« 基本权利的起源 » : différence entre les versions

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Fundamental rights, often referred to as human rights, are essential legal principles designed to protect individual dignity and freedom. Rooted in diverse historical and philosophical traditions, these rights are now universally recognised and respected throughout the world.
基本权利通常被称为人权，是旨在保护个人尊严和自由的基本法律原则。这些权利植根于不同的历史和哲学传统，现已在全世界得到普遍承认和尊重。


The first traces of fundamental rights date back to ancient civilisations and religious texts, where the concepts of justice and fairness were already present. For example, the laws of the Old Testament, Roman law and the philosophical teachings of ancient Greece offered primitive reflections on the rights and duties of individuals. In the Middle Ages, these concepts continued to develop, particularly in Europe. The Magna Carta, signed in 1215 in England, is an early example of a legal document granting certain rights, such as the right to a fair trial and protection from royal arbitrariness, although these rights were limited to a section of society. The Enlightenment was a crucial period in the development of fundamental rights. Philosophers such as John Locke, who advocated the notion of natural and inalienable rights in his work "Two Treatises on Government" in 1689, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, with his idea of the social contract, laid the theoretical foundations for human rights. Their ideas inspired several historic declarations, including the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789. These documents were revolutionary, formally recognising rights such as freedom and equality. The twentieth century saw a major advance in the international recognition of fundamental rights. The horrors of the Second World War led to a global awareness of the need to protect these rights. The United Nations, founded in 1945, played a key role in this development. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, was a milestone, establishing a set of fundamental rights recognised worldwide.
基本权利的最早踪迹可追溯到古代文明和宗教典籍，在这些典籍中，正义和公平的概念早已存在。例如，《旧约》的法律、罗马法和古希腊的哲学教义都对个人的权利和义务进行了原始的思考。在中世纪，这些概念继续发展，尤其是在欧洲。1215 年在英格兰签署的《大宪章》是赋予某些权利的法律文件的早期范例，如获得公平审判的权利和免受皇室专横的保护，尽管这些权利仅限于社会的一部分。启蒙运动是基本权利发展的关键时期。约翰-洛克（John Locke）等哲学家在 1689 年的著作《政府论》（Two Treatises on Government）中倡导自然和不可剥夺权利的概念，让-雅克-卢梭（Jean-Jacques Rousseau）则提出了社会契约的思想，为人权奠定了理论基础。他们的思想启发了若干历史性宣言，包括 1776 年美国的《独立宣言》和 1789 年法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》。这些文件是革命性的，正式承认了自由和平等等权利。二十世纪，国际社会在承认基本权利方面取得了重大进展。第二次世界大战的恐怖使全球意识到保护这些权利的必要性。1945 年成立的联合国在这一发展中发挥了关键作用。1948 年通过的《世界人权宣言》是一个里程碑，确立了一套全世界公认的基本权利。


Over the years, many countries have incorporated these principles into their national constitutions and laws. International treaties such as the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, have strengthened the protection and promotion of these rights.
多年来，许多国家已将这些原则纳入本国宪法和法律。1950 年通过的《欧洲人权公约》等国际条约加强了对这些权利的保护和促进。


= The religious origins =
= 宗教起源 =


In ancient times, the notion of individual rights as we understand it today did not really exist, and the individual was often subject to strict rules and standards imposed by the state or society.
在古代，我们今天所理解的个人权利概念其实并不存在，个人往往受制于国家或社会强加的严格规则和标准。


In Sparta, for example, life was strictly controlled by the state. Celibacy was forbidden because Spartan society emphasised military strength and reproduction in order to maintain a powerful army. Spartan citizens were expected to contribute to society primarily through procreation and military service, thus limiting their personal autonomy. In ancient Rome, laws regulated aspects of daily life that would be considered private today. For example, the consumption of pure wine was restricted. These rules reflected the moral and social concerns of the time, when moderation and self-control were valued. In Athens, the restrictions imposed on women also illustrated the absence of individual rights as we know them. Athenian women were largely confined to the domestic sphere and had few political or legal rights. The limitation on the number of dresses a woman could take out of town is an example of the many restrictions on women's autonomy and freedom in that society.
例如，在斯巴达，生活受到国家的严格控制。独身是被禁止的，因为斯巴达社会强调军事力量和繁衍，以维持一支强大的军队。人们期望斯巴达公民主要通过生育和服兵役为社会做出贡献，因此限制了他们的个人自主权。在古罗马，法律规定了日常生活中的一些方面，而这些方面在今天被视为隐私。例如，限制饮用纯酒。这些规定反映了当时对道德和社会的关注，当时人们重视节制和自我控制。在雅典，对妇女的限制也说明当时还没有我们所知的个人权利。雅典妇女在很大程度上被限制在家庭范围内，几乎没有政治或法律权利。对妇女出城所穿裙子数量的限制，就是该社会对妇女自主和自由诸多限制的一个例子。


These examples show that in ancient times, individual autonomy was often subordinated to the perceived needs of society or the state. Rights to mental and physical integrity, as we understand them in the modern context of human rights, were not recognised. Individuals were largely seen as members of a collective, with obligations and duties towards it, rather than as entities with inalienable rights. This perspective on the individual and power evolved considerably over the centuries, eventually leading to the recognition of fundamental rights as we know them today.
这些例子表明，在古代，个人的自主权往往服从于社会或国家的需要。我们在现代人权背景下所理解的精神和身体完整权并未得到承认。个人在很大程度上被视为集体的成员，对集体负有义务和责任，而不是拥有不可剥夺权利的实体。几个世纪以来，这种对个人和权力的看法发生了很大变化，最终导致我们今天所熟知的基本权利得到承认。


In ancient societies, particularly in Athens, freedom was often conceptualised as the ability to participate in public life and in the management of the state. This participation was seen as a privilege and a responsibility of citizens, but it was limited to a fraction of the population - generally free men who owned land. Women, slaves and foreigners were excluded from this sphere of political participation. In this context, there was no recognised sphere of individual freedom in the modern sense. Rights and freedoms were defined and limited by status in society and membership of the political community. Privacy and individual rights were not widely recognised or valued concepts.
在古代社会，尤其是在雅典，自由通常被视为参与公共生活和国家管理的能力。这种参与被视为公民的特权和责任，但仅限于一部分人口--通常是拥有土地的自由男性。妇女、奴隶和外国人被排除在政治参与之外。在这种情况下，不存在现代意义上的公认的个人自由领域。权利和自由是由社会地位和政治社会成员来界定和限制的。隐私和个人权利并没有得到广泛认可或重视。


The emergence of Christianity, on the other hand, brought a new dimension to the concept of the individual and freedom. Christianity introduced the idea of the fundamental equality of all human beings before God, a revolutionary idea at the time. This perspective laid the foundations for greater recognition of the dignity and intrinsic value of each individual, regardless of his or her social status or role in the political community. Over time, Christian teachings on love of neighbour, compassion and the equality of all before God helped to erode the rigid social and legal structures of antiquity. These ideas laid the foundations for a more modern understanding of freedom, where the value of the individual is not only dependent on his or her ability to participate in public life, but is also rooted in his or her own dignity and rights as a human being. However, it is important to note that the transformation of notions of freedom and individual rights did not happen overnight with the advent of Christianity. It was a gradual process, influenced by many other historical, philosophical and cultural factors over the centuries.
另一方面，基督教的出现为个人和自由的概念带来了新的内涵。基督教提出了在上帝面前人人平等的观念，这在当时是一种革命性的观念。这一观点为进一步承认每个人的尊严和内在价值奠定了基础，无论其社会地位或在政治社会中的角色如何。随着时间的推移，基督教关于爱邻里、同情心和在上帝面前人人平等的教义帮助削弱了古代僵化的社会和法律结构。这些思想为现代人对自由的理解奠定了基础，在这种理解中，个人的价值不仅取决于其参与公共生活的能力，还植根于其作为人的尊严和权利。然而，必须指出的是，自由和个人权利观念的转变并不是随着基督教的出现而一夜之间发生的。这是一个渐进的过程，几个世纪以来受到许多其他历史、哲学和文化因素的影响。


