical transformation. Technological innovations, abundant natural resources and a growing workforce, largely through immigration, fuelled this industrial expansion. Railways were one of the main engines of this growth. Not only did they facilitate the transport of goods and people across the country, they also stimulated the development of other industries, such as steel, coal and oil. Railway magnates such as Cornelius Vanderbilt amassed enormous fortunes from their vast networks. As the railways expanded, other industries also flourished. Andrew Carnegie dominated the steel industry, John D. Rockefeller controlled much of the oil industry with his Standard Oil, and J.P. Morgan became a dominant force in finance and banking. These tycoons, often referred to as "robber barons", exerted considerable influence on the economy. Through practices sometimes considered anti-competitive, such as trusts and monopolies, they succeeded in eliminating competition and controlling huge market shares. Although these practices generated enormous wealth for a few, they also led to economic inequalities and tensions between workers and employers, leading to strikes and social conflicts. The state at that time generally took a laissez-faire approach to economic matters, meaning that there was little government intervention or regulation in business. This allowed businesses to operate with great freedom, but also created conditions for potential abuses.

Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller are often cited as the archetypal 'robber barons' of the Gilded Age, but they were also much more than that. Andrew Carnegie, born in Scotland, immigrated to the United States with his family in poverty. He began his career as a simple clerk in a cotton mill, but quickly rose through the ranks thanks to his intelligence, perseverance and business acumen. By exploiting technological innovations and adopting a vertically integrated approach to steel production, Carnegie was able to cut costs and dominate the market. However, despite his ruthless business methods, Carnegie was a firm believer in the social responsibility of the wealthy. He wrote "The Gospel of Wealth", in which he argued that the rich had a moral duty to redistribute their wealth for the good of society. As a result, he donated much of his fortune to philanthropic causes, including the building of public libraries across the United States. John D. Rockefeller took a similar approach in the oil industry. By creating Standard Oil, he achieved a virtual monopoly on the production, refining and distribution of oil in the United States. His tactics, which included buying out competitors and negotiating secret discounts with the railways, were criticised as anti-competitive. However, like Carnegie, Rockefeller was also a dedicated philanthropist. He created the Rockefeller Foundation, which funded major projects in health, education and scientific research. These two men, despite their controversial methods, shaped the American economy of their time. They embodied the entrepreneurial and innovative spirit of the Gilded Age, while recognising the social responsibility that accompanied their immense wealth.

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  Portrait of John D. Rockefeller painted by John Singer Sargent in 1917.

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  Andrew Carnegie around 1913.

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  Standard Oil Refinery No. 1 in Cleveland, Ohio, 1897.

Andrew Carnegie is an emblematic example of the meteoric rise that was possible in American society at the time. His story is that of an immigrant who, despite modest beginnings, managed to rise to the top of the economic hierarchy thanks to his perspicacity, audacity and ability to seize opportunities. Arriving in the United States in search of a better life, Carnegie quickly grasped the importance of innovation and adaptation in the fast-changing business world of the industrial age. His intuition for sound investment, combined with a strategic vision of vertical integration, enabled him to dominate the steel industry. By controlling every stage of production, from ore extraction to delivery of finished steel, he was able to maximise profits and minimise costs. But what really sets Carnegie apart is his vision of the social responsibility of the wealthy. Unlike many other tycoons of his time, he firmly believed that those who succeeded had a duty to give back to society. His unprecedented generosity laid the foundations for modern philanthropy, and his gifts have had a lasting impact, not least through the thousands of Carnegie libraries that have been established around the world. The Carnegie story is a reminder that the American dream, though often idealised, was a tangible reality for some. It also illustrates the complexity of that era, when immense wealth could be accumulated, but when some chose to use it for the common good.

John D. Rockefeller is often associated with the golden age of American capitalism, when industrial magnates accumulated colossal fortunes. His specialisation in horizontal concentration enabled his company, the Standard Oil Company, at one point to control around 90% of all the refineries and pipelines in the United States. Born in 1839 in Richford, New York, Rockefeller began his career with a modest investment. In 1863, with an initial investment of around 4,000 dollars, he entered the booming oil industry. Seven years later, in 1870, with a capital of 1 million dollars, he founded the Standard Oil Company. In less than ten years, by 1880, through aggressive tactics and strategic vision, Standard Oil controlled 95% of the country's oil production. Rockefeller's wealth continued to grow exponentially. In 1916, he became the first billionaire in US history. At the time of his death in 1937, his fortune was estimated at $340 billion (in today's dollars), making him the richest man in modern history. But Rockefeller was not just a businessman. He was also a leading philanthropist. Over the course of his life, he donated more than $500 million to various causes, including the creation of the University of Chicago with an initial donation of $600,000 in 1890. In 1913, he also created the Rockefeller Foundation with an initial gift of $100 million, which financed major initiatives in the fields of health, education and science. Rockefeller's impact on the American economy and the business world is immeasurable. His contributions to the oil industry and philanthropy have left a lasting legacy, and his life is a testament to the impact that one individual can have on the course of history.

Standard Oil became so powerful that it could negotiate with the railways for preferential rates, giving it an extra competitive edge. In addition, it used tactics such as price-fixing, secret rebates and industrial espionage to eliminate its competitors. These methods, although common at the time, were considered by many to be unethical and harmful to free competition. The controversy surrounding Rockefeller's methods culminated in 1911 when the US Supreme Court ruled that Standard Oil was in violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act and ordered it to be dissolved. However, instead of damaging Rockefeller's fortune, the dissolution multiplied his wealth, as the various companies spun off from Standard Oil became just as valuable. Despite the criticism, it is undeniable that Rockefeller also had a positive impact on society. His vision and ability to structure and manage a company of this scale laid the foundations for the modern oil industry. In addition, his philanthropy has left a lasting legacy. In 1913, he founded the Rockefeller Foundation, which has played a key role in promoting public health, education and scientific research. His donations funded projects such as research into yellow fever, the creation of the University of Chicago and the construction of the Rockefeller Center in New York.

Public and government criticism of Standard Oil and other monopolies led to a series of antitrust lawsuits and legislation aimed at breaking up these monopolies, such as the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 and the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914. Standard Oil was finally dismantled in 1911 by the U.S. Supreme Court in Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States. The Supreme Court's decision in Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States marked a turning point in corporate regulation in the United States. The Court ruled that Standard Oil had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 by engaging in monopolistic and anti-competitive practices. As a result, Standard Oil was forced to break up into 34 independent companies, some of which became oil industry giants such as Exxon, Mobil and Chevron. The decision was hailed by many competition advocates as a major victory against corporate abuse. It sent a clear message to other companies that the federal government was prepared to intervene to protect free competition and prevent the formation of monopolies. The Clayton Antitrust Act and the Federal Trade Commission Act, passed shortly afterwards, strengthened the regulatory framework to combat anti-competitive practices. The Clayton Antitrust Act clarified and broadened the prohibitions of the Sherman Act, focusing on specific issues such as mergers and acquisitions that could reduce competition. The Federal Trade Commission Act created the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), a government agency responsible for monitoring and investigating unfair trade practices. These legislative and judicial measures marked the beginning of a new era of business regulation in the United States, in which the government played a more active role in monitoring and regulating commercial activities to protect consumers and ensure fair competition.

