American society in the 1920s

American society in the 1920s

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties," was a decade of great social, cultural, and economic change in the United States. After the end of World War I, the country experienced a period of prosperity and optimism, as well as significant changes in social norms and values. The rise of the "flapper" culture, in which young women embraced new styles of dress and behaviour, was one of the most notable social trends of the decade. The economy boomed, and new technologies, such as automobiles and radios, became widely available. However, the prosperity of the 1920s was not shared by all Americans, as many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality. Additionally, the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States shifted its focus from annexing territories for settlement to occupying regions for political and economic control. The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a significant turning point in American imperialism in the Americas. The United States emerged victorious and gained control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines and gained influence over Cuba. The subsequent construction of the Panama Canal solidified American control over the region and allowed for easier access to Central and South America. The United States then began to consider the Caribbean and Central America as its own sphere of influence. It began to exert political and economic control over these regions through various means such as military intervention, economic aid, and diplomatic pressure.

The First World War, also known as World War I, resulted in significant destruction and ruin in Europe, and it profoundly impacted the global balance of power. The war marked the end of European dominance and the rise of the United States as a major world power. The US entered the war in 1917, and its involvement was decisive in turning the tide against the Central Powers. The war also ended the British Empire's status as the dominant global power, and the United States emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. With the war's end, the United States took on a greater role in international affairs, and its economic and military strength allowed it to exert significant influence over global affairs. The idea of the white man's burden, a term used to describe the belief that it was the duty of the European powers and the United States to "civilize" the rest of the world, was also prevalent in U.S foreign policy during the period.

There are similarities between the cultural and artistic developments in the United States in the 1920s and in Mexico simultaneously. Both countries were undergoing a period of significant social and cultural change, and there were efforts to create a distinct national culture that was free from European influences. In the United States, the "Roaring Twenties" saw a rise in jazz music, the Harlem Renaissance, and the emergence of a new generation of writers, artists, and intellectuals who sought to create a distinct American culture. Similarly, in Mexico, the 1920s and 1930s were a time of cultural and artistic flowering known as the Mexican Renaissance. Mexican artists and intellectuals sought to create a national culture that reflected Mexico's indigenous and mestizo heritage. They also rejected the European influence on the art and culture of Mexico. This movement was led by figures such as Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, who sought to promote a new, national identity through their art and literature.

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The Second Industrial Revolution

The first industrial revolution, which took place in the late 18th and early 19th century, was characterized by developing new technologies and manufacturing processes in the textiles, metalworking, and transportation industries. These innovations led to an increase in productivity and a shift from manual labour to machine-based manufacturing, which in turn led to a significant increase in economic growth and prosperity. This industrial revolution also helped make the United States one of the world's wealthiest and most developed nations.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, built upon the advancements of the first industrial revolution and brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. This period saw an acceleration in the pace of technological change, and new technologies such as the telegraph, telephone and internal combustion engine. It also led to the rise of new industries, such as the automobile and petrochemical industries, which further contributed to the economic growth and modernization of the United States and other developed countries. The Second Industrial Revolution also profoundly impacted society, leading to the growth of cities, the rise of new forms of transportation, and the creation of new forms of work and leisure.

The First World War, which ended in 1918, significantly impacted the global economy and the balance of power between nations. The war caused significant destruction and loss of life in Europe and left many of the European powers in economic and physical ruins. The United States, on the other hand, entered the war later and did not suffer the same level of destruction and loss of life. As a result, the country emerged from the war in a much stronger economic position than the European powers.

The Second Industrial Revolution was already underway before the war. Still, the war accelerated technological innovations, and the United States was uniquely positioned to take advantage of these new technologies and industries. The country's economy boomed in the 1920s as the manufacturing and transportation industries expanded, and new industries such as automobiles and chemicals emerged. The country's economy was not affected by the war as much as Europe, and the US was able to take advantage of this situation to become the world's leading economic power.

The United States also had the advantage of having a large domestic market, abundant natural resources, and a well-developed infrastructure, which allowed it to become the world's leading producer of goods and services. This economic dominance, coupled with the political and military power that the United States had gained due to its role in the war, positioned the country as a major player in global affairs and established it as a superpower in the 20th century.

Mass production of consumer goods

Ford T assembly line in 1913. A swing allows to present a sub-assembly coming from an upper floor to the workstation where it will be mounted on the vehicle.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. One of the most notable developments of this period was the advent of mass production techniques, which allowed for the manufacture of consumer goods on a large scale. This led to a significant increase in productivity and a decrease in the cost of goods, making them more affordable for the average consumer.

One of the pioneers of mass production techniques was Henry Ford, who introduced the assembly line to the automobile industry. Ford's Model T was the first car to be produced on a large scale using the assembly line, and this greatly reduced the cost of production and made cars more affordable for the average consumer. This innovation revolutionised the automobile industry and significantly impacted American society, as the car became an essential part of everyday life.

Mass production techniques were also applied to other consumer goods, such as household appliances, cigarettes, and clothing. This led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. The assembly line and mass production techniques became a standard in the manufacturing industry and are still widely used today.

The main aim of the Second Industrial Revolution was to increase productivity, efficiency and lower production costs. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line, interchangeable parts, and electricity use, were all designed to achieve this goal.

The assembly line, for example, allowing for the efficient division of labour, where workers were assigned specific tasks, which increased the speed and volume of production. Interchangeable parts allowed for the mass production of goods, and the use of electricity allowed for the mechanisation of many manufacturing processes, further increasing productivity and efficiency.

The goal of producing more, faster, and cheaper was also reflected in the marketing and selling strategies of the companies. Mass production allowed for economies of scale, which made goods cheaper, which was a key to the success of many companies. This in turn led to an increase in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also had an impact on the labour market, as it led to the increase in the number of jobs in the manufacturing sector and the rise of the working class, but also led to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working-class labour unions.

To produce more, faster, and cheaper, Henry Ford set up large, highly efficient factories that employed the latest technologies and innovations. One of the key innovations Ford introduced was the assembly line, which revolutionised the automobile industry.

On the assembly line, each worker was assigned a specific task and was responsible for performing that task repeatedly as the car moved down the line. This division of labour greatly increased the speed and volume of production, as each worker became an expert in their specific task. This was a significant departure from the traditional manufacturing method, where each worker would complete the entire process of building a car, which was slow and inefficient.