Christian teaching, with its deep roots in biblical texts and traditions, introduced revolutionary ideas about human nature and dignity that have profoundly influenced Western thought. At the heart of this vision is the belief that every human being is created in the image of God, an idea that originated in the Hebrew scriptures and was adopted and developed by early Christian thinkers. This notion, by affirming that all men are created in the image of God, introduced a concept of fundamental equality and the inherent dignity of each person. This idea was radically different from the social hierarchies and power structures that prevailed in ancient societies. For example, in Roman society, dominated by strict distinctions between citizens, non-citizens, slaves and freedmen, Christian doctrine offered a different perspective, affirming the equal worth of all individuals, regardless of their social status. Moreover, the belief in the immortality of the soul, a central concept in Christianity, reinforced this idea of the intrinsic and eternal dignity of the human being. This perspective encouraged a vision of human life as having meaning beyond the material and temporal. Christian thinkers such as Augustine of Hippo (AD 354-430) and Thomas Aquinas (AD 1225-1274) explored these ideas, emphasising the importance of the spiritual life and the eternal value of the human soul.
基督教教义深深植根于《圣经》文本和传统，提出了关于人性和尊严的革命性观点，对西方思想产生了深远影响。这一观点的核心是相信每个人都是按照上帝的形象创造的，这一思想源于希伯来经文，并被早期基督教思想家所采纳和发展。这一理念通过确认所有人都是按照上帝的形象创造的，引入了基本平等和每个人与生俱来的尊严的概念。这种观念与古代社会盛行的社会等级制度和权力结构截然不同。例如，在罗马社会，公民、非公民、奴隶和自由民之间有着严格的区别，而基督教教义则提供了一个不同的视角，肯定了所有人的平等价值，无论其社会地位如何。此外，灵魂不灭的信仰是基督教的核心理念，它强化了人类固有和永恒尊严的观念。这种观点鼓励人们将人的生命视为具有超越物质和世俗的意义。希波的奥古斯丁（公元 354-430 年）和托马斯-阿奎那（公元 1225-1274 年）等基督教思想家探讨了这些观点，强调了精神生活的重要性和人类灵魂的永恒价值。


The impact of these teachings on the Western conception of freedom and human rights was profound and lasting. Whereas ancient societies focused primarily on the collective and the place of the individual within the state, Christianity introduced a new dimension, that of individual value. This change was essential for the subsequent development of the ideas of human rights and respect for the individual. These concepts played a crucial role in shaping political and social thought in the West, influencing movements such as the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century, which emphasised the importance of individual conscience, and the Enlightenment period, when philosophers such as John Locke developed theories on natural rights and government. In this way, the foundations laid by Christianity paved the way for a richer and more nuanced understanding of individual freedom and human rights.
这些教义对西方的自由和人权观念产生了深远而持久的影响。古代社会主要关注集体和个人在国家中的地位，而基督教则引入了一个新的维度，即个人价值。这一变化对于后来人权和尊重个人观念的发展至关重要。这些观念对西方政治和社会思想的形成起到了至关重要的作用，影响了 16 世纪强调个人良知重要性的新教改革运动，以及约翰-洛克等哲学家提出自然权利和政府理论的启蒙运动。因此，基督教奠定的基础为人们更丰富、更细致地理解个人自由和人权铺平了道路。


The central message of Christianity, as taught by Jesus Christ, rests on the idea that earthly life is only a transitory stage in man's existence, destined for eternal life. This vision has profoundly influenced the way in which human dignity has been perceived and valued in Western culture and thought. According to this perspective, earthly life is seen as a preparation, a path towards an ultimate destination which is eternal life. This concept transcends the idea of an existence centred solely on material or temporal concerns. It places the emphasis on the spiritual and moral aspects of existence, stressing values such as compassion, love of neighbour and the pursuit of a virtuous life. This understanding of the human vocation to eternal life has led to a greater appreciation of the dignity of every person. In this worldview, the value of the individual lies not in his or her earthly achievements, social status or wealth, but in his or her essence as a being created in the image of God and destined for an eternal destiny. This dignity is inherent and inalienable, regardless of external circumstances.
耶稣基督所教导的基督教的核心理念是，尘世生活只是人类存在的一个短暂阶段，人的存在是为了永生。这一观点深刻地影响了西方文化和思想对人类尊严的认识和评价。根据这一观点，尘世生活被视为一种准备，是通往永生这一最终目的地的道路。这一概念超越了仅以物质或时间为中心的生存理念。它将重点放在生存的精神和道德方面，强调同情、热爱邻里和追求美好生活等价值观。这种对人类永生使命的理解使人们更加重视每个人的尊严。在这一世界观中，个人的价值不在于其尘世的成就、社会地位或财富，而在于其作为按照上帝的形象创造并注定永恒命运的人的本质。这种尊严与生俱来，不可剥夺，与外部环境无关。


The implications of this vision for the conception of rights and freedoms are considerable. It has served as the foundation for the idea that all human beings deserve respect and consideration, because each of them carries an inestimable value. This perspective has influenced various social and political movements over the centuries, particularly those seeking to promote justice, equality and protection for the most vulnerable. Historically, it also informed the development of Christian ethics and influenced thinkers such as St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas, who sought to integrate these ideas into a broader theological and philosophical framework. Later, in the modern era, this conception influenced the philosophers of the Enlightenment and the founding fathers of liberal democracy, who articulated principles of natural rights and individual sovereignty.
这一愿景对权利和自由概念的影响是巨大的。它是所有人都值得尊重和考虑的思想基础，因为每个人都具有不可估量的价值。几百年来，这一观点影响了各种社会和政治运动，特别是那些寻求促进正义、平等和保护最弱势群体的运动。从历史上看，它也为基督教伦理的发展提供了依据，并影响了圣奥古斯丁和圣托马斯-阿奎那等思想家，他们试图将这些思想纳入更广泛的神学和哲学框架。后来，在现代，这一理念影响了启蒙运动的哲学家和自由民主的奠基人，他们阐明了自然权利和个人主权的原则。


The second fundamental proposition of Christ's message, that all people are children of God, has had a profound and lasting impact on the understanding of human equality and brotherhood in Western thought. This idea, which emphasises the fundamental equality of all human beings before God, introduced a principle of equality radically different from the social hierarchies and status distinctions that prevailed in many ancient and medieval societies. The Christian teaching that every person is a child of God implies that all individuals share a common dignity and intrinsic worth. This perspective was revolutionary, particularly in a historical context where distinctions of class, race, gender and ethnicity were often deeply entrenched. By proclaiming the equality of all before God, Christianity challenged these divisions and promoted a sense of human unity and solidarity.
基督信息的第二个基本主张，即人人都是上帝的儿女，对西方思想中对人类平等和兄弟情谊的理解产生了深远而持久的影响。这一思想强调所有人在上帝面前一律平等，提出了与许多古代和中世纪社会普遍存在的社会等级和地位差别截然不同的平等原则。基督教教义认为，每个人都是上帝的孩子，这意味着所有人都有共同的尊严和内在价值。这一观点是革命性的，尤其是在阶级、种族、性别和民族差别往往根深蒂固的历史背景下。基督教宣称在上帝面前人人平等，从而挑战了这些分歧，促进了人类的统一和团结意识。


This idea of God's equal share of love for all his children has also influenced the concept of human rights. If all people are equal as children of God, then they all deserve fair treatment and respect for their fundamental rights. This thinking has been an important driving force behind social reform and justice movements throughout history. Historical figures such as Saint Francis of Assisi, who preached love and brotherhood towards all living beings, or reformers such as Martin Luther, who stressed the importance of faith and grace being accessible to all, embodied and disseminated these ideas. Later, in the context of the Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, although they did not always refer directly to these Christian teachings, developed political and social ideas that resonated with the principle of the fundamental equality of all human beings.
上帝对其所有子女的爱是平等的，这一思想也影响了人权的概念。如果所有人作为上帝的儿女都是平等的，那么他们都应该得到公平的待遇和对基本权利的尊重。这种思想是历史上社会改革和正义运动的重要推动力。圣方济各（Saint Francis of Assisi）等历史人物宣扬对众生的爱和博爱，马丁-路德（Martin Luther）等改革者强调信仰和恩典对所有人的重要性，他们都体现并传播了这些思想。后来，在启蒙运动的背景下，约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家虽然并不总是直接引用这些基督教教义，但他们提出的政治和社会思想与人人基本平等的原则产生了共鸣。