John D. Rockefeller, with his Standard Oil Company, became the archetypal monopolistic tycoon of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His ability to consolidate the oil industry and eliminate competition was both admired for his entrepreneurial genius and criticised for his ruthless methods. The way he shaped the oil industry not only transformed the American economic landscape, but also led to a public and political awareness of the need to regulate big business to protect consumers and small entrepreneurs. Public reaction to Standard Oil's dominance was a major catalyst for the development and strengthening of antitrust laws in the United States. Concerns about monopolies and their impact on consumers, prices and competition led to a growing demand for government intervention to regulate and, if necessary, break up companies that had too much power in a given market. Rockefeller's business legacy is not just that of an oil tycoon, but also that of a businessman who, through his actions, forced the US government to rethink its relationship with the business world. The debates about the concentration of economic power, government regulation and consumer protection that were sparked by Rockefeller's actions are still relevant today, at a time when large technology companies dominate the global economy.

The late nineteenth century in the United States, often referred to as the Gilded Age or the Age of the Robber Barons, was a period of unprecedented economic growth. Technological innovations, the expansion of the railways, the exploitation of natural resources and the influx of immigrants seeking opportunity fuelled this growth. However, this prosperity was not evenly distributed. Magnates such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and J.P. Morgan amassed colossal fortunes. These men, although often criticised for their ruthless methods, were also pioneers, investing in technologies and industries that shaped the American economy. But their success came at a cost. The concentration of wealth in the hands of a few created a clear economic disparity. Workers, often faced with difficult working conditions and poor wages, began to organise and demand their rights, leading to the birth of the trade union movement. Monopolies also had an impact on consumers. With little or no competition, these large companies could set high prices and control supply. This led to a growing demand for government intervention to regulate these industrial giants, resulting in anti-trust laws and the regulation of companies. However, this period also saw the emergence of a new middle class. With industrialisation came the need for a more educated and specialised workforce. In addition, innovations such as mass production made products more affordable for more people. Cities grew, shops prospered and consumer culture was born.

The late nineteenth century in the United States is often referred to as the Gilded Age, a period marked by rapid economic growth, technological innovation and the emergence of powerful industrial magnates. It was also a time of rapid change in the economic landscape, with the rise of large corporations and the disappearance of many small businesses. Corporate consolidation was a dominant trend at the time. Many industries, from iron and steel to oil, tobacco and sugar, saw small companies merge with or be taken over by larger entities. These large companies, often called trusts or monopolies, had enormous economic power, enabling them to control prices, crush competition and exert considerable influence over policy and legislation. The US Supreme Court played a crucial role in facilitating this consolidation. In numerous decisions, the Court has interpreted the Constitution in a way that favoured the interests of big business. For example, in United States v. E. C. Knight Co. in 1895, the Court ruled that manufacturing was not commerce, thereby limiting the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act and allowing large corporations to continue to monopolise certain industries. In addition, the Court has often held that large corporations have the right to contract and conduct business as they see fit, under the contract protection clause of the 14th Amendment. This interpretation has often prevented the federal and state governments from regulating or controlling the activities of large corporations. However, public opinion began to turn against these industrial giants at the end of the century. Investigative journalists, known as "muckrakers", exposed the dubious business practices and exploitation of workers by these large companies. In response to this public pressure, the government began passing stricter anti-trust laws in the early twentieth century, seeking to limit the power and influence of monopolies and promote fairer competition.

The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were tumultuous times for the labour movement in the United States. As corporations and trusts grew in power and influence, workers often found themselves fighting for fair wages, safe working conditions and the right to organize. Unions, such as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and the Knights of Labor, sought to unite workers to bargain collectively with employers. However, these organisations have often faced strong opposition, not only from business, but also from government and the courts. One of the main reasons for this opposition was the widespread perception that trade unions were associated with radical or anarchist movements. Events such as the Haymarket bombing in Chicago in 1886 reinforced this perception, even though most unions advocated peaceful methods of obtaining rights for workers. The Sherman Antitrust Act, although designed to prevent monopolistic practices by corporations, was used selectively to target unions. In cases like In re Debs in 1895, the Supreme Court ruled that strikes could be considered restraints of interstate commerce and, therefore, unions could be prosecuted under the Sherman Act. This was a surprising interpretation, as it used a law intended to limit the power of corporations to repress the power of workers instead. It is important to note that this selective use of the Sherman Act was just one example of how the legal and political system of the time was often biased in favour of corporate interests. Workers and trade unions were often seen as troublemakers, while big business was seen as essential to the country's economic prosperity. Fortunately, over time, attitudes towards trade unions began to change. In the early twentieth century, recognition of workers' and trade union rights began to grow, partly as a result of public pressure and awareness of abuses by some companies. However, the struggle for workers' rights was a long and difficult one, and trade unions played an essential role in this battle.

The period at the end of the 19th century in the United States, often referred to as the Gilded Age, was marked by unprecedented economic growth, but also by a growing disparity between rich and poor. Industrial barons like Rockefeller, Carnegie and Vanderbilt amassed colossal fortunes, while many ordinary working people lived in poverty and toiled in often dangerous conditions. Big business, with its vast resources, was able to exert considerable influence over policy and legislation, often to the detriment of small entrepreneurs and workers. Trade unions, although they tried to defend workers' rights, were regularly suppressed, sometimes with brutal force, as in the Homestead strike of 1892 or the Pullman railway strike of 1894. The concentration of economic power in the hands of a few also led to unfair trading practices, where large companies could fix prices, eliminate competition and control large sectors of the market. This raised concerns about the health of American democracy and the ability of ordinary citizens to influence the course of their own country. In response to these concerns, the federal government began passing antitrust laws in an attempt to limit the power of monopolies and promote fair competition. The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 was the first of these laws, although it was initially used unevenly and sometimes to target unions rather than monopoly companies. As the twentieth century progressed, the need for stricter regulation of business became increasingly apparent. Financial scandals, economic crises and a growing awareness of inequality led to a series of reforms, notably during the Progressive Era at the beginning of the 20th century and later during the Great Depression with Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.

The law of the strongest

At the end of the 19th century, the wealth of the United States was highly concentrated. Around 2% of the population, or 125,000 people out of a total of 63 million Americans, held almost 50% of the country's total wealth. Emblematic figures of this elite, such as John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie, had fortunes worth billions of dollars at the time, an astronomical sum. This concentration of wealth had major implications. For example, the richest 10% of the population owned around 90% of total wealth, leaving the other 90% to share the remaining 10%. This disparity created enormous social tensions. Strikes, such as the Haymarket strike in 1886, involved thousands of workers, and the Pullman strike in 1894 involved over 250,000 workers in 27 states. In response to this concentration of wealth, movements such as populism gained in popularity. For example, the Populist Party, founded in 1891, quickly attracted hundreds of thousands of members. Similarly, the Progressive movement, which began in the 1890s, has seen tens of thousands of people arguing for greater government regulation of big business. These figures show just how extreme the concentration of wealth was at the end of the 19th century and how it shaped US politics, economics and society during that period.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States saw the emergence of a class of super-rich, often referred to as "robber barons" because of the way they amassed their fortunes. These tycoons of industry, such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, Cornelius Vanderbilt and J.P. Morgan, dominated entire sectors of the American economy, from steel and oil to railways and finance. Their wealth was so vast that it allowed them to lead lifestyles of unimaginable opulence. They built sumptuous mansions, threw extravagant parties and collected expensive works of art. The Vanderbilts' mansions in New York and North Carolina, Hearst Castle in California, and Carnegie's summer residence in New York are examples of the grandeur with which these robber barons lived. However, despite their wealth and influence, these men were also known for their philanthropy. Andrew Carnegie, for example, gave millions to build public libraries across the country, and John D. Rockefeller created the Rockefeller Foundation, which funded medical and educational research. But this philanthropy was not always altruistic. Often, their donations were used strategically to improve their public image, gain political influence or obtain tax advantages. It's also true that, despite their philanthropic contributions, these robber barons were often criticised for the way they treated their employees, their ruthless business tactics and their undue influence on government. Their legacy is therefore a complex one, combining both positive contributions to society and business practices that were often seen as ethically questionable.

