The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The Civil Rights Movement in the United States was a social and political movement to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans in the mid-20th century. Young people, particularly students, played a crucial role in the movement. They organized and participated in sit-ins, Freedom Rides, and other forms of nonviolent protest to demand equal treatment under the law. These young people's actions helped bring national attention to the struggle for civil rights, and their bravery and determination inspired others to join the movement. Some of the most famous leaders of the Civil Rights Movement, such as the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., were young when they became involved in the cause. Their efforts ultimately led to the passage of important legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which banned discrimination based on race in public accommodations and voting. The Civil Rights Movement remains an important part of American history, and its legacy inspires young people today to fight for justice and equality.

Martin Luther King Jr.'s birthday, January 15, is celebrated as Martin Luther King Jr. Day in the United States. It is a federal holiday that honours the life and legacy of one of the most influential leaders of the Civil Rights Movement. The holiday was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan in 1983 and was first observed as a federal holiday on January 20, 1986. It is now observed on the third Monday of January each year. It is recognized as a day of service, where people are encouraged to volunteer and give back to their communities in honour of King's message of peace and social justice.

Speech delivered on August 28, 1963 to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., is widely considered one of the greatest and most influential speeches of the 20th century. U.S. Congressman John Lewis also spoke that day on behalf of the Coordinating Committee of Non-Violent Students. "By speaking as he did, he educated, he inspired, he guided not just the people who were there, but people across America and generations to come.

During Martin Luther King Jr. Day celebrations, it is common to hear parts of King's famous speeches, including his "I Have a Dream" speech, which he delivered at the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1963. King's speeches continue to inspire people worldwide with their message of equality, justice, and nonviolent resistance. His speeches are often used as a way to pay tribute to the diversity and minority rights in the United States and to celebrate the progress that has been made in the fight for civil rights. They also serve as a reminder of the work that still needs to be done to achieve King's vision of a just and equal society. King's speeches are timeless, and his message of hope, love, and reconciliation remains just as relevant today as it was in the 1960s. They are an important part of American history and continue to inspire people of all ages and backgrounds to work towards a more just and equal society.

Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech was a powerful critique of African Americans' racial inequality and discrimination in the United States. He spoke about the deep-seated injustices and indignities that African Americans endured, including segregation, discrimination in employment, and a lack of voting rights. However, despite the harsh realities that he addressed, King's speech was also a powerful expression of hope and a vision for a better future. He dreamed of a day when all people, regardless of their race, would be judged not by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character. He spoke of a future where his four children would "not be judged by the colour of their skin, but by the content of their character."

After King's "I Have a Dream" speech, the Civil Rights Movement gained momentum, and pressure grew on the federal government to take action to end racial segregation and discrimination. This pressure culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned racial discrimination in public accommodations and employment. The act also provided the federal government with the means to enforce desegregation. Additionally, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed, which prohibited discriminatory voting practices that had been used to prevent African Americans from exercising their right to vote. The act also provided federal oversight of elections in states and localities with a history of voting discrimination. These two pieces of legislation were significant milestones in the struggle for civil rights and helped to end legal segregation and discrimination in the United States. They were a result of the hard work and determination of Civil Rights activists, including Martin Luther King Jr. They marked a major turning point in the fight for equality and justice for African Americans.

The 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which was adopted in 1868, provides that no state shall "deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." This amendment was intended to provide legal protections for the newly-freed slaves and ensure that they had the same rights and protections under the law as other citizens. The 15th Amendment, which was adopted in 1870, provides that the right of citizens of the United States to vote "shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude." This amendment was enacted to ensure that African American men could vote and participate in the political process without being denied the right to vote based on their race or previous status as slaves. Both the 14th and 15th Amendments were important steps towards ensuring equal rights and protections for African Americans in the aftermath of the Civil War and the abolition of slavery. However, despite these amendments, discrimination and segregation continued to persist, and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s was necessary to advance further the cause of equality and justice for African Americans. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 helped to provide additional legal protections and enforcement mechanisms for the rights guaranteed by the 14th and 15th Amendments.