The idea that each individual enjoys a sphere of individual autonomy to fulfil his or her own destiny is part of a worldview in which the spiritual and personal vocation is paramount. This view, influenced by Christianity, emphasises that social, political and economic structures are means to serve man in his spiritual quest and not ends in themselves. This approach marks a significant contrast with earlier perspectives, where the individual was often seen as subordinate to the needs of the state or society. According to this vision, the state and other social institutions have a duty to respect and protect individual autonomy. This implies recognition of the right to freedom of conscience, thought and expression, as well as an appreciation of privacy and individual freedom. The idea that the state should serve the individual, rather than the other way round, has been an important development in political and social thought, profoundly influencing modern theories of human rights and democratic governance. This concept found particular resonance during the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, when philosophers began to question traditional power structures and promote the idea of natural rights inherent in every person. Thinkers such as John Locke, who defended the right to life, liberty and property, and Immanuel Kant, with his categorical imperative emphasising respect for each individual as an end in itself, helped to shape this perspective.
每个人都享有实现自身命运的个人自主权，这是精神和个人使命至上的世界观的一部分。这种观点受到基督教的影响，强调社会、政治和经济结构是服务于人类精神追求的手段，而非目的本身。这种观点与早期的观点形成了鲜明对比，在早期的观点中，个人往往被视为从属于国家或社会的需要。根据这种观点，国家和其他社会机构有责任尊重和保护个人的自主权。这意味着承认良心、思想和表达自由的权利，以及重视隐私和个人自由。国家应为个人服务，而不是相反，这一理念是政治和社会思想的重要发展，对现代人权和民主治理理论产生了深远影响。这一理念在文艺复兴和启蒙运动时期引起了特别的共鸣，当时哲学家们开始质疑传统的权力结构，并提倡每个人与生俱来的自然权利。约翰-洛克（John Locke）等思想家捍卫生命权、自由权和财产权，伊曼纽尔-康德（Immanuel Kant）的绝对命令强调尊重每个人本身就是目的，这些思想家帮助塑造了这一观点。


In practice, this philosophy influenced the drafting of fundamental documents such as the American Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen during the French Revolution. These documents put forward the idea that governments are established to protect individual rights and that their legitimacy derives from the consent of the governed. Thus, the idea that every human being has a sphere of individual autonomy in which to realise his or her destiny has been fundamental to the evolution of Western societies towards principles of personal freedom, respect for individual rights and democratic governance. These concepts continue to form the basis of contemporary liberal and democratic societies, emphasising the importance of the individual within the social and political order.
在实践中，这种哲学影响了基本文件的起草，如《美国独立宣言》和法国大革命期间的《人权和公民权利宣言》。这些文件提出的理念是，建立政府是为了保护个人权利，政府的合法性来自于被统治者的同意。因此，每个人都有实现自己命运的个人自主权，这一思想是西方社会朝着个人自由、尊重个人权利和民主治理原则演变的根本。这些理念继续构成当代自由和民主社会的基础，强调个人在社会和政治秩序中的重要性。


The impact of the Christian message on the development of Human Rights in the West is deeply linked to the work of sixteenth-century Spanish Catholic legal theologians, particularly in the context of the debates surrounding the Spanish conquest of America. These debates centred on crucial moral and legal questions concerning the treatment of the indigenous peoples of America by the Spanish conquerors.
基督教思想对西方人权发展的影响与十六世纪西班牙天主教法律神学家的工作有着深刻的联系，特别是在围绕西班牙征服美洲的辩论中。这些辩论集中在西班牙征服者对待美洲原住民的关键道德和法律问题上。


One of the key players in this debate was Bartolomé de las Casas, a Dominican priest and later bishop, who became famous for his passionate defence of the rights of the indigenous peoples. Shocked by the brutality and exploitation suffered by the Amerindians, Las Casas opposed the theories and practices that justified their enslavement. He argued for recognition of their humanity and fundamental rights, arguing that, as human beings, they were children of God and deserved the same respect and dignity as Europeans. Another important figure in these debates was Francisco de Vitoria, a theologian and jurist, considered to be one of the founders of modern international law. Vitoria questioned the legitimacy of the Spanish conquest on the basis of principles of natural law. He argued that indigenous peoples possessed their own sovereign rights and that their territory could not justly be taken. His ideas laid the foundations for an argument in favour of the fundamental equality and rights of indigenous peoples.
巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）是这场辩论中的关键人物之一，他是一位多明我会牧师，后来成为主教，因热情捍卫土著人民的权利而闻名于世。拉斯-卡萨斯对美洲印第安人遭受的暴行和剥削感到震惊，他反对为奴役他们辩护的理论和做法。他主张承认美洲印第安人的人性和基本权利，认为美洲印第安人是上帝的子民，应该得到与欧洲人同样的尊重和尊严。这些辩论中的另一位重要人物是弗朗西斯科-德-维多利亚，他是一位神学家和法学家，被认为是现代国际法的创始人之一。维多利亚根据自然法原则质疑西班牙征服的合法性。他认为，土著人民拥有自己的主权权利，他们的领土不能被正当地占有。他的观点为主张土著人民的基本平等和权利奠定了基础。


These debates took place in a broader context of ethical and legal issues raised by the encounter between Europe and the Americas. Spanish theologians and jurists played a crucial role in the development of the first doctrines of human rights in the West, articulating arguments based on Christian principles that recognised the dignity and rights of indigenous peoples. This period was fundamental in the history of human rights, as it marked a turning point when ethical and legal principles began to be applied in a global context, transcending borders and cultures. The ideas and arguments developed by figures such as de las Casas and de Vitoria laid the foundations for what was to become international human rights law, emphasising the universal importance of human dignity and equality.[[Fichier:Bartolomedelascasas.jpg|150px|vignette|droite|Portrait of Bartolomé de las Casas (anonymous, 16th century).]]
这些辩论是在欧洲与美洲相遇所引发的伦理和法律问题的大背景下进行的。西班牙神学家和法学家在西方最早的人权理论的发展过程中发挥了至关重要的作用，他们根据基督教原则阐述了承认土著人民尊严和权利的论点。这一时期在人权史上具有根本意义，因为它标志着伦理和法律原则开始在全球范围内得到应用，超越了国界和文化。de las Casas 和 de Vitoria 等人提出的思想和论点为后来的国际人权法奠定了基础，强调了人的尊严和平等的普遍重要性。[[Fichier:Bartolomedelascasas.jpg|150px|vignette|droite|巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯肖像（16 世纪，匿名）。]]
   
   
The affirmation of the first doctrinal elaboration of human rights in the West, attributed to Francisco de Vitoria and Bartolomé de las Casas, marks a crucial turning point in the recognition of human rights. These two figures played a decisive role in challenging the ethical and legal foundations of the Spanish conquest of America in the 16th century, particularly with regard to the treatment of indigenous peoples.
弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚和巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯在西方首次对人权进行了理论阐述，这标志着承认人权的一个重要转折点。这两位人物在挑战 16 世纪西班牙征服美洲的伦理和法律基础方面，尤其是在对待土著人民方面，发挥了决定性的作用。


Francisco de Vitoria, a Spanish theologian and jurist, is often regarded as the father of modern international law. Born in 1492, he developed theories that defended the rights of the indigenous peoples of America, questioning the legitimacy of their domination by the Spanish conquerors. He argued that the Indians had their own sovereign rights, in both the private and public spheres, and that these rights should be respected. Vitoria argued that indigenous peoples had the right to their own governance and possession of their lands, ideas that were revolutionary at the time. Bartolomé de las Casas, a Dominican priest born in 1474, became famous for his ardent defence of indigenous peoples. He denounced the atrocities committed by the Spanish conquistadors and argued for respect for the dignity and rights of the Indians. De las Casas argued that the Indians were human beings in their own right, endowed with reason and capable of faith, and that they should therefore be treated fairly and justly. By recognising the equal rights of indigenous peoples, Vitoria and Las Casas laid the foundations for a conception of human rights that transcends cultural and national boundaries. Their teachings implied that all human beings, regardless of their ethnic or geographical origin, possess inalienable rights that must be respected.
弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚是西班牙神学家和法学家，常被视为现代国际法之父。他出生于 1492 年，提出了捍卫美洲土著人民权利的理论，质疑西班牙征服者统治美洲土著人民的合法性。他认为，印第安人在私人和公共领域都有自己的主权权利，这些权利应得到尊重。维多利亚认为，土著人民有权自己管理和拥有自己的土地，这些观点在当时具有革命性意义。巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）是一位多明我会牧师，生于 1474 年，因热心捍卫土著人民而闻名于世。他谴责西班牙征服者的暴行，主张尊重印第安人的尊严和权利。德拉斯-卡萨斯认为，印第安人本身也是人，具有理性和信仰能力，因此应该受到公平公正的对待。通过承认土著人民的平等权利，维多利亚和拉斯-卡萨斯为超越文化和国界的人权概念奠定了基础。他们的学说意味着，所有人，无论其种族或地理起源，都拥有不可剥夺的权利，这些权利必须得到尊重。