During the late 19th century in the United States, wealth and power were largely concentrated in the hands of an Anglo-Saxon Protestant elite. Figures such as John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and others were not only titans of industry, but also members of this dominant cultural and religious elite. Their Protestant ancestry and faith were key elements of their identity and played a role in their elevated social position. This dominance was no accident. It reflected the deeply rooted power structures and prejudices of American society at the time. Immigrants, particularly those of non-Anglo-Saxon or non-Protestant origin, often faced open discrimination. Catholics, Jews, Italians, Irish and other ethnic and religious groups were regularly marginalised, their cultures and beliefs often viewed with suspicion or contempt. Similarly, people of colour, particularly African-Americans, were systematically denied economic rights and opportunities, largely as a result of Jim Crow laws in the South and discriminatory practices in the North. These inequalities were reinforced and justified by racist and xenophobic ideologies which claimed that some groups were naturally superior to others. The resulting economic and social inequality was striking. While a few amassed colossal fortunes, many Americans, particularly those from marginalised groups, struggled to make ends meet. This concentration of wealth and power, and the divisions it created, were sources of tension and conflict that shaped American history for decades.

Social Darwinism became an influential doctrine among certain circles of high society and economic elites at the end of the nineteenth century. Using an erroneous and simplified interpretation of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, Social Darwinists advanced the idea that economic and social competition was simply a manifestation of the natural "struggle for survival". In this worldview, those who were economically successful were seen as naturally superior, while those who were left behind were seen as inferior or less capable. Herbert Spencer, a British philosopher and sociologist, is often associated with the popularisation of the term 'survival of the fittest'. Although Spencer adopted the phrase before Darwin published The Origin of Species, he became a strong advocate of the application of evolutionary principles to society. For Spencer and other social Darwinists, wealth and success were proof of an individual's innate superiority. This ideology provided a convenient justification for the gross inequalities of the gilded age. If the rich were rich because they were naturally superior, then it was neither necessary nor desirable to intervene to help those who were less fortunate. Moreover, it gave the elites reason to believe that their success was not simply the result of favourable circumstances or unfair advantages, but rather the product of their own merit and ability. However, it should be noted that many contemporaries criticised Social Darwinism for oversimplifying evolutionary theory and using it to justify grossly unfair inequalities. Moreover, Charles Darwin himself never advocated applying his theories to human society in the way that Social Darwinists did. Over time, Social Darwinism lost popularity and was largely discredited as a scientific basis for understanding human society. However, its impact on the economic and social thinking of the time cannot be underestimated.

Social Darwinism, as a theory, has attracted much criticism for its oversimplification and misapplication of biological principles to complex social phenomena. One of the main criticisms is that it reduces complex social behaviours and structures to simple biological determinants. Human society, with its institutions, cultures and histories, is far more complex than this theory would suggest. Furthermore, Social Darwinism has been used to justify socio-economic inequalities, by suggesting that some groups or individuals are naturally superior to others. This perspective ignores the social, economic and political structures that can create and perpetuate these inequalities. The theory has also been used to justify the imperial expansion of Western nations, suggesting that colonised peoples were "inferior" and needed the "guidance" of "superior" nations. Another controversial aspect of Social Darwinism is its association with eugenics, a movement that sought to improve the human race by controlling reproduction. Eugenicists believed that certain characteristics, often associated with specific ethnic or social groups, were undesirable and should be eliminated. In addition, the theory was used to support racist ideas, suggesting that some races were naturally superior to others, which led to discriminatory policies and attitudes. Finally, it should be noted that many consider Social Darwinism to be a misinterpretation of Charles Darwin's ideas. Darwin himself never advocated applying his theories to society in the way that Social Darwinists have done. Ultimately, Social Darwinism is an example of how scientific theories can be hijacked and misinterpreted to serve political and social agendas. Although the theory had a significant influence in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it has since been widely discredited and rejected by most researchers and thinkers.

Andrew Carnegie, one of the greatest magnates of the steel industry, was a fervent believer in what he called "the gospel of wealth". For him, wealth was not simply the result of luck or cunning, but rather the result of a natural and divine order. In "The Gospel of Wealth", he argued that the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few was not only inevitable, but also beneficial to society as a whole. He argued that the wealthy, because of their talent, intelligence and work ethic, were best placed to determine how best to use that wealth for the good of all. However, Carnegie did not simply advocate the accumulation of wealth for personal pleasure. He firmly believed that those who had been blessed with great wealth also had a great responsibility to society. For him, this responsibility was not limited to mere charity, but involved significant investment in causes that would benefit society as a whole, such as education, culture and science. He himself put this philosophy into practice by donating most of his fortune to create libraries, universities and other public institutions. Carnegie's vision both reflected and justified the economic realities of his time. At a time when economic inequality was glaring and industrial monopolies dominated the economy, theories such as the Gospel of Wealth offered a moral justification for such a concentration of wealth and power. Although his ideas were criticised by some as elitist and self-satisfied, they also influenced many other industrial tycoons and philanthropists of his time, shaping the way wealth was perceived and used in American society.

John D. Rockefeller, oil tycoon and founder of the Standard Oil Company, was another emblematic figure of this period of unbridled capitalism. Like Carnegie, he firmly believed that his wealth was the result of a divine order. His deep faith in Protestantism influenced him throughout his life, and he often attributed his success to God's will. For Rockefeller, wealth was not simply a sign of personal success, but also proof of divine favour. This belief profoundly influenced Rockefeller's approach to philanthropy. He saw his fortune as a gift from God, and believed he had a moral responsibility to use it wisely for the good of society. Instead of simply giving money away, he sought to invest in causes that would have a lasting impact, such as education, medical research and public health. He founded the Rockefeller Foundation in 1913, which has become one of the world's largest and most influential philanthropic organisations. However, like Carnegie, Rockefeller's motives were complex. Although he sincerely believed in his philanthropic mission, his donations were also a way of responding to criticism and improving his public image. At a time when "robber barons" were often criticised for their ruthless business practices and accumulation of wealth, philanthropy was a way for these industrial tycoons to show that they had a social conscience and cared about the welfare of society.

The end of the 19th century in the United States was marked by unprecedented economic growth, but also by growing inequality. Industrial tycoons such as Carnegie and Rockefeller amassed colossal fortunes, while many ordinary working people struggled to make ends meet. Religious justifications and theories of Social Darwinism were often invoked to explain and legitimise these disparities. The idea that wealth was the result of divine will or natural superiority offered moral comfort to those at the top of the economic hierarchy. Relying on religious beliefs or scientific theories, these elites were able to convince themselves that they deserved their wealth and that those less fortunate were simply less worthy or less capable. However, this perspective was hotly contested by many intellectuals, activists and ordinary citizens of the time. They argued that economic inequality was the result of unjust social and economic structures, not innate differences between individuals. Movements such as populism and progressivism emerged in response to these inequalities, seeking to reform the economic system and ensure a fairer distribution of wealth. Figures such as Eugene V. Debs, leader of the American socialist movement, and Jane Addams, founder of Hull House and campaigner for workers' rights, challenged the idea that wealth was simply the result of meritocracy or divine will. They pointed out the many ways in which the system was rigged in favour of the rich and powerful, and argued for reforms that would ensure greater equality of opportunity for all.