The United States was one of the last countries in the world to abolish slavery. It was the only country in the Americas with a system of legal segregation and discrimination based on race. Despite the guarantees of equal protection and voting rights enshrined in the 14th and 15th Amendments to the Constitution, discrimination and segregation persisted for many decades. Even after the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, many other forms of discrimination and inequality persisted in the United States, including Jim Crow laws, redlining, and mass incarceration. While progress has been made towards reducing racial inequality, the legacy of discrimination and inequality continues to be felt today, and ongoing efforts are needed to address these issues. While the United States was the only country in the Americas to have a system of legal segregation and discrimination based on race, discrimination and inequality based on race, ethnicity, and skin colour have been widespread in other countries around the world, including the Americas. In many countries, these forms of discrimination persist to this day, and ongoing efforts are needed to address them.

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Actors for change

African American rights were recognized in the mid-1960s due to the efforts of the Civil Rights Movement, a political and social movement aimed at ending racial segregation and discrimination. The Civil Rights Movement was not a sudden development but rather the result of decades of organizing, protest, and activism by African Americans and their allies.

One of the key factors in recognising African American rights in the mid-1960s was the growth of the Black Freedom Struggle. This mass movement sought to challenge and end segregation and discrimination. Activists such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and others used peaceful protests, boycotts, and civil disobedience to draw attention to the injustices African Americans faced and demand change.

Another important factor was the changing political landscape of the United States in the 1960s. President John F. Kennedy, who was in office when the Civil Rights Movement was gaining momentum, was initially hesitant to take action on civil rights. However, he eventually came to support the movement and pushed for civil rights legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

In addition, the Civil Rights Movement was a response to the broader social, cultural, and political changes that were taking place in the United States in the mid-1960s, including the rise of the counterculture, the feminist movement, and the anti-war movement. These movements helped to create a climate of social and political ferment in which the Civil Rights Movement could flourish.

Finally, the recognition of African American rights in the mid-1960s was also due to international pressure and the impact of the Civil Rights Movement on the world stage. The world was watching as the United States was grappling with the issue of racial inequality, and the actions of the Civil Rights Movement helped to inspire similar movements for social justice and equality around the world.

African-Americans of the South

African Americans in the South were some of the key actors in the Civil Rights Movement. After World War II, many African Americans in the South returned from serving in the military. They were no longer willing to accept the systemic racial segregation and discrimination that they faced.

These African Americans were inspired by the example of other oppressed groups worldwide fighting for their rights and freedoms. They began to organize and protest against the injustices they faced. They formed civil rights organizations, held protests and sit-ins, and engaged in other forms of nonviolent resistance to challenge the status quo.

The courage and determination of African Americans in the South, who risked their lives and livelihoods to demand equal rights and justice, was a critical factor in the success of the Civil Rights Movement. Their activism helped draw attention to the injustices they faced, galvanized public support, and pressured the government to end segregation and discrimination.

Without the bravery and commitment of African Americans in the South, it is unlikely that the Civil Rights Movement would have been as successful as it was in bringing about change and securing equal rights for African Americans.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court has played a significant role in shaping the direction of civil rights and equality in the United States, and its policy direction has changed over time, becoming more progressive in some cases.

In the mid-twentieth century, the Supreme Court issued several landmark decisions that helped to advance the cause of civil rights and equality. For example, in the 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, setting the stage for integrating schools across the country.

In addition to Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court issued a number of other important decisions during the mid-twentieth century that helped to advance the cause of civil rights and equality. For example, in the 1964 case of Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited discrimination in public accommodations based on race, colour, religion, or national origin.

These and other Supreme Court decisions helped establish the legal framework for civil rights and equality in the United States and continue to be highly influential today. The Supreme Court's role in shaping the direction of civil rights and equality remains an important aspect of American history and law.

Domestic and international context

Internal structural changes

The internal structural changes in American society during and after World War II played a significant role in the development of the Civil Rights Movement. As you mentioned, the mechanization of part of the cotton crop led to reduced rural employment and urbanization in the South, which in turn led to a migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North and West in search of better opportunities and greater freedom. This migration, known as the Great Migration, had a profound impact on American society and helped to lay the foundation for the Civil Rights Movement.