Ford also standardised the components and accessories of the Model T, which allowed for the mass production of the car. This made it possible to produce cars at a much lower cost, making them more affordable for the average consumer. Using interchangeable parts made it possible to repair and maintain the cars more easily.

The assembly line and mass production techniques led to the creation of large, highly efficient factories that employed a large number of workers. This led to the rise of the working class, but also to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working-class labour unions. The assembly line also led to the creation of a new type of worker, the semi-skilled worker, who was only responsible for one task in the long production chain. This production method also led to the creation of the first industrial robots, which were designed to perform repetitive tasks and increased the efficiency of the production process.

The assembly line, which Henry Ford first introduced in the automobile industry, soon became the standard for many other industries as well. The success of the assembly line in the automobile industry demonstrated that mass-production techniques could also be applied to other consumer goods. This led to the widespread adoption of the assembly line in many other industries, such as appliances, electronics, and clothing.

The widespread adoption of the assembly line also led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. Companies began to focus on marketing and advertising to promote their products and create a demand for them. They tried to present new products as indispensable to every American and to make them believe that the model they already had was obsolete and needed to be replaced.

This marketing and advertising strategy, combined with the availability of cheap consumer goods, led to a significant increase in consumer spending, contributing to the economy's growth. The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing sector and the exploitation of labour and the rise of the working-class labour unions.

The rise of consumer culture and the emphasis on mass production also significantly impacted American society and values, as people began to place a greater emphasis on material possessions and the acquisition of goods. This led to the rise of consumerism, which continues to be a significant aspect of American culture today.

Boom of the US economy

The Second Industrial Revolution led to a spectacular boom in the American economy in the 1920s. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, leading to a significant increase in economic growth.

During this period, the United States experienced a significant increase in industrial production and a rise in gross national product (GNP) of 40%. This economic growth also led to an increase in per capita income, with the average annual income per person increasing by 30% and reaching 680 dollars per person in 1929. The population of the United States also grew significantly during this period, increasing from 100 million people in 1923 to 120 million people just ten years later.

This economic boom also increased consumer spending, which contributed to the economy's growth. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

The boom was not sustainable, and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and the country entered a period of economic hardship that lasted until the end of the 1930s.

The economic boom of the 1920s led to an increase in wages for industrial workers in the United States, making them some of the highest-paid workers in the world. The increase in productivity and efficiency brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the demand for labour, which in turn led to an increase in wages for industrial workers.

This wage increase also meant that industrial workers could afford to purchase some of the consumer goods they were manufacturing. This led to a rise in consumer spending and the growth of a consumer-based economy. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

However, the benefits of this economic boom were not evenly distributed among all Americans. Many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality and did not have the same access to these higher wages and the ability to purchase consumer goods.

The prosperity of the 1920s was not sustainable, and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and many Americans found themselves out of work and unable to afford the consumer goods they once could.

Chart 1: USA GDP annual patterns and long-term trend, 1920-40, in billions of constant dollars

Societal costs and consequences

The Second Industrial Revolution, which brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, significantly impacted the country's rural areas. The focus on mass production and efficiency led to the growth of manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas. Many people, particularly farmers, left the countryside to search for work in the cities.

The growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas led to higher wages and a higher standard of living for many Americans, but this prosperity was not evenly distributed. The average annual income for industrial workers in urban areas was $680 per year, while the average annual income for farmers and rural workers was only $273 per year.

This income disparity leads to a significant migration of people searching for work from rural to urban areas. Millions of small farmers left the countryside, searching for better opportunities in the cities. This migration led to the growth of urban areas and the decline of rural areas, significantly impacting society and culture.

The focus on mass production and efficiency also had a negative impact on the environment and natural resources, as the overuse of resources and the pollution of the environment were not considered in the production process. This had a long-term impact on the environment, which is still being addressed today.

Although the Second Industrial Revolution brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, it also had negative consequences. One of the most significant negative consequences was the rise of unemployment. Despite the growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas, the focus on mass production and efficiency led to the displacement of many workers.

During the 1920s, there were several economic downturns, including a recession in 1921. This recession increased unemployment, with an estimated 5 million workers out of the labour force. This economic downturn should have been a warning sign for the country, but it was not taken seriously, and the economy continued to grow.

The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was a much more severe economic downturn that lasted until the end of the 1930s. The depression was caused by a combination of factors, including the stock market crash of 1929, the decline in consumer spending, and the collapse of the banking system. The depression led to a significant increase in unemployment, with an estimated 15 million people out of work. The unemployment rate reached 25% by 1933. The Great Depression was only ended with the Second World War, which led to a significant increase in government spending, particularly on defence, which helped stimulate the economy and create jobs.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the growth of large, highly-efficient factories and the rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses. These large businesses, also known as oligopolies, had a significant advantage over small businesses in terms of economies of scale and resource access. They could produce much lower-cost goods than small businesses, making it difficult for small businesses to compete.

These oligopolies also benefited from government aid, which helped to suppress the labour movement and protect their businesses from competition. High tariffs and customs barriers were also imposed on imports from Europe and other countries, which further protected these large businesses from foreign competition.

This led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses and the decline of small businesses, and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses, but also led to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working class labour unions.

The rise of these large oligopolies also significantly impacted American society, as they exerted significant influence over the political process and government policies. This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses, or oligopolies, during the Second Industrial Revolution, led to a decline in the power of the independent labour movement. The labour movement had grown very strong in 1918 and 1919, as workers organised and formed unions to demand better wages and working conditions.

However, the large, powerful businesses could neutralise the labour movement by using various tactics, such as creating company-controlled unions, offering company-provided welfare programs, and using government policies to suppress the labour movement.

One of the tactics used by these large corporations was the establishment of "welfare capitalism" programs, which were contracts that promised various benefits to workers, such as better wages and working conditions, and even pension programs for the remaining workers in the company. These programs were intended to pacify the workers and reduce the need for independent labour unions.

However, these programs were not always effective, and many workers continued to organise and form independent unions, despite the efforts of large corporations to suppress the labour movement. The labour movement continued to grow and evolve and significantly shaped American society and politics in the 20th century.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the decline of craft work and the rise of assembly line work. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, but it also led to the displacement of many skilled craft workers.