Russell Conwell was a leading figure in what is often called the Prosperity Gospel, an interpretation of Christianity that links financial success to divine favour. According to this view, material wealth is seen as a blessing from God, and those who are prosperous are often seen as being especially favoured or blessed by the divine. The argument of Conwell, and others who shared similar views, was that financial success was not only compatible with the Christian faith, but was in fact a manifestation of it. In other words, being rich was proof of God's blessing. This idea was particularly appealing to many Americans at the time, as it offered a religious justification for the pursuit of wealth and material success. Conwell's 'Acres of Diamonds' speech was a powerful parable that encouraged people to look for opportunities in their own lives and to recognise the value of what they already had. By suggesting that opportunities were often closer than we thought, Conwell offered a message of hope and optimism to those seeking to improve their lot. However, this interpretation of the Christian faith has also been criticised for downplaying the importance of values such as humility, charity and sacrifice, which are also central to Christian teaching. Furthermore, by linking material prosperity to divine favour, the Prosperity Gospel risks stigmatising those who are less fortunate, suggesting that they are somehow less favoured by God. Nevertheless, the Prosperity Gospel and the ideas of figures like Russell Conwell have had a lasting influence on American culture, and they continue to be a subject of debate and discussion among theologians, historians and sociologists.

While some preachers and theologians embraced the idea that material prosperity was a sign of divine favour, others were deeply concerned by this interpretation. They felt that this view of faith distorted the central teachings of Christianity. The Bible contains many passages that warn against the dangers of wealth and stress the importance of generosity and justice. For example, the Bible passage from Matthew 19:24 states, "It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God." Such verses suggest that wealth can be an obstacle to true spiritual relationship and righteous living. Many religious leaders have also reiterated the importance of charity and altruism. They emphasised that, rather than accumulating wealth for themselves, believers should be concerned about the welfare of their neighbours, especially the most vulnerable and deprived in society. In addition, during this period, the Social Gospel movement emerged, particularly among Protestants. This movement emphasised the importance of applying Christian teachings to social and economic reform. Followers of the Social Gospel believed that Christianity should address the problems of poverty, injustice and inequality in society.

Factories and workshops were often unhealthy, poorly ventilated and dangerous. Accidents were common, and there were no strict regulations to protect workers' health and safety. Children were also employed in these factories, and they often worked in even more difficult conditions than adults, because they were smaller and more able to perform certain dangerous tasks. Child labour was common, and they were often paid much less than adults for the same work. Trade unions, which had been formed to protect workers' rights, were growing rapidly, but they often faced strong opposition from business owners and the authorities. Strikes and demonstrations were common, but were often violently suppressed by the police or private guards hired by the companies. Workers who tried to organise or demand their rights were often sacked, blackmailed or even assaulted. Living conditions for workers were hardly any better. Many lived in overcrowded slums without access to adequate sanitation. Disease spread rapidly in these conditions, and tuberculosis, pneumonia and other illnesses were common. However, despite these challenges, many workers and activists continued to fight for better working and living conditions. They organised strikes, formed unions and lobbied governments to pass laws protecting workers' rights. Over time, their efforts led to significant improvements in working conditions and the adoption of laws on safety at work, minimum wages and limits on working hours.

Industries such as iron and steel, construction, mining and manufacturing were particularly notorious for their dangers. In mining, for example, cave-ins, gas explosions and lung diseases such as silicosis were common. Miners often worked in dark, damp and stuffy conditions, with inadequate ventilation, increasing the risk of inhaling noxious dusts. Machines in factories were not always equipped with safety devices, exposing workers to the risk of being caught in gears or belts. Burns, cuts and crushing were common. In addition, exposure to toxic chemicals without adequate protection led to a host of long-term health problems for many workers. Construction workers, for their part, were often exposed to the risk of falling, particularly when building skyscrapers and other large buildings. Scaffolding was rudimentary and safety equipment such as harnesses and helmets were rarely used. Accidents were often seen as an inevitable part of the job, and companies offered little or no compensation to injured workers or the families of those killed. Workers' compensation laws were rare and, where they existed, they were often insufficient to cover medical costs or compensate for lost income. Faced with these conditions, workers began to organise into trade unions to demand better working conditions, higher wages and safety measures. Strikes and demonstrations were common, although they were often violently repressed by the police or private security guards hired by companies. Despite these challenges, the labour movement eventually succeeded in securing significant improvements for workers, particularly in the areas of workplace safety and workers' compensation.

Economic downturns, such as recessions or depressions, had devastating consequences for workers in those days. Without the benefits of modern social security systems, a job loss could quickly plunge a family into poverty. Savings were often meagre, and without a regular income, many families were unable to pay the rent or buy food. Evictions were common, and many families found themselves homeless, forced to live in shanty towns or overcrowded accommodation. Accidents at work, which were frequent and often serious, could also plunge a family into precariousness. Without health insurance or workers' compensation, medical costs could mount up quickly, and an injured worker could be unable to return to work for weeks or even months. Families were often forced to rely on charity or help from the community to survive. Illness also posed a major economic risk. Epidemics, such as influenza or tuberculosis, could decimate a family, leaving children orphaned and without means of support. Without health insurance, medical care was often out of reach for the poorest workers, and many illnesses could become chronic or fatal if left untreated. Old age, with no pension or retirement system, was another source of economic insecurity. Older workers, often worn down by years of physical labour, could find themselves unemployed and without means of support. Many depended on their children or on charity to survive. Faced with these challenges, workers began to organise and demand rights and protections. Trade unions played an essential role in the fight for higher wages, better working conditions and social protection. Over time, these efforts led to the introduction of labour laws and social security programmes offering workers a degree of protection against the vagaries of the economy.

The first trade unions appeared in the 1800s, but it was really in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that the labour movement really took off in the United States. Faced with the indifference, even hostility, of industrial barons and factory owners, workers felt a compelling need to unite to defend their rights and interests. Strikes became a common tool for workers seeking to improve their conditions. Events such as the Haymarket strike in Chicago in 1886, the Pullman strike in 1894, and the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory tragedy in 1911 in New York, where 146 workers, mostly young women, died in a fire, highlighted unsafe working conditions and galvanised public support for the labour movement. Trade unions, such as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) led by Samuel Gompers and later the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), played a crucial role in negotiating labour contracts, obtaining higher wages, reducing working hours, and implementing workplace safety measures. They also argued for laws that would protect workers' rights, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which established a minimum wage and limits on working hours. However, these advances were not achieved without resistance. Company owners and industrialists often used force, sometimes with the help of the police or private detectives, to break strikes and intimidate trade unionists. Many workers were injured or killed in clashes with the police or strikebreakers.

The end of the nineteenth century in the United States was marked by a rapid transformation of the economy from agrarian to industrial. With this transformation came a new set of challenges for workers. Factories and mines required large workforces, and towns grew rapidly to accommodate this new population of workers. However, working conditions were often precarious, wages low and hours long. Faced with these challenges, many workers looked for ways to improve their lot. Migration was one such strategy. Some left rural areas for cities in search of better job opportunities. Others migrated from one city to another or even from one state to another, hoping to find better working conditions or higher wages. Immigrants, in particular, often moved several times, seeking to settle in communities where they could find work and social support. But simple migration was not always enough to guarantee a better life. Recognising the need for collective action, many workers began to organise themselves into trade unions. The aim of these organisations was to bargain collectively with employers for better working conditions, higher wages and other benefits. Unions also offered a form of protection to their members against abuse by employers. Early efforts to organise workers often met with strong resistance from employers and the authorities. Strikes were common and often brutally repressed. However, despite these challenges, the trade union movement continued to grow and gain influence. Over time, the unions managed to win many improvements for their members, including higher wages, shorter working hours and safer working conditions. These victories have not been easy to achieve, and have often required long and difficult negotiations, as well as strikes and other forms of direct action. But thanks to the perseverance and solidarity of workers, many gains were made, laying the foundations for workers' rights as we know them today.