The Great Migration transformed the African American community in the North and West and helped increase communication and mutual support between African Americans. The extension of communication and mutual aid between African Americans in the South and those in the North and West helped strengthen African Americans' electoral weight in the East Coast and California states. This increased political power, combined with the growing demands of the Civil Rights Movement and the broader changes in American society and the world, put pressure on politicians to address the issue of racial inequality and segregation. Over time, this pressure led to the passage of federal civil rights legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which helped to end legal segregation and discrimination in the United States and laid the foundation for a more equal and just society.

In the North and West, African Americans encountered new forms of racial discrimination and segregation, but they also found greater political and economic opportunities than they had in the South. This migration and its changes helped create a more diverse and politically conscious African American community, better equipped to fight for its rights and demand equal treatment under the law.

With the beginning of modernization in the South, the attitudes of some whites began to change, especially with the arrival of white migrants to the Sun Belt. The increase in economic and social mobility and greater exposure to different ideas and cultural influences led to reconsidering the strict segregationist policies that had long been in place. This shift in attitudes, combined with the pressure of the Civil Rights Movement and the increasing visibility of racial inequality, created the conditions for significant changes in the South, including the end of legal segregation and the expansion of voting rights for African Americans.

It's important to note that this change was not universal and that resistance to desegregation and equality remained strong in some parts of the South. Nevertheless, the Civil Rights Movement and the broader changes in American society helped to move the country closer to the ideals of equality and justice enshrined in its founding principles.

In addition to the internal structural changes in American society, the Civil Rights Movement was also influenced by broader domestic and international developments, such as the Cold War, the growing influence of mass media, and the rise of the Black Power and anti-war movements in the 1960s. These developments helped to create a political and social climate that was more favourable to the demands of the Civil Rights Movement and helped shape the direction of the movement and its ultimate outcomes.

The Cold War and Decolonization

This contrast between the ideals espoused by the United States and the reality of segregation and discrimination was also apparent in the context of decolonization and the fight for independence by many countries worldwide. The United States, as a global superpower, was being closely watched by the international community, and the treatment of African Americans within its own borders was seen as a reflection of its commitment to freedom and democracy. This put pressure on the US government to address the civil rights issue and achieve greater equality for all its citizens, including African Americans. The Civil Rights Movement was part of a larger global movement towards greater freedom, equality, and human rights. The changes that took place in the United States during this period significantly impacted the rest of the world.

In 1944, Gunnar Myrdal published An American dilemma: The negro problem and modern democracy. This book was influential in highlighting the inconsistencies in American democracy and was widely read and discussed both within the United States and abroad. It helped to increase pressure on the government to address the issue of racial discrimination and segregation and to take concrete steps towards ensuring equal rights for all citizens, regardless of their race or colour. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s was, in part, a response to this growing awareness and demand for change, and the activism of individuals and organizations that emerged in response to these challenges helped to bring about significant progress in the struggle for civil rights and equality in the United States.

Admiral Chester W. Nimitz pins Navy Cross on Doris Miller, at ceremony on board warship in Pearl Harbor, 27 May 1942.

The Soldier Voting Act of 1942, also known as the Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act, allowed soldiers serving abroad during World War II to vote regardless of where they were stationed. This act was a response to the propaganda of the Axis powers, which portrayed the United States as hypocritical for promoting democracy abroad while denying it to African Americans at home. The act was a significant step towards enfranchising black soldiers and acknowledging the need for civil rights reform. However, it was just one of many actions taken during this time to address the issue of segregation and discrimination against African Americans in the United States. The Civil Rights Movement, which gained momentum in the 1950s and 1960s, would eventually lead to the passage of significant legislation, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which helped to secure the rights and freedoms of African Americans.

When African American soldiers returned from the war, they sought to exercise their right to vote, believing that the recently enacted legislation would protect their ability to do so. However, white supremacists often used violence to prevent them from registering to vote in their home states. Despite facing ongoing segregation, African Americans began to increasingly resist and protest against it, staging open demonstrations and pushing for change.