This period therefore marks the beginning of the conceptualisation of human rights in the Western context, with a particular emphasis on the equality and sovereignty of peoples. Although the ideas of Vitoria and Las Casas did not immediately lead to major political or social changes, they laid the intellectual and moral foundations that influenced the subsequent development of human rights theories and international law. Thus, the sixteenth century in Spain can be seen as a key moment in the evolution of thinking on human rights.{{citation bloc|Our religion is one, and can suit all the nations of the world; it welcomes them all into its bosom, and does not take away from any of them their freedom or their masters; it is especially far removed from wanting people to be made slaves on the pretext that they were born for it, as the Lord Bishop claims. May Your Majesty therefore deign, at the beginning of his reign, to express his contempt for this evil doctrine and to disavow its consequences.|Las Casas}}
因此，这一时期标志着西方开始将人权概念化，并特别强调民族平等和主权。虽然维多利亚和拉斯卡萨斯的思想没有立即导致重大的政治或社会变革，但他们奠定了思想和道德基础，影响了后来人权理论和国际法的发展。因此，16 世纪在西班牙可被视为人权思想演变的关键时刻。{{citation bloc|我们的宗教是统一的，可以适应世界上所有的民族；它欢迎所有的民族加入它的怀抱，不会剥夺任何一个民族的自由或他们的主人；它尤其不希望人们像主教大人所说的那样，借口他们生来就是为了宗教而成为奴隶。因此，愿陛下在即位之初，对这一邪恶学说表示蔑视，并摒弃其后果。|Las Casas}}
   
   
This quotation from Bartolomé de las Casas perfectly illustrates his commitment to defending the rights and dignity of the indigenous peoples of America in the face of the Spanish conquest. In his plea, Las Casas emphasises several key points that reflect not only his religious convictions but also his profound humanism. Firstly, he affirms the universality of the Christian religion, emphasising that it is destined for all nations and welcomes all peoples without distinction. This vision of the universality and inclusiveness of Christianity is fundamental, as it rejects the idea that certain peoples could be intrinsically inferior or destined to be dominated. Secondly, Las Casas emphasises respect for the freedom and autonomy of peoples. He openly criticised the idea that conversion to Christianity or acceptance of Spanish rule should entail the loss of freedom or sovereignty for indigenous peoples. He considers that the Christian religion is not a tool of domination, but a means of spiritual elevation and mutual respect. Finally, he appealed directly to the royal authority, in this case the Spanish monarch, to take a stand against the doctrines that justified slavery and the oppression of indigenous peoples on religious or racial grounds. This action by Las Casas is an appeal to the moral and political responsibility of leaders, urging them to reject ideologies that perpetuate injustice and inequality. Las Casas' quote is a powerful testimony to the early days of colonisation in the Americas, when voices like his were raised in defence of the rights of indigenous peoples. His arguments and activism played a crucial role in the genesis of human rights thinking and in the development of the first formal critiques of conquest and colonisation.
巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）的这段话完美地诠释了他面对西班牙征服，捍卫美洲原住民权利和尊严的承诺。在恳求中，拉斯-卡萨斯强调了几个要点，这些要点不仅反映了他的宗教信仰，也体现了他深厚的人文主义情怀。首先，他肯定了基督教的普世性，强调它注定属于所有民族，欢迎所有民族一视同仁。这种对基督教的普遍性和包容性的看法是至关重要的，因为它摒弃了某些民族可能在本质上低人一等或注定被统治的观点。其次，拉斯-卡萨斯强调尊重各民族的自由和自治。他公开批评皈依基督教或接受西班牙统治会导致土著人民丧失自由或主权的观点。他认为，基督教不是统治的工具，而是精神提升和相互尊重的手段。最后，他直接呼吁皇室当局（此处指西班牙君主）采取立场，反对以宗教或种族为由为奴役和压迫土著人民辩护的理论。拉斯-卡萨斯的这一行动呼吁领导人承担道德和政治责任，敦促他们摒弃那些使不公正和不平等永久化的意识形态。拉斯-卡萨斯的名言是美洲殖民化早期的有力见证，当时像他这样捍卫土著人民权利的声音不绝于耳。他的论点和行动对人权思想的起源以及对征服和殖民化的第一次正式批判的发展起到了至关重要的作用。


He demonstrated that Indians were God's creatures and could not be slaves. He joined Vittoria's theses:{{citation bloc|Among the Infidels, who live in these remote Kingdoms, who have never heard of Christ, who have not received the faith, there are true Lords, Kings and Princes. Natural law and the law of nations grant them Sovereignty, dignity and royal pre-eminence... The same applies to the domination of private individuals over inferior property...|Las Casas<ref>Cf. B. DE LAS CASAS, Aquí se contienen treinta proposiciones muy  jurídicas... in A. M. FABIE, Vida y escritos de Fray B. de Las Casas, Madrid</ref>}}
他证明印第安人是上帝的创造物，不能成为奴隶。他赞同维托利亚的论点：{{citation bloc|在生活在这些偏远王国的异教徒中，他们从未听说过基督，也没有接受过信仰，但他们中也有真正的领主、国王和王子。自然法和万民法赋予他们主权、尊严和王权...... 这同样适用于私人对劣等财产的统治......|Las Casas<ref>Cf. B. DE LAS CASAS, Aquí se contienen treinta proposiciones muy  jurídicas... in A. M. FABIE, Vida y escritos de Fray B. de Las Casas, Madrid</ref>}}


This quotation from Bartolomé de las Casas illustrates his argument against the slavery and oppression of indigenous peoples, affirming their intrinsic equality and sovereignty as creatures of God. He explicitly recognises the legitimacy and authority of the existing leaders and political structures of the indigenous peoples, even those who have not been exposed to Christianity. In his argument, Las Casas refutes the idea that indigenous peoples could be legitimately subjugated or dispossessed of their lands and sovereignty because of their lack of knowledge of Christianity. He points out that natural law and the law of nations (ius gentium, a key concept of international law in medieval and Renaissance thought) recognise and respect the sovereignty of non-Christian peoples.
巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯的这段话说明了他反对奴役和压迫土著人民的论点，肯定了土著人民作为上帝的创造物所固有的平等和主权。他明确承认土著人民现有领导人和政治结构的合法性和权威性，即使是那些没有接触过基督教的人。拉斯-卡萨斯在论证中驳斥了这样一种观点，即原住民可能因为缺乏基督教知识而被合法征服或剥夺土地和主权。他指出，自然法和万民法（ius gentium，中世纪和文艺复兴时期思想中的一个重要国际法概念）承认并尊重非基督教民族的主权。