One of the first major unions to form during this period was the Knights of Labor, founded in 1869, which accepted workers of all origins and races. The Knights of Labor initially focused on improving working conditions, but later broadened their demands to include wider social and economic issues, such as the eight-hour working day, the abolition of child labour and the right to collective bargaining. At its peak in 1886, the Knights of Labor had over a million members, making it one of the largest and most influential unions of its time. However, despite their rapid growth and influence, the Knights of Labor faced many challenges. Their organisational structure was decentralised, making it difficult to coordinate efforts on a national scale. In addition, they faced strong opposition from employers and local governments who took a dim view of union organisation. Major strikes, such as the Haymarket strike in 1886, were associated with the Knights, even though the union was not directly involved. These associations damaged the union's reputation and led to a decline in its influence. In addition, internal divisions over leadership and strategy weakened the organisation. While some members advocated a more radical approach, others preferred more moderate methods of negotiation. These divisions eventually led to the fragmentation of the movement.

Racial and ethnic segregation within the unions reflected the tensions and prejudices of American society at the time. Racial divisions were deeply entrenched, and even within the labour movement, where solidarity should have prevailed, these divisions persisted. White workers often feared that black and immigrant workers would accept lower wages, which could lead to lower wages for all. In addition, cultural and racial prejudice led many white workers to believe that they were superior to their coloured or foreign-born colleagues. These divisions have been exploited by employers, who have often used the strategy of "divide and conquer". By playing on racial and ethnic tensions, they have been able to prevent workers from uniting and posing a serious threat to their interests. For example, during strikes, employers might hire workers from a different ethnic group as scabs, thereby exacerbating tensions. However, despite these challenges, there have been times when workers from different backgrounds have united to defend their rights. Unions such as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) have advocated worker unity across racial and ethnic divides. But these efforts were often met with violent repression by employers and the authorities. Over time, as American society evolved and the civil and workers' rights movements gained strength, unions began to address the issue of segregation and promote greater unity among their members. But the challenges of interracial and interethnic organising at the turn of the 20th century left a lasting legacy that influenced the labour movement for decades.

The rise of the labour movement in the United States was marked by moments of triumph, but also by periods of repression and defeat. Strikes, demonstrations and boycotts became common tools for workers seeking to improve their conditions. Events such as the Pullman Strike in 1894, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Strike in 1911 and the Seattle General Strike in 1919 highlighted the difficulties faced by workers and galvanised public support for the labour movement. Over time, unions grew in power and influence. They negotiated contracts that guaranteed better wages, shorter hours and safer working conditions. They also played a crucial role in passing legislation that protected workers' rights, such as the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which set minimum standards for wages and working hours. However, the labour movement was not only an economic force, it was also a social and political one. Trade unions often supported progressive causes, ranging from civil rights to public education and public health. They played a crucial role in bringing about the New Deal in the 1930s, which introduced a series of reforms designed to protect workers' rights and guarantee a degree of economic security for all Americans.

An 1886 engraving from Harper's Weekly depicting the Haymarket Square tragedy.

The Haymarket affair is one of the most notorious events in the history of the American labour movement. It took place in the context of a national campaign for the eight-hour working day, which mobilised hundreds of thousands of workers across the United States. On 3 May 1886, a strike broke out at the McCormick Reaper factory in Chicago. The following day, a demonstration was organised in Haymarket Square to protest against the police violence that had taken place during the strike. As the demonstration drew to a close and the rain began to fall, a police squad arrived to disperse the crowd. That's when a bomb was thrown at the police officers, killing seven of them and injuring dozens of others. In retaliation, the police opened fire on the crowd, killing several people and injuring dozens more. The bombing unleashed a wave of anti-union and anti-immigrant hysteria. Eight anarchists, most of German or European origin, were quickly arrested and charged with conspiracy to commit murder. Although there was no direct evidence linking them to the bomb, seven were sentenced to death and one to life imprisonment. Four were hanged, one committed suicide in prison, and the remaining three had their sentences commuted to life imprisonment by Governor John Peter Altgeld in 1893, who criticised the trial as unfair. The Haymarket case had a profound impact on the American labour movement. It was used to discredit the eight-hour workday movement and reinforced the association between radical workers and violence in the public mind. However, it also galvanised many workers and activists, who saw the "Haymarket Eight" as martyrs to the labour cause. Today, the Haymarket affair is commemorated every year on 1 May, known in many countries as Labour Day, in memory of those who lost their lives in the fight for workers' rights.

After the attack, the police and press were quick to blame the incident on anarchists, and several people were arrested and put on trial for the crime. Four people were eventually convicted and sentenced to death, despite the lack of evidence linking them to the bomb. The press also falsely accused the Knights of Labor of having links with anarchists, leading to a public backlash against the union. The Knights of Labor, which was already in decline, saw its membership fall dramatically as a result of the Haymarket affair and was banned in many parts of the country. The Haymarket case had a chilling effect on the labour movement and was a setback for workers' rights and the cause of organised labour. It also led to a wave of anti-anarchist sentiment and repression that lasted well into the 20th century. In recent years, the Haymarket case is widely regarded as a miscarriage of justice, with guilty verdicts based on flimsy evidence and the prosecution's reliance on anti-radical and anti-immigrant sentiment. After the Haymarket case in 1886, the labour movement in the United States went into decline, with many unions struggling to maintain their numbers and influence. One of the reasons for this decline was the shift from class-based unionism, which had been the aim of the Knights of Labor, to sectoral bargaining unionism.

This change of direction was largely influenced by the events at Haymarket and the public reaction that followed. Unions began to focus more on bargaining with specific employers in specific sectors, rather than promoting a broader vision of worker solidarity and social transformation. The American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, became the leading exponent of this approach. The AFL focused on negotiating agreements for higher wages, better working conditions and a shorter working day for its members. Unlike the Knights of Labor, the AFL was made up of craft unions and often excluded unskilled workers, women and minorities. The AFL's pragmatic approach eventually paid off, as the union managed to win many concessions for its members. However, this strategy has also been criticised for dividing the labour movement and failing to address wider issues of social and economic justice. It is clear that the Haymarket Affair had a profound impact on the trajectory of the labour movement in the United States. Not only did it lead to the direct repression of unions and activists, but it also influenced the way unions organised and interacted with society in the decades that followed.

Sectoral bargaining unionism focuses on organising workers in specific industries, such as steel, textiles and railways, and negotiating better pay and conditions for members on a case-by-case basis. This approach is seen as more pragmatic and less likely to provoke a backlash from employers and the public. Class unionism, on the other hand, seeks to unite all workers, regardless of their trade or industry, around a common cause. It aims to challenge and transform the fundamental structures of economic and social power. Class trade unionism is often more radical in its aims, seeking not only to improve working conditions, but also to challenge private ownership of the means of production and promote a fairer distribution of wealth. Sectoral bargaining unionism was adopted by unions such as the American Federation of Labor (AFL) because it offered a more direct route to tangible gains for its members. By focusing on specific industries, unions could use the collective strength of their members to negotiate directly with employers for higher wages, shorter hours or better working conditions. This approach also had the advantage of being less threatening to the existing economic system, as it did not seek to challenge private property or the fundamental structure of capitalism. However, this strategy also had its limits. By focusing solely on immediate gains for its members, sectoral bargaining unionism often neglected unorganised workers or workers in less organised sectors. Moreover, by avoiding directly challenging the economic system, it left in place power structures that could continue to exploit workers.