The Chicago Defender announces Executive Order 9981.

In the late 1940s, during the height of McCarthyism, the limitations placed on African Americans were significant. From 1924 to 1972, J. Edgar Hoover dominated the FBI and was fixated on the perceived threat of communist infiltration in the United States. As a result, any African Americans who called for civil rights or demanded reforms were frequently accused of being communists and un-American. Those who spoke out against racism even faced the confiscation of their passports.

Additionally, with the inauguration of the UN headquarters in New York in 1949, it became increasingly difficult for the United States to maintain its image as a defender of democracy and the free world in the eyes of newly decolonized nations in Africa and Asia who had taken their place at the UN. The existence of segregation and discrimination within the United States cast a shadow on the country's claims of promoting freedom and equality.

This will further undermine the image of the United States as a beacon of democracy and freedom, as representatives from newly decolonized nations in Africa and Asia will experience segregation and discrimination while traveling in the southern states. The Soviet Union will use this as propaganda to further discredit the United States on the world stage. Moreover, this also creates a negative image for the United States in the eyes of the international community and raises questions about the country's commitment to democracy and human rights. However, at this time, the international pressure was not strong enough to prompt the US government to take action against segregation in the South.

The first stages of the fight: from 1955 to 1960

On May 17, 1954, these men, members of the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional.

In 1954, the tide began to turn for African Americans with a shift in the Supreme Court. The Court, which Southerners had dominated, suddenly became more progressive, making its role crucial for all citizens in the United States.

In 1955, the Supreme Court began its deliberations on the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education. Represented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the case challenged the "separate but equal" doctrine that the Supreme Court upheld in 1896. This case was a crucial moment in the fight for African American rights, as it aimed to challenge the practice of segregation and discrimination that was prevalent in many parts of the country.

President and First Lady Kennedy with Chief Justice and Mrs. Warren, November 1963.

In 1955, the Supreme Court discussed one of the most significant cases in the history of the United States, Brown v. Board of Education. When one of the justices passed away, President Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren, a former Attorney General and popular Governor of California, to replace him. As a Republican who was in touch with the changing times, Warren believed that justice should evolve and adapt to current realities rather than remain fixed in the past.

In 1955, the NAACP lawyers presented evidence showing the disparity in the education received by black and white students due to segregation in schools. The Supreme Court ultimately ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional and ordered public schools to integrate as soon as possible without specifying a time frame. This ruling marked a significant step towards ending racial segregation in the United States.

Under the leadership of Earl Warren, the Supreme Court made a series of landmark decisions during the period from 1954 to 1969 that reinterpreted the U.S. Constitution in a way that favoured those who had previously been excluded, including African Americans. This significantly impacted the protection of civil rights in the United States.

Earl Warren, during his tenure as Chief Justice, not only protected the rights of African Americans but also advanced the rights of other marginalized groups, including women, Native Americans, Latinx Americans, the poor, and individuals with disabilities. He interpreted the U.S. Constitution to provide these groups with greater freedom and equality.

These decisions, made in the years following the ruling on Brown v. Board of Education, effectively ended segregation in schools, federal agencies, and public spaces. These decisions marked a significant shift towards greater equality and freedom for African Americans and other marginalized groups, who had long been denied their basic rights and dignity.

The landmark decision to make segregation in schools illegal was a major milestone for the African American community and had far-reaching implications. It not only required the federal government to enforce this ruling across the country but also necessitated the deployment of the military and the FBI to ensure compliance with these new laws and protect the rights of African Americans.

This resulted in widespread acts of resistance and violence, including the bombing of homes and schools and intimidation of African Americans who tried to assert their rights. The white supremacists who opposed the integration of schools and public spaces employed violent means to try and maintain the status quo. Under the pressure of the Supreme Court's decisions, the federal government was forced to send troops and enforce the integration of schools and public spaces, making the use of violence to maintain segregation illegal. Despite this, it was still a difficult and dangerous time for African Americans who were trying to claim their rights and live their lives as equal citizens.