In asserting that indigenous peoples had kings, princes and legitimate governance structures, Las Casas joined the theses of Francisco de Vitoria, another theologian and jurist who defended the notion of universal rights and sovereignty of peoples, regardless of their faith or knowledge of Christianity. Vitoria argued that non-Christian peoples possessed natural rights, including the right to property and political autonomy, which had to be respected by the colonial powers. This approach was revolutionary for its time, as it challenged the justifications usually put forward for the colonisation and domination of indigenous peoples. Las Casas and Vitoria, with their progressive ideas, helped to lay the foundations for modern international law and the recognition of universal human rights, regardless of race, culture or religion. In conclusion, the efforts of Las Casas and Vitoria to defend the rights of indigenous peoples marked an important stage in the history of human rights, highlighting the need to respect the dignity and sovereignty of all peoples.
拉斯-卡萨斯主张原住民拥有国王、王子和合法的治理结构，他与另一位神学家和法学家弗朗西斯科-德-维多利亚（Francisco de Vitoria）的论点不谋而合。维多利亚认为，非基督教民族拥有自然权利，包括财产权和政治自治权，殖民国家必须尊重这些权利。这种观点在当时是革命性的，因为它挑战了通常为殖民统治土著人民所提出的理由。拉斯-卡萨斯和维多利亚的进步思想为现代国际法和承认不分种族、文化或宗教的普遍人权奠定了基础。总之，拉斯卡萨斯和维多利亚捍卫土著人民权利的努力标志着人权史上的一个 重要阶段，突出了尊重所有民族尊严和主权的必要性。


The defence of these theses by figures such as Bartolomé de las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria in the early sixteenth century represented a fundamental step in the development of a doctrine of human rights. Their arguments, centred on the idea that all human beings are equal as creatures of God, marked a decisive turning point in the understanding and recognition of fundamental rights. This doctrinal approach was revolutionary for its time, as it opposed the common practices of conquest, enslavement and colonisation based on notions of cultural, racial or religious superiority. By insisting on the fundamental equality of all human beings, regardless of their faith, ethnic origin or social status, Las Casas and Vitoria challenged the justifications for the oppression and exploitation of indigenous peoples.
十六世纪初，巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯和弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚等人捍卫这些论点，是人权学说发展的重要一步。他们的论点以 "作为上帝的创造物，人人平等 "这一思想为中心，标志着对基本权利的理解和承认的一个决定性转折点。这种理论方法在当时是革命性的，因为它反对基于文化、种族或宗教优越感的征服、奴役和殖民化的普遍做法。拉斯-卡萨斯和维多利亚坚持所有人，无论其信仰、种族出身或社会地位如何，在根本上一律平等，从而对压迫和剥削土著人民的理由提出了挑战。


This perspective was rooted in a Christian understanding of humanity, in which each person, as God's creation, possesses intrinsic dignity and inalienable rights. This vision helped to lay the ethical and philosophical foundations for future developments in human rights. Their teachings have had a considerable influence not only on international law, but also on the way in which Western societies have begun to consider issues of justice, equality and sovereignty. Although the immediate effects of their advocacy were limited in the context of their time, the principles they enunciated continued to inspire future generations and played a key role in the evolution of the concepts of human rights and respect for human dignity. Thus, the early sixteenth century marks an important period when theologians and jurists began to articulate a doctrinal approach to human rights, laying the foundations for a broader recognition of the equality and inherent worth of all human beings.
这一观点植根于基督教对人性的理解，即作为上帝的创造物，每个人都拥有固有的尊严和不可剥夺的权利。这种观点有助于为今后的人权发展奠定伦理和哲学基础。他们的学说不仅对国际法，而且对西方社会开始考虑正义、平等和主权问题的方式产生了相当大的影响。尽管在当时的背景下，他们的主张所产生的直接影响有限，但他们所阐述的原则继续激励着后代，并在人权和尊重人的尊严概念的演变中发挥了关键作用。因此，16 世纪初是神学家和法学家开始从理论上阐述人权的一个重要时期，为更广泛 地承认所有人的平等和固有价值奠定了基础。


= The political origins =
= 政治起源 =
The political origins of fundamental rights can be traced through a series of key historical events that have shaped global political thought and practice, each contributing a stone to the edifice of human rights.  
The political origins of fundamental rights can be traced through a series of key historical events that have shaped global political thought and practice, each contributing a stone to the edifice of human rights.  


Version du 18 décembre 2023 à 20:58

根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]

Languages

基本权利通常被称为人权，是旨在保护个人尊严和自由的基本法律原则。这些权利植根于不同的历史和哲学传统，现已在全世界得到普遍承认和尊重。

基本权利的最早踪迹可追溯到古代文明和宗教典籍，在这些典籍中，正义和公平的概念早已存在。例如，《旧约》的法律、罗马法和古希腊的哲学教义都对个人的权利和义务进行了原始的思考。在中世纪，这些概念继续发展，尤其是在欧洲。1215 年在英格兰签署的《大宪章》是赋予某些权利的法律文件的早期范例，如获得公平审判的权利和免受皇室专横的保护，尽管这些权利仅限于社会的一部分。启蒙运动是基本权利发展的关键时期。约翰-洛克（John Locke）等哲学家在 1689 年的著作《政府论》（Two Treatises on Government）中倡导自然和不可剥夺权利的概念，让-雅克-卢梭（Jean-Jacques Rousseau）则提出了社会契约的思想，为人权奠定了理论基础。他们的思想启发了若干历史性宣言，包括 1776 年美国的《独立宣言》和 1789 年法国的《人权和公民权利宣言》。这些文件是革命性的，正式承认了自由和平等等权利。二十世纪，国际社会在承认基本权利方面取得了重大进展。第二次世界大战的恐怖使全球意识到保护这些权利的必要性。1945 年成立的联合国在这一发展中发挥了关键作用。1948 年通过的《世界人权宣言》是一个里程碑，确立了一套全世界公认的基本权利。

多年来，许多国家已将这些原则纳入本国宪法和法律。1950 年通过的《欧洲人权公约》等国际条约加强了对这些权利的保护和促进。

宗教起源

在古代，我们今天所理解的个人权利概念其实并不存在，个人往往受制于国家或社会强加的严格规则和标准。

例如，在斯巴达，生活受到国家的严格控制。独身是被禁止的，因为斯巴达社会强调军事力量和繁衍，以维持一支强大的军队。人们期望斯巴达公民主要通过生育和服兵役为社会做出贡献，因此限制了他们的个人自主权。在古罗马，法律规定了日常生活中的一些方面，而这些方面在今天被视为隐私。例如，限制饮用纯酒。这些规定反映了当时对道德和社会的关注，当时人们重视节制和自我控制。在雅典，对妇女的限制也说明当时还没有我们所知的个人权利。雅典妇女在很大程度上被限制在家庭范围内，几乎没有政治或法律权利。对妇女出城所穿裙子数量的限制，就是该社会对妇女自主和自由诸多限制的一个例子。

这些例子表明，在古代，个人的自主权往往服从于社会或国家的需要。我们在现代人权背景下所理解的精神和身体完整权并未得到承认。个人在很大程度上被视为集体的成员，对集体负有义务和责任，而不是拥有不可剥夺权利的实体。几个世纪以来，这种对个人和权力的看法发生了很大变化，最终导致我们今天所熟知的基本权利得到承认。

在古代社会，尤其是在雅典，自由通常被视为参与公共生活和国家管理的能力。这种参与被视为公民的特权和责任，但仅限于一部分人口--通常是拥有土地的自由男性。妇女、奴隶和外国人被排除在政治参与之外。在这种情况下，不存在现代意义上的公认的个人自由领域。权利和自由是由社会地位和政治社会成员来界定和限制的。隐私和个人权利并没有得到广泛认可或重视。

另一方面，基督教的出现为个人和自由的概念带来了新的内涵。基督教提出了在上帝面前人人平等的观念，这在当时是一种革命性的观念。这一观点为进一步承认每个人的尊严和内在价值奠定了基础，无论其社会地位或在政治社会中的角色如何。随着时间的推移，基督教关于爱邻里、同情心和在上帝面前人人平等的教义帮助削弱了古代僵化的社会和法律结构。这些思想为现代人对自由的理解奠定了基础，在这种理解中，个人的价值不仅取决于其参与公共生活的能力，还植根于其作为人的尊严和权利。然而，必须指出的是，自由和个人权利观念的转变并不是随着基督教的出现而一夜之间发生的。这是一个渐进的过程，几个世纪以来受到许多其他历史、哲学和文化因素的影响。