The process of eliminating small businesses and craft work was also seen in the retail sector, where small stores and independent merchants were replaceable distribution chains. During the Second Industrial Revolution, department stores replaced small stores and independent merchants, or oligopolies, which led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses and the decline of small businesses and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses.

This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person. The decline of small businesses and craft work also significantly impacted American society, as it led to a decline in the number of small businesses and independent merchants, significantly impacting the communities they served.

The new urban culture and lifestyle changes

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties," was a decade of significant social, cultural, and economic change in the United States. The period was characterized by shifting from rural life and traditional values towards urbanization and modernity. The rise of the "New Woman" and the "flapper" symbolized the changing social norms and attitudes of the time. Americans became increasingly interested in consumerism and the pursuit of pleasure. The country saw a proliferation of new technologies and forms of entertainment, such as automobiles, radio, and jazz music. This new urban culture was particularly prevalent in major cities like New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

The mass production of goods during the 1920s led to a standardization of products, creating a sense of uniformity among consumers. Additionally, the economic boom of the decade was largely driven by consumer spending, and, the number of consumers may not have been able to keep pace with the rapid growth in production. This ultimately led to an overproduction of goods and a decrease in sales, which contributed to the economic downturn that began in 1929. The stock market crash of October 1929, which marked the beginning of the Great Depression, further exacerbated the economic problems caused by overproduction.

Mass consumption and consumerism

Advertising is an agent of economic development. Advertising for Palmolive soap in 1922.

During the 1920s, the elite and middle class were the main beneficiaries of the consumer boom. With rising incomes and access to new forms of credit, they were able to purchase a wide range of consumer goods, including automobiles, appliances, and homes in the suburbs. These new consumer goods improved their living standards and helped fuel economic growth. However, once these groups had acquired most of the durable goods they needed, their demand for consumer goods began to taper off, contributing to the eventual economic downturn.

Furthermore, mass consumption also led to a significant increase in consumer debt, as many Americans were buying goods on credit, which was a new phenomenon of that time. This also contributed to the economic downturn and the stock market crash.

The benefits of the consumer boom of the 1920s were not evenly distributed. Many industrial workers and farmers could not participate in the era's mass consumption. Many of these groups were still recovering from the economic difficulties of World War I, and they did not have the disposable income or access to credit to purchase the new consumer goods that were becoming available. This economic divide between the elite and middle class, who could participate in the consumer boom, and the working and rural classes, who were not, contributed to the growing social and economic inequalities of the time.

Furthermore, many of the goods that were produced during the 1920s through the credit or hire-purchase system were not affordable for these groups, which further reinforced the gap between those who could participate in the consumer boom and those who could not.

While the consumer boom of the 1920s brought economic growth and improved living standards for many Americans, it also reinforced existing social and economic inequalities, as many working and rural classes could not participate in the mass consumption of the era.

The increasing wealth inequality in the 1920s, combined with the saturation of the consumer market, was a significant factor contributing to the Great Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression. As you mentioned, the consumer boom of the 1920s was largely driven by the purchasing power of the elite and middle class, who could buy a wide range of consumer goods. However, as the market for consumer goods became saturated, these groups could no longer maintain their high levels of consumption, which in turn led to a decrease in demand for goods and a decline in economic activity.

The increasingly unequal distribution of wealth also played a role in the crash of 1929, as the wealthy had a disproportionate amount of money invested in the stock market. When the market crashed, they were the ones who lost the most. Additionally, the fact that many people were buying stocks on margin, using loans to invest in the stock market, further exacerbated the stock market crash as the market crashed, many investors were unable to pay back their loans, which led to more widespread financial losses.

the 1920s was a decade of significant social, cultural, and economic change in the United States, and many of the major milestones of American culture were set during this time. The rise of the automobile, the proliferation of individual homes in the suburbs, the expansion of department stores and skyscrapers, and the growth of new forms of entertainment, such as radio and jazz music, all played a role in shaping the new urban culture of the era.

The car, in particular, had a major impact on American culture and society during the 1920s. The widespread adoption of the automobile led to the development of new infrastructure, such as highways and gas stations, and new forms of commercial development, such as hotels and drive-through restaurants. The car also enabled Americans to travel more easily, leading to tourism and vacationing growth. Additionally, the car also played a role in the changing social norms of the time by giving women greater mobility and independence.

The skyscrapers on the Manhattan peninsula in New York in 1932.

The arrival of mass production and advertising and mass culture and leisure were key factors that contributed to the changing urban culture of the 1920s. Mass production made it possible to produce goods on a large scale and at a lower cost, which made them more affordable for the average consumer. Advertising helped to create demand for these goods by promoting them to a wide audience through various mediums such as newspapers, magazines, billboards and radio.

The growth of mass culture and leisure also shaped the new urban culture of the 1920s. The rise of new forms of entertainment, such as jazz music, movies, and sports, created new opportunities for leisure and socializing. The growth of department stores and other commercial establishments also provided new venues for shopping, dining, and entertainment. These changes in urban culture led to the emergence of a new consumer culture, in which people were encouraged to buy more and to spend more time enjoying leisure activities.

Radio emerged as a powerful new medium of mass communication and played a significant role in shaping the new urban culture of the era. One of the key factors in the development of radio during this time was the growth of commercial radio, which was financed largely by advertising. Companies such as NBC (National Broadcasting Company) began to build networks of radio stations across the country. They used these networks to deliver a wide range of programming, including music, news, and entertainment, to a mass audience.

Advertising became a major source of revenue for these commercial radio networks, as companies paid to have their products and services promoted on the air. This helped to make radio more affordable for the average consumer, as the revenue from advertising offset the costs of programming.

In addition to providing a new source of entertainment and information, radio also played a role in shaping the new consumer culture of the 1920s by promoting new products and lifestyles. Advertisements on radio encouraged people to buy new consumer goods, and programs like soap operas and cooking shows helped to create demand for these products.

The emergence of radio as a new medium of mass communication in the 1920s greatly increased the speed and reach of information. It played a major role in shaping how people received and consumed news and entertainment. Radio also broadcast sports, allowing them to become more popular and reach a national audience. This helped to grow the popularity of sports like baseball, football, and boxing, and made them an important part of American culture and society. The ability to listen to live broadcasts of games on the radio also allowed people who could not attend the games in person to follow them, and made sports more accessible to a wider audience.