Parks on a Montgomery bus on December 21, 1956, the day Montgomery’s public transportation system was legally integrated. Behind Parks is Nicholas C. Chriss, a UPI reporter covering the event.

On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, to a white man who was still standing. Her arrest and imprisonment sparked the famous Montgomery Bus Boycott, which lasted for over a year and was led by the 26-year-old Martin Luther King and the Christian Leadership Conference. This event played a crucial role in the fight for racial equality and propelled King to the forefront of the movement. Rosa Parks, a modest seamstress, was also an activist with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and was aware of the risks she was taking by standing up against segregation. Her actions eventually led to the integration of public transportation.

Demonstrations by supporters of racial segregation in Little Rock in 1959, listening to a speech by Protestant Governor Orval Faubus, in front of the Capitol, against the integration of 9 black students at the town's central high school.

As they came to be known, the Little Rock Nine faced intense opposition and hostility as they attempted to integrate Little Rock Central High School. In response to the segregationist governor of Arkansas refused to allow nine black youths to integrate Little Rock Middle School in 1957, President Dwight D. Eisenhower requisitioned more than 1,000 soldiers to ensure the integration of the school. This action was necessary to enforce the Supreme Court's decision on desegregation and protect African American students' rights. The deployment of soldiers caused widespread violence and protests and attracted international attention and criticism. Despite this, President Eisenhower believed it was necessary to uphold the law and ensure that the decision of the Supreme Court was carried out. Despite the presence of federal troops, the nine students still faced harassment and violence from segregationists. This event drew widespread attention and sparked protests around the country while also giving the Soviet Union an opportunity to criticize the United States for its treatment of African Americans and distract from its own actions in Eastern Europe. The integration of Little Rock Central High School was a turning point in the civil rights movement and demonstrated the federal government's commitment to ending segregation in public schools.

These sit-ins and boycotts were part of a larger movement known as the Civil Rights Movement, which aimed to end segregation and discrimination against African Americans. The Greensboro sit-ins, in particular, were part of a wave of nonviolent protests that took place across the country. The protesters faced violence and arrests, but their bravery and persistence eventually led to many businesses and public spaces desegregations. These events were significant in inspiring other activists to take up the cause of civil rights, and they helped bring racial equality to the forefront of national attention.

John F. Kennedy became president in January 1961.

As president, Kennedy's main focus was on foreign policy and facing the expansionist policies of the Soviet Union in Asia, Africa, and Cuba. However, he was also concerned about maintaining the support of Democratic voters in the Southern states. As a result, he did not actively address the issue of racial segregation in the South during his presidency.

The "Freedom Rides" were a series of civil rights protests that took place in the early 1960s, organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE). The purpose of the Freedom Rides was to test and challenge the implementation of a 1960 Supreme Court decision that banned segregation in transportation facilities. The Freedom Riders, a group of white and black activists, rode buses together to challenge the segregation laws and test if the federal government would enforce them. John F. Kennedy, who became president in January 1961, was in a difficult position about the Freedom Rides. On the one hand, he was committed to advancing civil rights and promoting equality. On the other hand, he was facing opposition from many Southern states, who were resistant to change and segregation, and he needed the support of these states to advance his legislative agenda. As a result, Kennedy was trying to prevent the Freedom Rides from taking place, as he believed that they would cause chaos and violence and would harm his efforts to gain support from the Southern states.

However, the Freedom Riders continued their journey, and when they arrived in Alabama, they were met with violence and resistance from segregationists. Kennedy was forced to send in federal troops to restore order and protect the Freedom Riders. This incident put pressure on Kennedy to take a more active role in addressing the issue of racial segregation and inequality in the South. As a result of the pressure, Kennedy eventually became more involved in the civil rights movement and gave a famous speech in June 1963 calling for the end of segregation and the passage of civil rights legislation. This speech is seen as a turning point in Kennedy's presidency and in the civil rights movement and set the stage for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed by Congress and signed into law. The Act banned discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin in employment practices and public accommodations. This was a major step forward in the fight for racial equality in the United States.