基督教教义深深植根于《圣经》文本和传统，提出了关于人性和尊严的革命性观点，对西方思想产生了深远影响。这一观点的核心是相信每个人都是按照上帝的形象创造的，这一思想源于希伯来经文，并被早期基督教思想家所采纳和发展。这一理念通过确认所有人都是按照上帝的形象创造的，引入了基本平等和每个人与生俱来的尊严的概念。这种观念与古代社会盛行的社会等级制度和权力结构截然不同。例如，在罗马社会，公民、非公民、奴隶和自由民之间有着严格的区别，而基督教教义则提供了一个不同的视角，肯定了所有人的平等价值，无论其社会地位如何。此外，灵魂不灭的信仰是基督教的核心理念，它强化了人类固有和永恒尊严的观念。这种观点鼓励人们将人的生命视为具有超越物质和世俗的意义。希波的奥古斯丁（公元 354-430 年）和托马斯-阿奎那（公元 1225-1274 年）等基督教思想家探讨了这些观点，强调了精神生活的重要性和人类灵魂的永恒价值。

这些教义对西方的自由和人权观念产生了深远而持久的影响。古代社会主要关注集体和个人在国家中的地位，而基督教则引入了一个新的维度，即个人价值。这一变化对于后来人权和尊重个人观念的发展至关重要。这些观念对西方政治和社会思想的形成起到了至关重要的作用，影响了 16 世纪强调个人良知重要性的新教改革运动，以及约翰-洛克等哲学家提出自然权利和政府理论的启蒙运动。因此，基督教奠定的基础为人们更丰富、更细致地理解个人自由和人权铺平了道路。

耶稣基督所教导的基督教的核心理念是，尘世生活只是人类存在的一个短暂阶段，人的存在是为了永生。这一观点深刻地影响了西方文化和思想对人类尊严的认识和评价。根据这一观点，尘世生活被视为一种准备，是通往永生这一最终目的地的道路。这一概念超越了仅以物质或时间为中心的生存理念。它将重点放在生存的精神和道德方面，强调同情、热爱邻里和追求美好生活等价值观。这种对人类永生使命的理解使人们更加重视每个人的尊严。在这一世界观中，个人的价值不在于其尘世的成就、社会地位或财富，而在于其作为按照上帝的形象创造并注定永恒命运的人的本质。这种尊严与生俱来，不可剥夺，与外部环境无关。

这一愿景对权利和自由概念的影响是巨大的。它是所有人都值得尊重和考虑的思想基础，因为每个人都具有不可估量的价值。几百年来，这一观点影响了各种社会和政治运动，特别是那些寻求促进正义、平等和保护最弱势群体的运动。从历史上看，它也为基督教伦理的发展提供了依据，并影响了圣奥古斯丁和圣托马斯-阿奎那等思想家，他们试图将这些思想纳入更广泛的神学和哲学框架。后来，在现代，这一理念影响了启蒙运动的哲学家和自由民主的奠基人，他们阐明了自然权利和个人主权的原则。

基督信息的第二个基本主张，即人人都是上帝的儿女，对西方思想中对人类平等和兄弟情谊的理解产生了深远而持久的影响。这一思想强调所有人在上帝面前一律平等，提出了与许多古代和中世纪社会普遍存在的社会等级和地位差别截然不同的平等原则。基督教教义认为，每个人都是上帝的孩子，这意味着所有人都有共同的尊严和内在价值。这一观点是革命性的，尤其是在阶级、种族、性别和民族差别往往根深蒂固的历史背景下。基督教宣称在上帝面前人人平等，从而挑战了这些分歧，促进了人类的统一和团结意识。

上帝对其所有子女的爱是平等的，这一思想也影响了人权的概念。如果所有人作为上帝的儿女都是平等的，那么他们都应该得到公平的待遇和对基本权利的尊重。这种思想是历史上社会改革和正义运动的重要推动力。圣方济各（Saint Francis of Assisi）等历史人物宣扬对众生的爱和博爱，马丁-路德（Martin Luther）等改革者强调信仰和恩典对所有人的重要性，他们都体现并传播了这些思想。后来，在启蒙运动的背景下，约翰-洛克和让-雅克-卢梭等哲学家虽然并不总是直接引用这些基督教教义，但他们提出的政治和社会思想与人人基本平等的原则产生了共鸣。

每个人都享有实现自身命运的个人自主权，这是精神和个人使命至上的世界观的一部分。这种观点受到基督教的影响，强调社会、政治和经济结构是服务于人类精神追求的手段，而非目的本身。这种观点与早期的观点形成了鲜明对比，在早期的观点中，个人往往被视为从属于国家或社会的需要。根据这种观点，国家和其他社会机构有责任尊重和保护个人的自主权。这意味着承认良心、思想和表达自由的权利，以及重视隐私和个人自由。国家应为个人服务，而不是相反，这一理念是政治和社会思想的重要发展，对现代人权和民主治理理论产生了深远影响。这一理念在文艺复兴和启蒙运动时期引起了特别的共鸣，当时哲学家们开始质疑传统的权力结构，并提倡每个人与生俱来的自然权利。约翰-洛克（John Locke）等思想家捍卫生命权、自由权和财产权，伊曼纽尔-康德（Immanuel Kant）的绝对命令强调尊重每个人本身就是目的，这些思想家帮助塑造了这一观点。

在实践中，这种哲学影响了基本文件的起草，如《美国独立宣言》和法国大革命期间的《人权和公民权利宣言》。这些文件提出的理念是，建立政府是为了保护个人权利，政府的合法性来自于被统治者的同意。因此，每个人都有实现自己命运的个人自主权，这一思想是西方社会朝着个人自由、尊重个人权利和民主治理原则演变的根本。这些理念继续构成当代自由和民主社会的基础，强调个人在社会和政治秩序中的重要性。

基督教思想对西方人权发展的影响与十六世纪西班牙天主教法律神学家的工作有着深刻的联系，特别是在围绕西班牙征服美洲的辩论中。这些辩论集中在西班牙征服者对待美洲原住民的关键道德和法律问题上。

巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）是这场辩论中的关键人物之一，他是一位多明我会牧师，后来成为主教，因热情捍卫土著人民的权利而闻名于世。拉斯-卡萨斯对美洲印第安人遭受的暴行和剥削感到震惊，他反对为奴役他们辩护的理论和做法。他主张承认美洲印第安人的人性和基本权利，认为美洲印第安人是上帝的子民，应该得到与欧洲人同样的尊重和尊严。这些辩论中的另一位重要人物是弗朗西斯科-德-维多利亚，他是一位神学家和法学家，被认为是现代国际法的创始人之一。维多利亚根据自然法原则质疑西班牙征服的合法性。他认为，土著人民拥有自己的主权权利，他们的领土不能被正当地占有。他的观点为主张土著人民的基本平等和权利奠定了基础。

这些辩论是在欧洲与美洲相遇所引发的伦理和法律问题的大背景下进行的。西班牙神学家和法学家在西方最早的人权理论的发展过程中发挥了至关重要的作用，他们根据基督教原则阐述了承认土著人民尊严和权利的论点。这一时期在人权史上具有根本意义，因为它标志着伦理和法律原则开始在全球范围内得到应用，超越了国界和文化。de las Casas 和 de Vitoria 等人提出的思想和论点为后来的国际人权法奠定了基础，强调了人的尊严和平等的普遍重要性。

巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯肖像（16 世纪，匿名）。

弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚和巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯在西方首次对人权进行了理论阐述，这标志着承认人权的一个重要转折点。这两位人物在挑战 16 世纪西班牙征服美洲的伦理和法律基础方面，尤其是在对待土著人民方面，发挥了决定性的作用。

弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚是西班牙神学家和法学家，常被视为现代国际法之父。他出生于 1492 年，提出了捍卫美洲土著人民权利的理论，质疑西班牙征服者统治美洲土著人民的合法性。他认为，印第安人在私人和公共领域都有自己的主权权利，这些权利应得到尊重。维多利亚认为，土著人民有权自己管理和拥有自己的土地，这些观点在当时具有革命性意义。巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）是一位多明我会牧师，生于 1474 年，因热心捍卫土著人民而闻名于世。他谴责西班牙征服者的暴行，主张尊重印第安人的尊严和权利。德拉斯-卡萨斯认为，印第安人本身也是人，具有理性和信仰能力，因此应该受到公平公正的对待。通过承认土著人民的平等权利，维多利亚和拉斯-卡萨斯为超越文化和国界的人权概念奠定了基础。他们的学说意味着，所有人，无论其种族或地理起源，都拥有不可剥夺的权利，这些权利必须得到尊重。