However, despite the growth of these sports, they remained segregated, meaning that African-Americans were not allowed to participate in the same leagues as whites. This racial segregation reflected the broader societal issues of racism and discrimination that existed in the United States during this time.

In addition to sports, Hollywood became a major centre of film production during the 1920s, and the movie industry's growth helped shape the era's new urban culture. Many of the films produced in Hollywood during this time were aimed at a mass audience, and they helped create a new form of mass culture accessible to people of all backgrounds. However, some of the films produced in Hollywood during this time were seen as controversial and went against the conservative values of American society, leading to a reaction against Hollywood's perceived moral decay.

This led to a more selective censorship of films and the growth of the number of cinemas. The rise of Hollywood as a major centre of film production also helped to create a new form of entertainment that was accessible to people of all backgrounds, and it played a role in shaping the new consumer culture of the 1920s by promoting new products and lifestyles.

Political and social changes, including the franchise for women

In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified, giving women the right to vote. This was a significant achievement for the women's suffrage movement, which had been fighting for the right to vote for decades. However, as you pointed out, the gain of suffrage by women did not change much in the country's politics in general, especially for Black women, as they continued to be excluded from voting due to the Black Codes and discriminatory practices in the Southern states.

Additionally, even though women now had the right to vote, their role in society did not change much as men still remained the main wage-earning economic breadwinners in the family. Women were still expected to fulfill traditional roles as homemakers and caretakers, and they were not encouraged to participate in the workforce or politics the same way as men.

It would take many more years and another wave of feminist movement for Women to impact America's political and social landscape.

After the passage of the 19th Amendment, the feminist movement did become divided in its goals and priorities. Some feminists focused on achieving social and political goals, such as obtaining advances from the federal government in areas like equal pay, access to education and employment, and reproductive rights. These feminists worked to change laws and policies to promote gender equality and women's rights.

On the other hand, other feminists focused on challenging traditional societal expectations and norms, particularly those related to gender roles and sexual liberation. They sought to break free from the traditional "Victorian straitjacket" that imposed restrictive societal expectations on women, and instead, aimed for greater personal freedom and self-expression. This included advocating for sexual liberation and the right to make their own choices about their bodies and sexuality.

This division within the feminist movement would continue through the 1920s and 1930s, with different groups of feminists pursuing different goals and strategies. It was only in the 1960s and 1970s with the second wave of feminism that the different factions of the movement came together again and focused on a more comprehensive agenda for women's rights and equality.

the shift towards women's emancipation during the 1920s was facilitated by a number of factors, including the decline in birth rates and the advent of new household technologies.

The decline in birth rates during this period meant that women had fewer children to care for, which gave them more time and energy to pursue other interests and goals. This was particularly true for middle-class women, who were more likely to have access to birth control and to be able to afford to limit the size of their families.

Additionally, the advent of new household technologies, such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators, also played a role in facilitating women's emancipation. These technologies reduced the time and effort women needed to spend on domestic tasks, which freed them up to pursue other activities and interests.

This combination of factors contributed to a gradual shift in societal expectations and norms, and allowed women more time and freedom to pursue their goals and aspirations. However, it would take many more years for these changes to be reflected in the legislation and policies that would give women true equality and rights.

The decline in birth rates during the 1920s also impacted children's lives and the age at which they entered the labour market. With fewer children being born, families could afford to invest more resources into each child's education. As a result, more children began to attend high school and university, which lengthened the time they spent living with their parents.

This trend towards later entry into the labour market was also a consequence of the growing economy and the availability of more white-collar jobs requiring more education and training. With higher levels of education, young people were better prepared to enter the workforce in professional or technical roles rather than in manual labour.

This change in the age at which children entered the workforce also significantly impacted society, as it meant that young people were spending more time in school and less time working. This allowed them to develop a more diverse set of skills and interests, which would positively impact their future careers and lives.

Artistic and cultural movements

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties" were a time of great cultural and artistic innovation in the United States. The decade marked a spirit of experimentation and rebellion against traditional norms and values.

In literature, the 1920s saw the emergence of a new generation of writers, influenced by the time's social and political changes. The era was marked by the emergence of the "lost generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot, who were known for their disillusionment with traditional values and their exploration of themes of disillusionment, alienation, and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

In art, the 1920s saw the emergence of the modernist movement, which rejected the traditional styles and techniques of the past in favour of new and experimental forms of expression. The decade was marked by the emergence of the Art Deco style, which was characterized by its geometric shapes, bold colours, and stylized forms. The 1920s also saw the emergence of jazz and the Harlem Renaissance, which brought a new energy and vitality to American art and culture.

In addition, the 1920s was a time of great change in the film industry; Hollywood became the centre of film production, the introduction of sound in movies, and the emergence of the star system.

Overall, the 1920s was a time of great cultural and artistic innovation, and it laid the foundations for many of the artistic and cultural movements that would define the 20th century.

The literary flowering

The literary flowering of the 1920s was closely tied to the growth of cities and the emergence of a new intellectual elite. The writers of the "lost generation" were often critical of the industrial revolution and the alienation it produced. They explored themes of disillusionment and alienation in their writing, as well as the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

In literature, the 1920s saw the emergence of a new generation of writers, influenced by the time's social and political changes. The era was marked by the emergence of the "lost generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot, who were known for their disillusionment with traditional values and their exploration of themes of disillusionment, alienation, and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

The writers of the 1920s also reflected the social and political changes of the time, such as the cultural changes brought about by the influx of immigrants, the growth of urban areas, and the changing roles of women.

Many of the writers of the 1920s were shocked by the new materialism of American culture and the lack of spiritual values. They often wrote about the emptiness and superficiality of the American dream, and the disillusionment that came with it.

Ernest Hemingway, for example, went into exile in Europe, where the modernist literary movement and the cultural and political changes of the time influenced him. He wrote about the disillusionment of World War I veterans and the moral ambiguity of the modern world in his novels, such as "The Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms".

F. Scott Fitzgerald, on the other hand, F. Scott Fitzgerald remained in the United States and criticized the American elite's emptiness and lack of humanity. He wrote about the disillusionment of the American dream and the moral decay of the wealthy in his novels, such as "The Great Gatsby" and "Tender Is the Night".