One of the main unions to emerge during this period was the American Federation of Labor (AFL), founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers. The AFL represented skilled workers, such as carpenters and printers, and focused on negotiating better wages and working conditions for its members, rather than pursuing a broader political agenda. The AFL was also exclusive, representing only white workers and not organising unskilled or black workers. The AFL, under Gompers' leadership, adopted a pragmatic approach to trade unionism. Gompers firmly believed that unions should focus on concrete, achievable goals, such as higher wages, shorter hours and better working conditions. He was sceptical about the effectiveness of wider political movements and believed that unions should avoid getting involved in controversial political issues that could divide their members. The AFL's strategy was to negotiate directly with employers on specific issues concerning working conditions. This approach was effective in achieving tangible gains for its members. Under Gompers' leadership, the AFL became the most powerful and influential union in the United States in the early 20th century. However, the AFL's exclusive approach was also criticised. By focusing solely on skilled workers and excluding unskilled workers, women and minorities, the AFL left many workers without union representation. This exclusion created divisions within the labour movement and made it more difficult to organise workers in industries where the workforce was predominantly unskilled or a minority. Despite these criticisms, the AFL's pragmatic approach achieved significant improvements for its members. However, over time, the need to include a more diverse workforce and tackle wider issues became apparent, leading to the emergence of new unions and changes within the labour movement.

It should be noted that the AFL's approach to industrial bargaining and its exclusionary policies helped to preserve the status quo of racial and ethnic divisions in the workplace and to reinforce social inequalities. Unskilled workers and immigrants, who were not organised by the AFL, were often paid less and worked under worse conditions than their skilled counterparts. Moreover, by excluding black workers, the AFL indirectly supported the discriminatory practices that were common at the time. Black workers were often relegated to the hardest and lowest paid jobs, and the absence of union representation meant that they had few means of challenging these conditions. Women, who were also largely excluded from the AFL, faced similar discrimination, often being relegated to low-paid jobs with no opportunity for advancement. The exclusion of unskilled workers, immigrants, women and minorities also had the effect of dividing the working class and making solidarity between workers more difficult. Instead of uniting to defend their common rights as workers, racial, ethnic and skill divisions have often been exacerbated, weakening the labour movement as a whole. It is also important to note that the AFL's exclusive approach was not universally accepted within the labour movement. Many trade unionists and activists believed that all workers, regardless of race, ethnicity or ability, should be organised and represented. These dissenting voices eventually led to the creation of alternative unions, such as the Industrial World Congress (IWW), which sought to organise all workers, regardless of race, gender or ability.

The rapid industrialisation and urbanisation that took place at the end of the 19th century created difficult working conditions for many workers. Factories were often unhealthy, dangerous and overcrowded. Workers were frequently exploited, working long hours for miserable wages, with no protection against accidents or occupational diseases. Against this backdrop, the need for collective organisation to defend workers' rights became increasingly apparent. The first trade unions sought to negotiate directly with employers for better working conditions, higher wages and shorter working hours. They also advocated legislative reforms, such as the eight-hour working day and the abolition of child labour. However, these efforts were often met with strong resistance from employers, who saw the unions as a threat to their profits and power. Strikes and demonstrations were common, and were often violently suppressed by the police, private detectives and even the army. Incidents such as the Haymarket affair in Chicago in 1886, where a bomb was thrown at a workers' demonstration, reinforced the image of trade unions as radical and dangerous in the eyes of the public. However, despite these challenges, the labour movement persisted. Unions continued to organise and recruit new members, and they began to win important victories. Unions like the American Federation of Labor (AFL) succeeded in negotiating collective contracts with employers, guaranteeing better wages, shorter working hours and safer working conditions for their members. In addition, the labour movement also enjoyed growing support from the public and some progressive politicians, who recognised the need to reform the economic system and protect workers' rights. Laws were passed to regulate working conditions, limit working hours and ban child labour.

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) became a major force in the American labour movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, the AFL adopted a pragmatic approach to trade unionism, focusing on tangible issues such as wages, hours and working conditions. This strategy, known as sectoral bargaining unionism, aimed to achieve immediate gains for its members rather than to radically transform society or the economy. However, this approach had its limits. By focusing primarily on skilled workers, the AFL often neglected unskilled workers, who made up a growing share of the industrial workforce. Moreover, the AFL was notoriously exclusive, often organising only white workers and avoiding organising black workers, immigrants and women. This exclusionary policy reinforced existing racial and ethnic divisions in the workplace and contributed to the marginalisation of some of the most vulnerable workers. The AFL's focus on sectoral bargaining has also had the effect of downplaying the broader struggle for workers' rights and social justice. By avoiding broader political issues and focusing only on immediate economic gains, the AFL was often criticised for failing to address the structural and systemic inequalities affecting the working class.

The sectoral bargaining approach adopted by the AFL and other unions in the US has been both a strength and a weakness for the labour movement. On the one hand, it has led to tangible gains for workers in terms of wages, hours and working conditions. These concrete victories strengthened the legitimacy of trade unions in the eyes of many workers and helped to establish trade unionism as an important force in American economic and political life. However, by avoiding broader political issues and focusing solely on immediate economic gains, the labour movement has often found itself in a position of reaction rather than proactivity. Without a broader vision of social and economic justice, trade unions have often been caught unprepared for structural changes such as globalisation, delocalisation and automation. Moreover, by rejecting class struggle, the American labour movement has often avoided tackling the structural and systemic inequalities that affect the working class. This has made the movement more vulnerable to attacks from economic and political elites, who have often sought to marginalise and weaken the unions.

The American Dream, with its emphasis on individualism and upward mobility, has profoundly influenced the national psyche of the United States. It promised that, regardless of humble origins or adverse circumstances, with enough perseverance and hard work anyone could climb the socio-economic ladder. This promise has been a powerful motivator for generations of Americans and immigrants who have come to the United States in search of a better life. However, this belief in individual mobility had complex implications for the labour movement. On the one hand, it reinforced the idea that workers did not need to organise collectively to improve their conditions; they simply had to work hard, save and invest wisely to ensure their own upward mobility. This mentality sometimes made it difficult for unions to recruit new members, as many workers believed they could 'do it alone'. On the other hand, when workers realised that the American dream remained unattainable for many, despite their best efforts, they began to see the value of collective action. They understood that, in the face of powerful corporations and economic elites, individual effort was not always enough. In these moments, the labour movement gained in strength and influence, as workers sought to organise themselves to obtain better working conditions, higher wages and other benefits.

The American Dream, with its emphasis on individual success, has often been interpreted as a promise that those who work hard and show determination can overcome any obstacle to succeed. However, this perspective has also led to a form of 'victim blaming', where those who have not succeeded are often seen as having failed because of their own inadequacy or lack of effort, rather than because of the socio-economic structures in place. This perception has often obscured the systemic challenges faced by many Americans, such as institutional racism, discrimination based on gender or sexual orientation, lack of access to quality education or affordable healthcare, and other socio-economic barriers. By attributing poverty and failure to individual failings, society can avoid tackling the structural problems that create and perpetuate these inequalities. Moreover, this belief has often been used to justify economic policies that favour the richest and most powerful. For example, tax cuts for the rich have been sold as a way of stimulating investment and job creation, even though the benefits have not always trickled down to ordinary working people. Similarly, cuts in social programmes have been justified by the idea that individuals should be responsible for their own welfare, rather than relying on state assistance.