因此，这一时期标志着西方开始将人权概念化，并特别强调民族平等和主权。虽然维多利亚和拉斯卡萨斯的思想没有立即导致重大的政治或社会变革，但他们奠定了思想和道德基础，影响了后来人权理论和国际法的发展。因此，16 世纪在西班牙可被视为人权思想演变的关键时刻。

« 我们的宗教是统一的，可以适应世界上所有的民族；它欢迎所有的民族加入它的怀抱，不会剥夺任何一个民族的自由或他们的主人；它尤其不希望人们像主教大人所说的那样，借口他们生来就是为了宗教而成为奴隶。因此，愿陛下在即位之初，对这一邪恶学说表示蔑视，并摒弃其后果。 »

— Las Casas

巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯（Bartolomé de las Casas）的这段话完美地诠释了他面对西班牙征服，捍卫美洲原住民权利和尊严的承诺。在恳求中，拉斯-卡萨斯强调了几个要点，这些要点不仅反映了他的宗教信仰，也体现了他深厚的人文主义情怀。首先，他肯定了基督教的普世性，强调它注定属于所有民族，欢迎所有民族一视同仁。这种对基督教的普遍性和包容性的看法是至关重要的，因为它摒弃了某些民族可能在本质上低人一等或注定被统治的观点。其次，拉斯-卡萨斯强调尊重各民族的自由和自治。他公开批评皈依基督教或接受西班牙统治会导致土著人民丧失自由或主权的观点。他认为，基督教不是统治的工具，而是精神提升和相互尊重的手段。最后，他直接呼吁皇室当局（此处指西班牙君主）采取立场，反对以宗教或种族为由为奴役和压迫土著人民辩护的理论。拉斯-卡萨斯的这一行动呼吁领导人承担道德和政治责任，敦促他们摒弃那些使不公正和不平等永久化的意识形态。拉斯-卡萨斯的名言是美洲殖民化早期的有力见证，当时像他这样捍卫土著人民权利的声音不绝于耳。他的论点和行动对人权思想的起源以及对征服和殖民化的第一次正式批判的发展起到了至关重要的作用。

他证明印第安人是上帝的创造物，不能成为奴隶。他赞同维托利亚的论点：

« 在生活在这些偏远王国的异教徒中，他们从未听说过基督，也没有接受过信仰，但他们中也有真正的领主、国王和王子。自然法和万民法赋予他们主权、尊严和王权...... 这同样适用于私人对劣等财产的统治...... »

— Las Casas[4]

巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯的这段话说明了他反对奴役和压迫土著人民的论点，肯定了土著人民作为上帝的创造物所固有的平等和主权。他明确承认土著人民现有领导人和政治结构的合法性和权威性，即使是那些没有接触过基督教的人。拉斯-卡萨斯在论证中驳斥了这样一种观点，即原住民可能因为缺乏基督教知识而被合法征服或剥夺土地和主权。他指出，自然法和万民法（ius gentium，中世纪和文艺复兴时期思想中的一个重要国际法概念）承认并尊重非基督教民族的主权。

拉斯-卡萨斯主张原住民拥有国王、王子和合法的治理结构，他与另一位神学家和法学家弗朗西斯科-德-维多利亚（Francisco de Vitoria）的论点不谋而合。维多利亚认为，非基督教民族拥有自然权利，包括财产权和政治自治权，殖民国家必须尊重这些权利。这种观点在当时是革命性的，因为它挑战了通常为殖民统治土著人民所提出的理由。拉斯-卡萨斯和维多利亚的进步思想为现代国际法和承认不分种族、文化或宗教的普遍人权奠定了基础。总之，拉斯卡萨斯和维多利亚捍卫土著人民权利的努力标志着人权史上的一个 重要阶段，突出了尊重所有民族尊严和主权的必要性。

十六世纪初，巴托洛梅-德拉斯-卡萨斯和弗朗西斯科-德维多利亚等人捍卫这些论点，是人权学说发展的重要一步。他们的论点以 "作为上帝的创造物，人人平等 "这一思想为中心，标志着对基本权利的理解和承认的一个决定性转折点。这种理论方法在当时是革命性的，因为它反对基于文化、种族或宗教优越感的征服、奴役和殖民化的普遍做法。拉斯-卡萨斯和维多利亚坚持所有人，无论其信仰、种族出身或社会地位如何，在根本上一律平等，从而对压迫和剥削土著人民的理由提出了挑战。

这一观点植根于基督教对人性的理解，即作为上帝的创造物，每个人都拥有固有的尊严和不可剥夺的权利。这种观点有助于为今后的人权发展奠定伦理和哲学基础。他们的学说不仅对国际法，而且对西方社会开始考虑正义、平等和主权问题的方式产生了相当大的影响。尽管在当时的背景下，他们的主张所产生的直接影响有限，但他们所阐述的原则继续激励着后代，并在人权和尊重人的尊严概念的演变中发挥了关键作用。因此，16 世纪初是神学家和法学家开始从理论上阐述人权的一个重要时期，为更广泛 地承认所有人的平等和固有价值奠定了基础。

政治起源

The political origins of fundamental rights can be traced through a series of key historical events that have shaped global political thought and practice, each contributing a stone to the edifice of human rights.

The Magna Carta, signed in England in 1215, represents one of the first concrete examples of a legal limitation on royal power. Although primarily intended to protect the rights of the aristocracy against the arbitrary power of the king, it introduced fundamental principles such as the right to a fair trial, influencing future notions of legal rights and constitutional governance. In the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation, initiated by figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, challenged the centralised authority of the Catholic Church and promoted ideas of freedom of conscience and individual interpretation of the Scriptures. These ideas helped shape the modern concepts of individual rights and personal sovereignty. The end of the Wars of Religion in Europe and the signing of the Treaties of Westphalia in 1648 not only redrawn the political map of Europe, but also introduced key concepts such as state sovereignty and the principle of non-interference, which have implications for individual and collective rights. The impact of the American Revolution in 1776 was monumental, with the United States Declaration of Independence proclaiming principles such as fundamental equality and inalienable rights. These ideas were taken up and developed during the French Revolution, in particular with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789, which explicitly set out rights such as liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. Finally, the Conference of Vienna in 1815, although often seen as a period of conservative restoration, laid the foundations of modern diplomacy and international law, playing a key role in the recognition and protection of fundamental rights on a global scale. These events, spanning several centuries, have made a significant contribution to the evolution of the notion of fundamental rights. They have shaped not only legal and political systems, but also the values and ideals that underpin modern societies, leading to the universal recognition of human rights and their protection as an essential component of justice and international governance.

Magna Carta.
King John of England signs Magna Carta.

In 13th-century England, a landmark event took place that profoundly shaped the course of legal and political history: the drafting and signing of Magna Carta, or "Magna Carta", on 12 June 1215. This historic document was the result of an intense conflict between King John of England and a group of his vassals, mainly disgruntled and rebellious barons. The Magna Carta represented a decisive turning point in limiting the arbitrary power of monarchs and laying the foundations of constitutional law.

The context at the time was one of growing discontent among the nobles, largely due to the high taxes imposed by King John and his failure in military campaigns, particularly in France. Faced with increasing resistance from the barons, the king was forced to negotiate, resulting in the creation of the Magna Carta. This document was revolutionary for several reasons. Firstly, it recognised and guaranteed a number of rights and privileges for the barons and, by extension, for other subjects of the kingdom. Although its main aim was to protect the interests of the aristocracy, the Magna Carta contained principles that evoke our modern conceptions of personal freedoms. These included the guarantee of a fair trial, protection against arbitrary detention and limitations on the king's fiscal powers. In addition, Magna Carta established the idea that even the king was subject to the law. This was a revolutionary notion at a time when monarchs were often considered to have absolute and divinely ordained power. The idea that the law applied equally to the sovereign laid the foundations for the rule of law and constitutional governance in Western societies. Although Magna Carta was repeatedly annulled, revised and reinstated in the years following its first promulgation, its influence has endured. It is often regarded as a precursor to modern constitutions and has significantly influenced the development of legal systems and human rights, not only in England but throughout the world.