In Alabama and Mississippi, the Freedom Riders faced brutal attacks from members of the Ku Klux Klan, and the Kennedy administration was forced to take action to protect them and enforce the law. The violent response to the Freedom Rides drew national attention to the issue of segregation and the lack of enforcement of federal laws. It was a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement, and it helped to galvanize support for further action to end segregation. The Freedom Rides ultimately contributed to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made segregation in public accommodations illegal and ensured the enforcement of the desegregation of public transportation.

The case of the Voter Education Project in Mississippi

The Voter Education Project in Mississippi was a significant part of the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. The project aimed to increase the number of African American voters in the state of Mississippi, where African Americans were subject to discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and other "voter fitness" tests. The project focused on educating African Americans about their rights as citizens and how to register to vote, and was seen as a less risky route for Kennedy to take than supporting the Freedom Riders, who faced violence from segregationists and the Ku Klux Klan. The Voter Education Project was a key factor in increasing African American voter registration in Mississippi, leading to greater representation in government and more progress towards racial equality.

President John F. Kennedy created the Voter Education Project in 1962 as a way to help African Americans register to vote, who were often subject to discriminatory "voter fitness" tests. In Mississippi, the Voter Education Project faced much opposition from segregationists and the Ku Klux Klan. They used various tactics to prevent blacks from registering to vote, such as intimidation, violence, and false "voter fitness" tests. Despite the efforts of the federal government and the FBI, the project struggled to make much progress in Mississippi. Some African Americans, frustrated with the slow pace of change and the continued violence against them, began questioning the effectiveness of non-violent resistance. Some even began to adopt more militant tactics, such as armed self-defense or acts of civil disobedience.

Mississippi was one of the most resistant states to the civil rights movement and faced significant pushback against the efforts of black activists to secure their rights. The state had a long history of racism and segregation, and many black residents faced violent retaliation for their activism. Despite these challenges, many continued to fight for their rights, including the right to vote, and their efforts helped to pave the way for progress in the civil rights movement.

Till's mother insisted on an open casket funeral. Images of Till's body, printed in The Chicago Defender and Jet magazine, made international news and directed attention to the rights of the blacks in the U.S. South.

Emmett Till was a young African American boy who was murdered in Mississippi in 1955 after being accused of whistling at a white woman. His murder was widely covered in the press, both in the United States and internationally, and became a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement. The brutal nature of the murder and the fact that Till's mother chose to have an open-casket funeral, allowing the public to see the extent of his injuries, helped to mobilize public opinion against racial violence and segregation. The trial of the two white men accused of Till's murder and their subsequent acquittal, despite overwhelming evidence of their guilt, galvanized the Civil Rights Movement and inspired many young African Americans to get involved in the struggle for racial equality.

The acquittal of Emmet Till's killers sparked outrage and fueled the civil rights movement in the United States. The trial brought to light the injustices and violence that African Americans faced in the South and inspired many to become more active in the struggle for equal rights. The case became a rallying cry for the Civil Rights Movement and helped to build momentum for change. Despite the trial's outcome, Emmet Till's death served as a catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement, inspiring many to take a stand against segregation and racial discrimination.

The SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) was a major player in the Civil Rights Movement and played a key role in the struggle for racial equality in the United States. The organization was founded in 1960 and comprised young black and white activists who used non-violent direct action to challenge segregation and discrimination. The SNCC focused on voter registration, organizing sit-ins and freedom rides, and promoting the message of civil rights throughout the country. The organization was involved in some of the most significant events of the Civil Rights Movement, including the Freedom Summer of 1964, which was an effort to increase black voter registration in Mississippi. The SNCC was a major force for change and helped to pass the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.

The SNCC was a key player in the Civil Rights Movement, and its commitment to direct action and grassroots organizing helped to bring about significant changes in the South. Through their work, they challenged the institutionalized racism and segregation that had been a part of Southern society for decades. The SNCC's focus on empowering young people and women helped to bring new energy and ideas to the movement, and their efforts were instrumental in securing important victories such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965. The SNCC's work continues to inspire future generations of activists who are committed to fighting for social justice and equality.