Their criticism of the new materialism and empty lifestyle of the American culture came through their literature. It helped expose the gap between the wealthy and the rest of society and the moral decay of the upper classes.

Additionally, the 1920s saw the emergence of the Harlem Renaissance, which was a cultural movement of African American artists and intellectuals in the New York City neighbourhood of Harlem. This movement produced a wealth of literary, artistic, and musical work, which helped challenge the time's racial barriers and promote a new sense of cultural pride among African Americans.

Harlem Renaissance

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that emerged in the African American community in the 1920s, particularly in the neighbourhood of Harlem in New York City. It was a time of great artistic and intellectual flourishing for African Americans, producing a wealth of literary, artistic, and musical work.

The Harlem Renaissance responded to the racial barriers and discrimination that African Americans faced at the time. It helped to challenge the stereotypes and negative portrayal of African Americans in the mainstream culture and promoted a new sense of cultural pride among African Americans.

During this time, many African American writers, artists, and intellectuals came together to create a new literary and artistic movement that was unique to the African American experience. They wrote about the themes of race, identity, and the search for equality and freedom in their work.

Some of the most prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance include writers Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Baldwin, artists Aaron Douglas, Jacob Lawrence, and Romare Bearden, and musicians Duke Ellington and Bessie Smith. Their works were influential not only in African American community but also in American culture as a whole and helped to shape the American artistic and intellectual landscape of the time.

The Harlem Renaissance was a powerful assertion of African American culture and identity, and it helped to establish Harlem and Chicago as major cultural centres for African Americans. Through the development of jazz, the blues, and literature, African Americans were able to express their unique experiences and perspectives and to claim their place in American society.

In particular, jazz and blues played a significant role in the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz was a form of music that was heavily influenced by African American culture, and the African American community embraced it as a way to express their identity and to challenge the dominant white culture. Many jazz musicians, such as Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, became major figures in the Harlem Renaissance and helped to establish jazz as a major genre of American music.

The Harlem Renaissance also saw the emergence of a new generation of African American writers who were deeply interested in exploring the roots of African American culture and the African diaspora. They wrote about the themes of race, identity, and the search for equality and freedom in their work. Their literature was published in magazines and journals, and African Americans and white audiences alike widely read it. It helped to shape the American literary landscape and increased the visibility of the African American experience in American society.

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  W. E. B. Du Bois.

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  National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

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  Marcus Garvey in 1924

• Flag of the UNIA.svg

  The red, black and green flag created by the UNIA in 1920.

W.E.B. Du Bois was one of the most prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance and the broader African American civil rights movement of the early 20th century. He was a sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist who wrote extensively about the African American experience, particularly the issues of race and racism. He was a leading voice in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was founded in 1909 and aimed to fight for the rights of African Americans.

During the Harlem Renaissance, Du Bois was a major intellectual voice in the African American community, he wrote and edited the NAACP's magazine The Crisis, which became a platform for many of the major figures of the Harlem Renaissance to express their views and ideas. He was also a major advocate for the rights of African Americans, and he played a significant role in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

Du Bois was also one of the main leaders in the movement of the NAACP to Harlem. In the 1920s, Harlem was a rapidly growing African American community, and it was becoming an important centre of African American culture and politics. The move of the NAACP to Harlem was an important step in recognizing the importance of Harlem as a cultural and political centre for African Americans. It helped solidify further the connection between the civil rights movement and the cultural movement of the Harlem Renaissance.

During the early 20th century, many African Americans migrated from the rural South to the North in search of better economic opportunities and to escape the racial discrimination and segregation of the South. This migration, known as the Great Migration, resulted in a significant increase in the black population in Northern cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Philadelphia.

In these cities, African Americans faced new forms of discrimination and racism but also found more opportunities for economic advancement and political activism. For example, the black population of Detroit grew from about 6,000 in 1910 to around 120,000 by 1930. As a result, Detroit became an important centre of African American culture, politics, and economic activity.

Black communities in the North also became important centres of mobilization against the segregated South and for civil rights. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other civil rights organizations were active in these cities. They helped build a strong support base for the civil rights movement. The migration of African Americans to the North also led to the development of a strong black middle class and the growth of black-owned businesses, which helped strengthen African Americans' economic and political power.

While the North was not as overtly racist or segregationist as the South, there was still significant racial discrimination and segregation in the North. Many Northern cities, including those with large black populations, had de facto segregation in housing, education, and employment. African Americans were often confined to specific neighbourhoods and faced discrimination in access to jobs, housing, and other opportunities. This de facto segregation was often enforced by discriminatory practices such as redlining, which made it difficult for African Americans to obtain mortgages and buy homes in certain neighbourhoods.

In addition, you also highlighted that US foreign policy was extremely racist, particularly about Central America and the Caribbean. This can be seen in the US involvement in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba after the Spanish-American War, in the repeated interventions and invasions in Central America, and in the racist policies towards Asian immigrants in the West Coast, among other examples.

The massive migration of African Americans from the South to Northern and Western cities during the 1920s, known as the Great Migration, did lead to tensions and conflicts between black and white residents. The influx of black migrants led to competition for jobs, housing, and other resources. There were many instances of racial violence, including riots and lynchings, in Northern and Western cities.

In response to these challenges and the ongoing discrimination, many African Americans joined black nationalist movements during this period. These movements sought to promote self-reliance and self-determination for African Americans, and many advocated for creating separate black communities, businesses, and institutions. Black nationalist movements such as Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association and the Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad, gained significant followings during this time.

The era of nationalism in Europe also had an influence on the rise of black nationalist movements in the US. Indeed, the idea of national self-determination and the right of people to govern themselves, which was championed in Europe, also resonated with many African Americans seeking autonomy and freedom from racial oppression in the US.

The Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 was a major black nationalist movement during the 1920s and 1930s. Garvey believed that the way for African Americans to achieve freedom and equality was through the creation of their own nation and the promotion of black capitalism. He advocated for the establishment of black-owned businesses and institutions and for the creation of a separate black economy.

Garvey also promoted the idea of "racial pride" and encouraged African Americans to embrace their African heritage, and he rejected the idea of racial integration. He believed that the only way for African Americans to achieve true freedom and equality was by creating their own separate nation.