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) adopted a sectoral bargaining approach, focusing on organizing skilled workers in specific industries. This strategy achieved significant gains for some workers, but it also excluded many unskilled workers, immigrants and people of colour. By focusing on specific groups, the AFL often reinforced existing divisions among workers, making it more difficult to organise a united front against employers. The repression of trade unions and class struggle also played a major role in shaping the trade union movement. Governments, both at federal and state level, have often taken steps to limit the power and influence of trade unions. Events such as the Haymarket affair in Chicago have been used to discredit the trade union movement and link it to radical or violent elements. In addition, anti-trust laws, originally designed to limit the power of big business, have been used to target and dismantle trade unions. The belief in the American dream, the idea that success is the result of individual effort and not circumstance or social structure, has also had an impact on the trade union movement. This belief has often been used to discredit trade unions and class struggle, suggesting that those who have not succeeded have only themselves to blame. It reinforced the idea that unions and workers' solidarity were less necessary in a society where everyone could succeed on their own.

Urban development

Broadway in 1909.

The rapid urbanisation that marked the period from 1877 to 1900 profoundly transformed the American landscape. Industrial growth and the concentration of factory jobs in cities led to a massive increase in the urban population. In particular, the North East saw a significant influx of immigrants and rural residents seeking work, with cities such as New York boasting over 3 million inhabitants in 1890. Faced with this demographic growth, cities had to rapidly develop infrastructure. Streets, sewers, water and electricity systems were built or extended at breakneck speed. To house the growing population, apartment blocks were erected, often in overcrowded conditions. In parallel with these developments, transport systems such as trams, underground trains and commuter trains were introduced to meet the travel needs of the urban population. However, this rapid urbanisation was not without its challenges. Densely populated urban areas were often plagued by problems such as poverty, crime and disease. Slums, in particular, were areas where large numbers of immigrants and working poor lived in precarious conditions, lacking basic sanitation. Despite these challenges, the cities became melting pots of cultural diversity, with immigrants from all over the world bringing their unique traditions, enriching American culture. However, this diversity has also been a source of ethnic and racial tensions. The impact of urbanisation has not been limited to demographics and infrastructure. Cities have become centres of artistic and cultural innovation, with the emergence of theatres, museums and galleries. They have also become major economic centres, attracting business and investment. Faced with the challenges posed by urbanisation, numerous social movements have sprung up. Progressive reformers sought to improve living conditions in the city, while trade unions fought for workers' rights.

The rapid urbanisation of the late 19th century transformed the landscape of the United States, but it also brought its share of challenges. The massive influx of new residents into cities rapidly outstripped the capacity of these urban centres. The infrastructure, designed for smaller populations, was often inadequate to cope with this explosive growth. Sewerage, water and transport systems were overloaded, leading to unhealthy living conditions and traffic problems. Housing became a major problem. In many cities, demand for housing far outstripped supply, leading to the creation of shanty towns and overcrowded accommodation. These areas, often without adequate lighting, ventilation or even running water, became hotbeds of disease and crime. Alongside these physical challenges, urbanisation has also widened the gap between rich and poor. The posh districts, with their mansions, parks and tree-lined avenues, contrasted sharply with the narrow, crowded streets of the poorer districts. This spatial division reflected growing economic inequality. The rich, often industrialists or financiers, enjoyed the benefits of city life, such as theatres, museums and restaurants. By contrast, many inner-city residents worked long hours in factories for poverty wages, while living in precarious conditions. These inequalities fuelled social tensions. Reform movements, such as Progressivism, emerged to try to remedy some of these problems. Reformers sought to improve housing conditions, regulate child labour and introduce health standards. Despite these efforts, the challenges posed by rapid urbanisation persisted, and American cities continued to evolve and adapt to these new realities throughout the twentieth century.

Urbanisation, with its unique blend of density and diversity, has been a crucible for cultural and social innovation. Cities have become places where people from different ethnic, social and economic backgrounds have met and interacted, creating an environment conducive to the emergence of new ideas and new forms of expression. Cultural institutions such as theatres, museums and libraries have proliferated to meet the needs of a growing and diverse urban population. Theatres, in particular, saw an explosion in popularity, with vaudeville - a form of theatrical entertainment consisting of various numbers, such as sketches, songs and dances - becoming a favourite pastime for city dwellers. Cinemas also appeared, offering a new form of mass entertainment. Cities also became centres of musical innovation. Genres such as jazz and blues originated and flourished in the electric atmosphere of urban centres. Clubs, bars and dance halls became meeting places where musicians could experiment and develop new sounds. Politically, urbanisation led to the rise of urban political machines. These organisations, often headed by a political "boss", controlled political appointments and resources in the cities. In exchange for votes, they offered services, such as jobs, to their constituents. Although these machines were often criticised for their corruption, they also played a crucial role in providing essential services to a rapidly growing urban population.

The North East, in particular, became a magnet for immigrants and rural residents looking for work, turning cities like New York into buzzing metropolises. By 1890, New York had a population of over 3 million, reflecting the scale of this migration to urban areas. However, this rapid growth was not without its problems. Cities faced problems of overcrowding, substandard housing and inadequate infrastructure. Slums developed in the most densely populated areas, where living conditions were often squalid. Drinking water was scarce, disease spread rapidly and air and water pollution were commonplace. The wealthy, meanwhile, retreated to posh neighbourhoods, creating a clear divide between the affluent classes and the working poor. Urbanisation also gave rise to new forms of social and cultural organisation. Cities have become meeting places for people of all origins, creating a unique cultural mix. Theatres, museums and libraries proliferated, offering entertainment and educational opportunities to a population hungry for novelty. Vaudeville, for example, became a popular form of entertainment, drawing crowds to the city's theatres. Politically, urbanisation saw the rise of the urban political machine. These powerful organisations, often associated with corruption, have nevertheless played an essential role in providing services to the growing urban population. In return for favours, votes and loyalty, they offered jobs, housing and other benefits.

These spatial divisions reflected and reinforced existing socio-economic inequalities. Wealthy neighbourhoods were often adorned with mansions, well-kept parks and tree-lined boulevards, offering residents a pleasant and secure environment. These areas were well served by public transport and had good schools, libraries and other public institutions. Residents also had access to private clubs, theatres and other high-end entertainment venues. In contrast, poor neighbourhoods were densely populated, with whole families crammed into small flats or blocks of flats. These areas often lacked green spaces and were prone to problems such as crime, pollution and epidemics caused by poor hygiene. Schools were overcrowded and underfunded, and there was a general lack of educational and economic opportunities for residents. Ethnic neighbourhoods, such as Chinatown in San Francisco or Little Italy in New York, emerged as refuges for immigrants seeking to retain some of their original culture while adapting to their new homeland. These neighbourhoods were often characterised by shops, restaurants and places of worship specific to each ethnic group, offering a sense of community and belonging to their residents. However, they were also the product of discrimination and segregation, as many ethnic and racial groups were excluded from the more prosperous areas due to prejudice and institutional barriers. Black people, in particular, were often confined to urban ghettos where they were deprived of economic opportunities and subjected to systematic discrimination.

Tenements, multi-storey apartment blocks, were typical of densely populated urban areas. These buildings were often poorly constructed, with inadequate ventilation, lighting and sanitary facilities. Entire families could be crammed into one or two rooms, with little privacy or comfort. The air inside these flats was often stale, and the unsanitary conditions encouraged the spread of disease. The ghettos were also characterised by a lack of infrastructure and public services. Streets were often unpaved, dirty and congested. Schools were overcrowded and underfunded, limiting educational opportunities for children. Medical care was also limited, with few doctors or hospitals available to serve these communities. As a result, infant mortality rates were high, and many preventable diseases, such as tuberculosis, were common. In addition to material challenges, ghetto residents also faced social and economic challenges. Discrimination in hiring and low wages made upward mobility difficult. Prejudice and stereotypes reinforced the isolation of these communities, preventing them from accessing the opportunities and resources available in other parts of the city. However, despite these challenges, the ghettos were also places of resilience and solidarity. Residents supported each other, forming associations, clubs and organisations to help meet the needs of the community. Churches, synagogues and other places of worship played a central role in the life of these neighbourhoods, offering not only spiritual support but also social and educational services. Moreover, the cultural richness of these neighbourhoods, with their traditions, music, food and art, helped to enrich the cultural fabric of the nation as a whole.