These articles from Magna Carta illustrate the revolutionary scope and vision of this document in terms of rights and freedoms. Article XXXIX, in particular, establishes principles of justice that are fundamental to modern legal systems. The idea that no free man should be punished without the lawful judgment of his peers and according to the law of the land was revolutionary for its time. This article laid the foundations for what we know today as the right to a fair trial, a key element of the rule of law and a fundamental principle of human rights.

"No free man shall be arrested or imprisoned, or dispossessed of his property, or declared an outlaw, or exiled, or executed in any manner whatsoever, nor shall we act against him, nor send any person against him, without a lawful judgment of his peers and in accordance with the law of the land."

- Article XXXIX.

« No free man will be arrested or imprisoned, or dispossessed of his property, or declared an outlaw, or exiled, or executed in any way, and we will not act against him or send anyone against him, without the lawful judgment of his peers and in accordance with the law of the land. »

— Article XXXIX.

Article XLI focuses on economic freedom and the safety of merchants. It recognises the importance of safe and unhindered trade and travel for merchants, while setting out rules for conduct in times of war. This article reflects an early understanding of the importance of trade and economic mobility, concepts that are essential in our globalised economy.

« All merchants may freely and safely leave England, come to England, remain in England, and travel in England both by road and by ship, to buy and to sell, without any irregular tolls, according to ancient and just customs, except in time of war and if such merchants are from a country at war with us. If such merchants are found in our country at the beginning of a war, they shall be detained, without any damage to their persons or property, until we, or our Grand Justicier, are informed of the manner in which our merchants are treated in the country at war with us, and if ours are safe, the others shall be safe in our country. »

— Article XLI.

Together, these articles bear witness to the gradual evolution of notions of justice, personal freedom and economic rights. The Magna Carta, although primarily designed to protect the rights of the English aristocracy, laid the foundations for legal principles that would, centuries later, benefit all citizens. The document established standards for limiting arbitrary power and protecting individual rights, influencing the subsequent development of constitutional democracies and legal systems in the Western world. These principles, enunciated over eight centuries ago, continue to resonate in charters of rights and constitutions around the world, testifying to their timeless importance and enduring impact on the conception of human rights and equitable governance.

Conflicts between King and Parliament in England, which were particularly pronounced during certain periods of history, played a crucial role in the development of many texts and treaties guaranteeing fundamental rights. These confrontations have often been the driving force behind significant constitutional and legal changes, helping to shape the principles of democratic governance and human rights.

One of the most notable examples is the period of the English Civil War in the 17th century, which pitted the royalist forces of King Charles I against the Parliamentarians. The conflict culminated in the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the establishment of the Commonwealth of England under Oliver Cromwell, marking a period of experimental republicanism. Although the Commonwealth was short-lived, ending with the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, this period was significant for the development of political and constitutional thought. Another key moment was the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw King James II of England dethroned and replaced by Mary II and her husband William of Orange. This relatively peaceful transition led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1689, a fundamental document that set clear limits on royal power and affirmed the rights of Parliament. In particular, it established the principle that the King could not rule without the consent of Parliament, and guaranteed rights such as freedom of speech in Parliament, limitations on taxation and the right to a fair trial.

These events, and other similar conflicts between monarchical power and Parliament, helped to shape a political tradition in which respect for fundamental rights and the limitation of governmental power are central. They laid the foundations for the later development of parliamentary democracy in England and influenced political thought in other parts of the world, most notably inspiring the founders of the United States when they drafted the American Constitution and the Declaration of Independence. These conflicts between King and Parliament in England were crucial to the emergence and consolidation of the principles of democratic governance and respect for fundamental rights, principles that continue to influence political and legal systems around the world.

The philosophical origins

John Locke, a seventeenth-century English philosopher, had a profound influence on modern political theory, particularly with regard to the concepts of natural rights and civil government. His thought, articulated mainly in two major works, "Two Treatises on Government" (1690) and "An Essay on Human Understanding" (1689), laid the foundations of liberal philosophy and had a considerable impact on the development of democratic and constitutional ideas. Locke proposed a vision of government based on the idea that legitimate political authority derives from the consent of the governed. This notion of voluntary consent is a cornerstone of his political theory and marks a break with earlier conceptions of divinely ordained monarchical power or the unchallenged supremacy of the state. For Locke, individuals are naturally free and equal, and any legitimate government must be based on the agreement and acceptance of those it governs.

According to Locke, the state of nature, a hypothetical pre-governmental condition, is characterised by freedom and equality, but also by insecurity and potential conflict. To remedy this situation, individuals enter into a social contract, giving up some of their natural rights in exchange for the protection and order provided by a civil government. However, this transfer of rights is not absolute. If a government does not protect the fundamental natural rights of life, liberty and property, and if it does not respect the principle of consent, it becomes illegitimate and citizens have the right to resist or change it. Locke's ideas on government by consent, popular sovereignty and natural rights were extremely influential. They inspired many thinkers and political leaders, including the drafters of the US Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution. His theories on the social contract and natural rights also influenced other important philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant, and played a key role in the evolution of modern liberal democracies.

John Locke's political theory, centred on the concept of the social contract, is a fundamental element of liberal thought and has had a decisive influence on the understanding of rights and civil government. According to Locke, individuals in a state of nature enjoy natural rights, but this state is also marked by uncertainty and the absence of formal guarantees for the protection of these rights. It is this situation that drives men to establish a political society by means of a social contract. In the state of nature, as described by Locke, men are free and equal, and each possesses inalienable natural rights such as life, liberty and property. However, this state lacks a central authority to resolve conflicts and effectively guarantee these rights. Faced with this shortcoming, individuals voluntarily chose to give up some of their freedom and natural rights in order to create a political society. This transition from the state of nature to political society is achieved through the social contract, a mutual agreement to form a political community and establish a government.

Legitimate government, according to Locke, is therefore the product of the consent of free and equal individuals. Its main role is to protect the natural rights of individuals, which were not sufficiently secure in the state of nature. If government fails in this fundamental task, or acts despotically, violating the rights it is supposed to protect, it loses its legitimacy. In such a case, citizens have the right to resist, modify or overthrow that government. Locke's concept has had a profound impact on modern political philosophy. It has influenced the formation of democratic systems of government in which sovereignty resides with the people, and government is seen as a servant of the citizens, charged with protecting their rights and freedoms. Locke's ideas on the social contract and natural rights were particularly influential in the founding of the United States, where they informed the drafting of fundamental documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Locke's theory of the social contract and civil government marks a milestone in the history of political ideas, laying the foundations for modern democratic governance and the recognition of fundamental human rights.

The theory of the social contract, as developed by John Locke and other thinkers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, had a considerable influence on the emergence and formulation of the first Declarations of Human Rights. This theory, which is based on the idea that political societies are founded on a voluntary agreement between free and equal individuals, laid the philosophical and theoretical foundations for the principles of freedom and equality that lie at the heart of human rights. These ideas, born of an amalgam of religious, political and philosophical origins, found particular resonance at key moments in history such as the American Revolution and the French Revolution. The American Declaration of Independence in 1776 and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789 are emblematic examples of how social contract theory influenced political and legal thought.

In these documents, the concepts of liberty and equality are affirmed as natural and inalienable rights. The American Declaration of Independence, for example, proclaims that "all men are created equal" and endowed with "certain inalienable rights". Similarly, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen affirms that all men are born free and equal in rights. These declarations marked a significant break with previous conceptions of social hierarchy and political power, rooted in the divine right of kings or in unequal power structures. The fusion of religious ideas, notably Christianity's emphasis on the equal dignity of all human beings, with political and philosophical theories of the social contract and natural rights, helped to shape a new vision of the world. In this vision, individual rights and popular sovereignty are fundamental, and government is conceived as an instrument at the service of the people, rather than as an absolute authority. Thus, the origins of fundamental rights reflect a rich heritage of ideas and practices, blending religious, political and philosophical influences to arrive at principles of liberty, equality and justice that have become pillars of modern democratic societies. These principles continue to inspire and guide efforts to promote human rights and democracy throughout the world.

Annexes

References

  1. ↑ Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE
  2. ↑ Publications du professeur Victor Monnier
  3. ↑ Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE
  4. ↑ Cf. B. DE LAS CASAS, Aquí se contienen treinta proposiciones muy jurídicas... in A. M. FABIE, Vida y escritos de Fray B. de Las Casas, Madrid
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