These tests were designed to keep African Americans from being able to vote. They included questions about the Constitution and other aspects of U.S. government that were deliberately difficult to answer. Despite this obstacle, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and other organizations continued to work towards increasing voter registration and promoting civil rights in Mississippi and throughout the South. Despite opposition and violence, their efforts eventually led to the passing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which eliminated many of the obstacles to voting for African Americans.

In Mississippi in 1960, only 5 per cent of the black population was eligible to vote. Despite the efforts of the Voter Education Project, discrimination and violence made it difficult for African Americans to exercise their right to vote. The Voter Education Project faced many challenges in Mississippi and throughout the South as segregationist forces attempted to prevent blacks from registering to vote. Despite the violence and intimidation faced by the activists, the movement persisted and continued to push for change. The murder of 63 activists was a tragic reminder of the importance of their work, and the Kennedy government faced criticism for its lack of action in response. Nevertheless, the efforts of the Voter Education Project, along with other civil rights organizations, helped to pave the way for the eventual passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which greatly expanded the franchise for African Americans and other minority groups.

Despite the lack of government support, the Voting Education Project continued to push for change, and over time, the number of black voters in Mississippi gradually increased. However, it was not until the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that significant progress was made in ensuring the right to vote for African Americans in the South. The Voting Rights Act prohibited discriminatory voting practices, such as literacy tests and poll taxes, and provided federal oversight of elections in states with a history of discrimination. The act was critical in increasing black voter registration and participation in the South, leading to greater representation and political power for African Americans.

However, this did not prevent the violence and intimidation they faced. The Freedom Summer of 1964 was a critical moment in the Civil Rights Movement, as it marked a turning point in African Americans' struggle for voting rights in Mississippi. Despite the violence and obstacles, the Freedom Summer volunteers persevered, and their work helped to increase voter registration and lay the foundation for future civil rights legislation. The Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to eliminate discriminatory voting practices and increase the number of African American voters, was a direct result of the work of these activists. The FBI, under the direction of J. Edgar Hoover, was the federal agency responsible for investigating and enforcing federal law. In the context of the Voting Education Project in Mississippi, the FBI was called upon to protect civil rights activists who were working to register African American voters. This was due to the violent resistance and intimidation faced by these activists, as well as the lack of action on the part of local authorities to protect their rights. The FBI's role in the Voting Education Project was seen as a step forward for civil rights, as it demonstrated a commitment by the federal government to upholding the rights of African Americans. However, it also highlighted the limited reach of federal power and the ongoing challenges faced by those working to end segregation and discrimination in the South.

In 1963, when a group of students arrived in Mississippi to participate in the Voting Education Program, the FBI was pressed to provide protection for black participants. Hundreds of North and East students were invited to join the campaign to escalate the situation and force the FBI's hand. Tragically, two white and black volunteers from the South went missing. The government responded by deploying hundreds of police officers and FBI agents to search for the missing individuals. However, it wasn't until two months later that their bodies were found. The two white men were shot, and the black man was tortured before being killed.

The FBI's lack of action in investigating the murder of black individuals only heightened the belief that the white authorities were trying to prevent the process of black self-determination. This led to a change in strategy, where the black community decided to no longer rely on the protection of white students and instead consider taking up arms. The ineffective response from the FBI to the murders in Mississippi further reinforced this shift in tactics.

This increased visibility of violence and injustice in the South led to greater public pressure and criticism of the government's lack of action. The international community was also becoming increasingly aware of the situation, making it difficult for the United States to maintain its reputation as a leader of human rights and democracy. The growing urgency of the Civil Rights Movement, coupled with the media attention it received, led to a shift in public opinion and increased support for the Civil Rights Movement.

The great turning point for John F. Kennedy

President John F. Kennedy's Civil Rights Address on June 11, 1963.