UNIA's message resonated with many African Americans, particularly those in the North, who faced discrimination and poverty. At its height, the organization had millions of members and a wide network of businesses and institutions. However, Garvey's ideas were controversial. He faced opposition from other black leaders, such as W.E.B. Du Bois, who believed that the best way to achieve equality was through integration and political action.

This movement, however, faced significant opposition from other black leaders and organizations, such as the NAACP and the National Urban League, who saw Garvey's ideas as divisive and unrealistic. Additionally, the FBI and other government agencies targeted the UNIA, which led to Garvey's arrest and eventual deportation in 1927. Despite this, the ideas of the UNIA and the Harlem Renaissance had a lasting impact on the civil rights movement and the development of black nationalism ideologies in the United States.

The idea of the "New Negro" emerged during the Harlem Renaissance, and it represented a new generation of African Americans who were educated, cultured, and politically aware. They rejected the negative stereotypes of the past and sought to assert their dignity and worth through their art, literature, and political activism. The term "New Negro" was popularized by the writer and intellectual Alain Locke in his anthology "The New Negro: An Interpretation" (1925), which featured the work of many prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen. The New Negro movement played a vital role in challenging the dominant narrative of black inferiority and promoting a new image of black people as strong, capable, and proud.

The Protestant and Anglo-Saxon reaction

Discrimination and marginalization of non-WASP Americans and immigrants

The 1920s in the United States were a period of economic prosperity, often referred to as the "Roaring Twenties." The Republican Party held the presidency for the entire decade, with Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover serving as presidents. These presidents pursued a policy of protectionism, implementing tariffs to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. However, they did not address the economic and political issues facing post-World War I Europe, which was experiencing a rise in dangerous political movements.

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  Official portrait of the President of the United States by President Warren G. Harding 1921-1923.

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  Official portrait of the President of the United States by Charles S. Coolidge. Hopinknson.

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  President Harding and Vice President Coolidge with their wives.

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  Herbert Hoover in 1925.

The presidents of the 1920s did pursue policies of "absolute liberalism," also known as laissez-faire, which emphasized minimal government intervention in the economy. As part of this approach, they cut taxes heavily for corporations and the wealthy, contributing to the decade's economic prosperity. However, this also led to increased income inequality and a concentration of wealth among the upper class. These economic policies also had negative impacts on the agricultural and labour sectors, as well as on the African American population.

During the 1920s, the number of small farmers in the United States decreased dramatically, with an estimated 6 million farmers leaving their land to seek work in the cities. This was a result of a combination of factors, including the mechanization of farming, overproduction, and the decline in prices for agricultural products. The policies of "absolute liberalism" and tax cuts for the wealthy, which were pursued by the Republican presidents of the decade, did not address these issues and offered little support for farmers struggling to make a living. This trend increased poverty and inequality, particularly in rural areas, where poverty rates were higher than in urban areas.

Overproduction was a significant factor in the decline of small farmers during the 1920s. The rise of mechanization and new technologies allowed for increased productivity in farming, which led to a surplus of agricultural products and a fall in prices. This made it difficult for small farmers to compete with larger, more efficient operations, and many could not make a profit. Additionally, the government's focus on promoting economic growth and prosperity through "absolute liberalism" and tax cuts for the wealthy, rather than addressing the issues facing small farmers, made it even more difficult for them to survive. This overproduction of agricultural products and fall in prices led to the displacement of millions of small farmers. It contributed to the pockets of poverty and inequality that were forming in the country, particularly in rural areas.

In the face of these accumulating problems, the reaction of deep Anglo-Saxon America does not turn towards the government, large corporations, or the wealthy, but rather against weak and easily designable scapegoats. This approach often called "scapegoating" is a way to redirect the blame and anger of the population to a certain group of people that are perceived as different, weaker or less fortunate. It allows avoiding addressing real and structural issues, often leading to discrimination, prejudice and social unrest. This phenomenon has been observed throughout history in different countries and societies. It is a way to avoid taking responsibility and finding real solutions.

During the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) experienced a resurgence in popularity. The organization, which had originally formed in the aftermath of the Civil War to intimidate and terrorize African Americans, had largely fallen out of existence by the end of the 19th century. However, in 1915, the release of the film "The Birth of a Nation" helped to reignite interest in the organization. The film, which depicted the Ku Klux Klan as heroic defenders of the South during the Civil War, was widely seen and praised, and helped to promote a racist and white supremacist agenda. The film was used as a recruitment tool, and the Klan started to grow rapidly and by the 1920s, the organization had millions of members and was active in many parts of the country. The Klan used violence and intimidation to assert white dominance and to oppose the civil rights of Black Americans, immigrants and other minority groups.

In 1925, the Ku Klux Klan claimed to have 5 million active members, making it one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the country at the time. The resurgence of the Klan was accompanied by a rise in violent and racist incidents, including lynchings, across the country. These were not limited to just the southern states but also spread to the West and some northern states, targeting just African Americans, but also targeted other minority groups, including Mexican Americans, Italian Americans, Jewish Americans, Catholic Americans, and others. However, it is true that African Americans were disproportionately affected by this violence and paid a particularly terrible price. The Klan and other white supremacist groups targeted African Americans with lynchings, bombings, and other forms of violence, intimidation, and discrimination. This violence was often met with little to no intervention from law enforcement and government officials, further exacerbating the situation. The legacy of this violence and racism would have a lasting impact on African Americans and other minority groups, shaping the country's social, political, and economic landscape for decades to come.

The Klan's actions were met with little opposition from the government and law enforcement, allowing the Klan to operate with impunity. The Klan's influence would decline by the end of the 1920s, but the legacy of its racism and violence would have long lasting impacts on American society.

As the 1920s came to a close, the Ku Klux Klan began to lose power and influence. This was due to a number of factors, including internal divisions and conflicts, as well as a series of scandals that exposed corruption and criminal activity within the organization. In addition, the growing public awareness and opposition to the Klan's racist and violent activities and the efforts of civil rights activists and organizations helped weaken the Klan's power and influence. By the early 1930s, the Klan's membership had significantly declined, and its influence had greatly diminished. However, the Klan's legacy of racism and violence would continue to be felt in American society for many years to come.