Segregation and inequality in urban areas created an environment of pervasive injustice. Ghetto residents were deprived not only of material resources, but also of basic rights and dignity. These conditions engendered a deep sense of frustration, anger and despair among marginalised populations, who felt betrayed by the American dream that promised equality and opportunity for all. These inequalities also had political implications. Ghetto residents were often disenfranchised or faced significant barriers to voting, such as poll taxes and literacy tests. This limited their ability to influence public policy and elect representatives who would defend their interests. However, in the face of these challenges, many residents of marginalised urban areas began to organise and resist. They formed civil rights groups, organised demonstrations and boycotts, and sought to raise public awareness of the injustices they suffered. Emblematic figures such as W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells and Marcus Garvey, emerged during this period, ardently defending the rights of African-Americans and other marginalised groups. Over time, these collective efforts led to significant changes. Laws were passed to end racial discrimination and guarantee voting rights. Institutions such as the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) were created to fight racial discrimination and promote equal rights. Nevertheless, the legacy of this period of segregation and inequality is still felt today. Disparities in housing, education, employment and health between white and non-white communities persist, and the struggle for social justice and equal rights continues. The late nineteenth century period laid the foundation for these struggles, and the lessons learned from that time continue to inform civil rights and social justice movements today.

The Democratic and Republican parties

During this period, the Democratic and Republican parties were the main political parties in the United States, and their support bases and political programmes reflected the regional and economic divisions in the country. The Republican Party, which had been the party of Lincoln and the abolition of slavery, was associated with the industrial regions of the North and Midwest, and generally supported high tariffs to protect American industry, as well as a strong federal government and a pro-business agenda. The Democratic Party, on the other hand, had its roots in the agrarian South and was generally associated with the interests of farmers and workers. It advocated lower tariffs, which it believed would benefit consumers and facilitate trade with other nations. Democrats were also generally in favour of states' rights and opposed an overly powerful federal government, a position that had its roots in the South's historic defence of the institution of slavery and, after the Civil War, racial segregation. It is also important to note that during this period, the Democratic Party was the dominant party in the post-Reconstruction South. After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, Southern Democrats regained control of local governments and implemented racial segregation laws and measures to disenfranchise African Americans. These "Jim Crow laws", as they were known, created a system of racial segregation that lasted until the middle of the 20th century. In the North, by contrast, the Republican Party was the dominant party, and was generally associated with modernisation, industrialisation and economic growth. However, even in the North, the party was far from monolithic. There were divisions within the party between the 'Stalwarts', who were pro-big business conservatives, and the 'Half-Breeds', who were more progressive and concerned with reform issues.

The late nineteenth century saw a series of extremely close presidential elections. For example, the 1876 election between Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican) and Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat) was one of the most controversial in American history. Tilden won the popular vote, but Hayes was eventually elected President after a political compromise known as the Compromise of 1877, which ended Reconstruction in the South. The 1884 election between Grover Cleveland (Democrat) and James G. Blaine (Republican) was also hotly contested, with Cleveland winning by a narrow margin. Cleveland became the first Democratic president since the Civil War, ending nearly two decades of Republican domination of the White House. The close election reflected the deep divisions in American society at the time. Issues of tariffs, currency, states' rights, government reform and civil rights were all hotly debated, and the two parties had very different visions of the country's future. The polarisation between the parties was also exacerbated by the political practices of the time, notably the patronage system, where government positions were awarded on the basis of political loyalty rather than competence. This encouraged fierce party loyalty and made political compromise even more difficult. However, despite this polarisation, there were also moments of bipartisan cooperation. For example, the two parties worked together to pass the Civil Service Act in 1883, which aimed to reform the patronage system and make government more efficient and less prone to corruption.

The dynamics between the Republican and Democratic parties in the late nineteenth century reflected the economic, regional and cultural divisions in America at the time. The Republican Party, with its roots in opposition to slavery and its role in the Union victory in the Civil War, had a strong base in the industrial North and the expanding West. These regions were experiencing rapid industrial growth, and the protectionist policies advocated by the Republicans were popular among industrialists and workers who wanted to protect their jobs from foreign competition. In addition, the West, with its vast tracts of public land and natural resources, benefited from Republican policies that favoured the development of railways and mining. The Democrats, on the other hand, had a strong base in the post-Reconstruction South, where the memory of the Civil War and the radical policies of Reconstruction were still fresh. The South was predominantly agricultural, with an economy based on cotton and other cash crops. Southern farmers, as well as those on the Great Plains, were often in favour of lower tariffs, as they bought manufactured goods and sold their products on world markets. The Democrats, with their populist rhetoric, also attracted many workers, immigrants and other groups who felt left behind by the changing economy of the time. These regional and economic divisions defined American politics during this period, with often close elections and shifting majorities in Congress. Both parties had to navigate these troubled waters, seeking to balance the interests of their respective bases while responding to the challenges and opportunities of a rapidly changing nation.

The end of the nineteenth century in the United States, often referred to as the Gilded Age, was marked by striking contrasts. As the country recovered from the scars of the Civil War, it also witnessed technological innovation, territorial expansion and unprecedented economic growth. However, this progress was often accompanied by major social and economic challenges. The South, although freed from the yoke of slavery, was plunged into a new form of oppression with the introduction of Jim Crow laws, which legalised racial segregation. Although officially free, African-Americans still faced institutionalised discrimination, violence and a lack of real economic opportunities. In the West, the promise of land and wealth attracted many settlers, but this was at the expense of indigenous peoples. Government policies, such as the Indian Act and the construction of reserves, sought to assimilate and displace indigenous populations, often by force. In the North East, industrialisation led to rapid urbanisation. Cities such as New York and Chicago became centres of innovation and wealth, but also of poverty and despair. Large numbers of immigrants sought opportunities in these cities, but often faced difficult working conditions, poor housing and xenophobia. Politically, although American democracy continued to function, it was marred by corruption and the influence of the "robber barons", business tycoons who often used their wealth to influence politics to their advantage.

Annexes

• Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire; the United States Army in the Spanish-American War. Columbia: U of Missouri, 1971. Print.
• Wealth, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.148, Issue 391 pp. 653–665, June 1889. (Later published as Part I of The Gospel of Wealth)
• The Best Fields for Philanthropy, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.149, Issue 397 pp. 682–699, December 1889. (Later published as Part II of The Gospel of Wealth)
• Excerpts from "Wealth" by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review, 148, no. 391 (June 1889)*Carnegie, South American View, 223 no. 876 (October 1982)
• Liggett, Lorie (1998). "Wounded Knee Massacre – An Introduction". Bowling Green State University.
• "Plains Humanities: Wounded Knee Massacre". Retrieved December 9, 2014. "resulted in the deaths of more than 250, and possibly as many as 300, Native Americans."
• Utley, Robert (1963). "The Last Days of the Sioux Nation". Yale University Press.
• Bateman, Robert (June 2008), "Wounded Knee", Military History, 24 (4): 62–67
• Hill, Richard (October 7, 1999). "Wounded Knee, A Wound That Won't Heal". First Nations issues of consequence.
• Jeffrey Ostler: The Plains Sioux and U.S. colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee, pp. 357–358, Cambridge University Press (2004) ISBN 0-521-60590-3
• JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER, interview in 1905. Peter Collier and David Horowitz, The Rockefellers, an American Dynasty, chapter 3, p. 48