Immigrants

During the 1920s, anti-immigrant sentiment was prevalent in the United States, and immigrants were often targeted as scapegoats for the country's economic and social problems. This sentiment had been growing since the early 20th century. In 1917, the government passed the Literacy Act, which imposed a literacy test on immigrants, making it more difficult for them to enter the country. This law was seen as a way to limit the number of immigrants, particularly from southern and eastern Europe, who were perceived as undesirable by many Americans. The act also banned immigration from Asia. In addition, there were numerous demonstrations and riots against immigrants, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe and Asian immigrants. This anti-immigrant sentiment would continue to shape American politics and society well into the 20th century.

In the 1920s, a quota law was passed in the United States that limited the number of immigrants who could enter the country each year and established quotas for different nationalities. The law, known as the Immigration Act of 1924, was designed to limit the number of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe and was based on the idea that these immigrants were undesirable and a threat to American society. The law imposed a quota of 2% of the number of people from a given country who were already living in the United States in 1890, which effectively limited the number of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe while maintaining higher quotas for immigrants from northern and western Europe. The law was based on the idea that some races were superior to others. This was used to establish a hierarchy of immigrants, with those from northern and western Europe seen as superior and more desirable and those from southern and eastern Europe seen as inferior and less desirable. This law would shape American society and politics for many decades to come.

The quotas established by the Immigration Act of 1924 did not affect immigrants from the Americas, including Canada and Latin America. This was because the law was primarily designed to limit the number of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. The quotas were established based on the number of people from these countries who were already living in the United States in 1890. However, while the law did not affect immigrants from the Americas, there was still a significant amount of anti-immigrant sentiment in the United States during the 1920s, and this sentiment was directed not only at immigrants from southern and eastern Europe but also at immigrants from other countries and regions, including the Americas. The press in this period played a significant role in fueling this anti-immigrant sentiment. Many newspapers and magazines printed articles and editorials that portrayed immigrants as a threat to American society.

While the quotas established by the Immigration Act of 1924 effectively limited the number of immigrants from Europe, the law did not have the same impact on immigrants from Mexico and Puerto Rico. This is because the law did not include quotas for countries in the Western Hemisphere, including Mexico and Puerto Rico. As a result, many Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants could enter the United States during the 1920s and 1930s without facing the same restrictions as European immigrants. While they were not subject to the quotas, they were not immune to the discrimination and racism that was directed at immigrants during this period. Despite this, many Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants did come to the United States during this time to look for better economic opportunities.

The "Reds"

Illustration from 1919 depicting a "European anarchist" attacking the Statue of Liberty.

In addition to economic and social factors, political considerations also played a role in the anti-immigrant sentiment of the 1920s. The fear of communism, anarchism, and socialism, known collectively as "the Reds", was a major factor in shaping American politics and society during this period. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia in 1917, and the subsequent spread of communism in Europe, fueled fears among many Americans that communism would also take root in the United States. This fear was especially pronounced among conservatives and business leaders, who saw communism as a threat to the capitalist system and to their own economic interests. This fear of "the Reds" was often directed at immigrants, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe, who were seen as more likely to be sympathetic to communist and socialist ideas. This fear of "the Reds" was used to justify the restriction of immigration and other measures aimed at suppressing political dissidents, such as the Palmer Raids and the Sedition Act.

The fear of "the Reds" increased significantly during and after World War I. The war, which was accompanied by a wave of strikes and labour unrest in the United States, fueled fears among many Americans that communism and socialism were spreading in the country. The strikes of 1918 and 1919, which included a nationwide strike by steelworkers and a general strike in Seattle, were particularly significant in this regard. The media often portrayed the strikes as being led by foreign agitators, particularly Bolsheviks. They were used to justify the restriction of immigration and other measures aimed at suppressing political dissent.

Many Americans saw the Bolshevik Revolution revolution as a threat to the capitalist system and to American democracy, and they feared that communism would spread to the United States. This fear was used to justify a wide range of anti-communist measures, including the restriction of immigration, the suppression of political dissent, and the arrests and deportations of thousands of people suspected of being "Reds" or "anarchists"

The fear of "the Reds" was a key element of the Red Scare of 1919-1920, which saw a wave of repression and censorship directed against those suspected of being "Reds" or "anarchists". The Red Scare profoundly impacted American society and politics, shaping the nation's political culture and civil liberties for decades to come.

The fear of communism during the 1920s contributed to a climate of repression and violence directed against immigrants, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe. The Red Scare of 1919-1920 led to a wave of mass deportations of immigrants suspected of being "Reds" or "anarchists". Thousands of people were arrested, detained, and deported, often without due process or any evidence of wrongdoing. Many of those targeted were immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who were seen as more likely to be sympathetic to communist and socialist ideas.

In addition to mass deportations, the fear of "the Reds" also contributed to a climate of violence and lynchings directed against immigrants. Lynching was a form of racial terrorism that was used to enforce racial hierarchy and control over marginalized communities, particularly African Americans. The fear of communism was often directed at immigrants, particularly those from southern and eastern Europe, who were seen as more likely to be sympathetic to communist and socialist ideas. This fear led to increased hate crimes and lynchings directed against immigrants.

It is important to note that this fear of communism and the repression that followed was not limited to immigrants. It was directed at any individual or group perceived as threatening the dominant social, economic, and political order.

The Sacco and Vanzetti case is a well-known example of the discrimination and repression faced by immigrants during the Red Scare of the 1920s. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were two Italian-born anarchists who were arrested in 1920 for a robbery and murder in Massachusetts. The trial and subsequent appeals of Sacco and Vanzetti were deeply controversial. They were widely seen as a show trial, with the prosecution's case being built on flimsy evidence and the defendants being denied a fair trial.

Throughout their trial and appeals, Sacco and Vanzetti maintained their innocence and claimed they had been targeted due to their political beliefs and status as immigrants. The case became a cause célèbre, with supporters of Sacco and Vanzetti arguing that they were the victims of a legal system that was biased against immigrants and those with radical political views. Despite the lack of evidence, they were found guilty and sentenced to death in 1927.

The case became a symbol of the discrimination and repression faced by immigrants during the Red Scare of the 1920s and it continues to be studied and debated to this day.

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  Nicola Sacco (droite) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (gauche)

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  Nicola Sacco

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  Bartolomeo Venzetti

The Sacco and Vanzetti case continued to generate significant public attention and protests, both in the United States and internationally, with many people believing that the men were innocent and had been convicted due to their political beliefs and status as immigrants. Despite several appeals and new evidence that emerged over the years, the Massachusetts Supreme Court upheld their conviction in 1926, and the state governor refused to grant them a pardon. The Vatican and various leftist political organizations also intervened on their behalf, but to no avail.

In 1927, Sacco and Vanzetti were executed by electric chair, despite ongoing protests and calls for clemency. The execution sparked widespread outrage and protests in the United States and internationally, and many people viewed the execution as a miscarriage of justice. The case is still the subject of ongoing debate and discussion, with many people believing that Sacco and Vanzetti were innocent and were convicted due to their political beliefs and status as immigrants.

Before being executed, Venzetti says:

« not only have I never committed this crime, but I have never committed violence in all my life, but I am actually convinced that I am being condemned for things of which I am guilty: radical and Italian; and if I could be reborn after my execution I would be radical and Italian again and I would do again what I have done with my life and you would execute me a second time for what I have done ».

The Prohibition

A police raid in 1925 in Elk Lake, Ontario.

Prohibition began in 1920 and lasted until 1933. It was a nationwide ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages in the United States. The movement to prohibit alcohol had been gaining momentum since the late 19th century, primarily driven by religious groups and the temperance movement, which believed that alcohol was the root of many social problems, including poverty, crime, and domestic violence.

Prohibition was passed in 1919 with the ratification of the 18th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes. However, the law was widely ignored and flouted, and the black market for alcohol rapidly emerged, with organized crime groups taking control of the illegal trade.

Prohibition also negatively impacted the economy, as many businesses that relied on producing and selling alcohol were forced to close, and the government lost significant tax revenue. Additionally, it led to increased crime and corruption, as the black market for alcohol-fueled the rise of organized crime.

Ultimately, Prohibition was seen as a failure and was repealed in 1933 with the ratification of the 21st Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which repealed the 18th Amendment.

The movement to prohibit alcohol had been gaining momentum in the United States for several decades before the passage of the 18th Amendment in 1919. Starting in 1903, states began passing laws prohibiting the consumption of alcohol, and by 1918, 32 states had passed such laws. These state-level laws, along with the efforts of the temperance movement and religious groups, helped to build support for a nationwide prohibition of alcohol. The 18th Amendment, ratified in 1919, made it illegal to manufacture, sell, or transport intoxicating liquors within the United States and its territories and went into effect in 1920. This began the era of prohibition in the United States, which lasted until 1933, when the 21st Amendment was ratified, which repealed the 18th Amendment.

Prohibition led to a significant increase in illegal activities such as smuggling, bootlegging, and speakeasies. It also led to the rise of organized crime, as criminal organizations took control of the illegal alcohol trade. One of the most infamous figures of this period was Al Capone, a notorious gangster who controlled a large portion of the illegal alcohol trade in Chicago during the 1920s. Prohibition also led to widespread government corruption, as law enforcement officials and politicians were bribed or threatened to look the other way regarding illegal alcohol activities. Prohibition enforcement was also difficult, as it required many agents and resources, and it was difficult to prosecute violators. Ultimately, the negative consequences of prohibition, including the rise of organized crime and government corruption, contributed to its eventual repeal in 1933 with the ratification of the 21st Amendment.

Christian fundamentalism

Grant Wood, American Gothic (1930), Art Institute of Chicago. A symbolic representation of 'Puritan' America.

Christian fundamentalism also played a role in the reactions of Anglo-Saxon America during the 1920s. Christian fundamentalists believed in a literal interpretation of the Bible and rejected modern scientific ideas such as evolution. They saw themselves as guardians of traditional values and morals and were often critical of secularism, atheism, and other religious groups. The most famous example of this is the Scopes Monkey Trial of 1925, in which a biology teacher, John Scopes, was put on trial for violating a Tennessee law that banned the teaching of evolution in public schools. The trial, which attracted widespread media attention, pitted Christian fundamentalists against secularists and scientists. While Scopes was ultimately found guilty and fined $100, the trial brought attention to the issue of evolution and the role of religion in education, and it helped to spur a wider cultural debate about the relationship between science and religion in America.

The Jehovah's Witnesses, also known as the Watchtower Society, emerged as a religious movement in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were known for their aggressive evangelism and door-to-door preaching, which often put them at odds with both the government and mainstream society. However, they also had a strong presence in rural areas and small towns, where many people were drawn to their message of religious freedom and social justice. Despite facing persecution, the Jehovah's Witnesses grew in numbers during the 1920s and 1930s.

Conclusion

The Second Industrial Revolution, which was based on technology and mass production, led to rapid industrial production and consumption growth, particularly among the upper and middle classes. This economic growth led to great optimism and a belief in the power of market forces, which was reflected in the government's commitment to liberal economic policies, such as low taxes and minimal government intervention in the economy.

However, it should be noted that this economic growth was also accompanied by the rise of protectionist policies, which shielded US production from international competition. This led to the formation of large, shareholder-owned oligopolies, which had a significant impact on the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person. The decline of small businesses and craft work also had a significant impact on American society, as it led to a decline in the number of small businesses and independent merchants, which significantly impacted the communities they served.

The rapid economic growth of the 1920s also led to a significant increase in income inequality, as the wealthy benefitted disproportionately from the boom in industrial production and consumption. The wealthy elite enjoyed significant economic gains, while most Americans saw little improvement in their standard of living. This growing gap between the rich and the poor significantly contributed to the economic downturn that began in 1929 and the Great Depression that followed.

Additionally, the government's focus on laissez-faire economic policies and protectionism led to a lack of regulation on the stock market and banking sectors, which allowed speculation and risky practices to flourish. This, combined with the existing inequality and declining purchasing power of the working class, made the economy more vulnerable to a crash.

It should also be noted that the government's policies and intervention were not enough to mitigate the effects of the crash and the Great Depression. The government's response was limited, and the country was in a long-lasting economic downturn.

Annexes

• NAACP | National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
• Édition du 23 août 1927 du journal Le Devoir, Montréal - "La fin de Sacco et Venzetti".
• Articles de H.L. Mencken relatifs au procès Scopes.
• Tennessee vs. John Scopes: The "Monkey Trial", site sur le procès du singe.
• Monkey Trial sur PBS.
• Foreign Affairs,. (2015). The Great Depression. Retrieved 29 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1932-07-01/great-depression