The violent response from Alabama police towards the civil rights and integration protest, mostly composed of young people and school children, was a turning point for President John F. Kennedy. Kennedy had been reluctant to take action until 1963. Still, the events in Alabama, combined with the African unity movement taking place in Addis Ababa, made it increasingly difficult to ignore the growing civil rights movement. The violent crackdown on the peaceful protest by police was widely covered by the media, which helped to mobilize further public opinion in support of the civil rights cause. This event was a significant moment in the civil rights movement and helped bring racial segregation and inequality to the forefront of national and international attention.

The speech by John F. Kennedy called for Congress to pass a civil rights framework law was delivered in 1963. The exact date of the speech is not specified, but it was likely made in response to the crackdown on the civil rights and integration protest in Alabama that occurred in the same year. The Soviet press had seized on the events in Alabama to criticize the United States, highlighting the need for Kennedy to address the civil rights issue.

In 1963, the civil rights movement brought over 200,000 individuals together for a march in Washington D.C. Kennedy made a deal with the organizers to tone down any radical speeches in exchange for support for a proposed civil rights law, which would promote positive images of the demonstration. The march took place on August 28, 1963, and is now remembered as the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. The main speaker at the event was Martin Luther King Jr., who delivered his famous "I Have a Dream" speech. The march was one of the largest gatherings for civil rights in American history and is widely seen as a turning point in the Civil Rights Movement. The speech and the march helped to build momentum for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned discrimination based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin.

Martin Luther King delivered a powerful speech during the civil rights march in Washington D.C. in 1963, where he likened himself to Moses and envisioned a reconciled America. In Martin Luther King Jr.'s famous "I Have a Dream" speech, he compared himself to Moses, saying that he was leading his people out of slavery and into freedom just as Moses led the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt. After Kennedy's tragic assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson, the first president from the South, continued Kennedy's legacy and successfully pushed for congressional approval of laws guaranteeing black suffrage. The story concludes with a legislative victory.

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  The crowd gathered on the mall as seen from the Lincoln Memorial.

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  A participant in the March on Washington.

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  Bayard Rustin (left) and Cleveland Robinson (right), organizers of the March, on August 7, 1963.

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  Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. (Leaders of the march).

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  Nearly 250,000 people marched, including 60,000 white participants.

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  Leaders arrive late and link arms in front of marchers on Constitution Avenue.

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  March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom program.

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  Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his "I Have a Dream" speech.

After 1965: division of the black movement

Lyndon Baines Johnson signing the Civil Rights Act on July 2, 1964. Martin Luther King is behind him.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited segregation, marked a major turning point for the black civil rights movement. This is an end in itself for those like Martin Luther King who advocate the fight for concrete equality, socio-economic equality and total integration. However, one frankly wants black separatism and autonomy from white society. However, some movement members felt that the fight for equality was not over, and they continued to push for socioeconomic equality and total integration. Others advocated for black separatism. These differing views led to a division within the movement. Some, like Martin Luther King Jr., advocated for a continued fight for concrete equality, socio-economic equality, and full integration, while others pushed for black separatism.

The Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party represented a shift in the black freedom struggle towards more militant and confrontational tactics. They advocated for black nationalism, self-determination, and self-defense against police brutality and systemic inequalities faced by black communities. This represented a new direction in the struggle for racial equality and freedom. The rise of the Black Power movement and the Black Panther Party, which focused on black nationalism and resistance against police brutality, represented a change in the direction of the black freedom struggle. Meanwhile, the decrease in federal support for civil rights initiatives further impacted the movement's progress, leading to a shift towards more extreme and confrontational approaches. The loss of federal support for civil rights initiatives was due to a combination of factors, including a shift in political priorities, a lack of commitment from government officials, and opposition from some members of Congress and the general public. Additionally, as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and other legislation aimed at ending segregation and discrimination were enacted, there was a feeling among some that the federal government had done enough to address the issue, and it was time to move on to other priorities. These factors contributed to a decrease in federal support for civil rights initiatives, which significantly impacted the movement's overall momentum.

Wallace standing against desegregation while being confronted by Deputy U.S. Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach at the University of Alabama in 1963.

The first page of the Voting Rights Act.

It is important to note that there was a significant discrepancy between the experiences of black Americans from different regions, including the North, South, and West Coast. The 1965 Voting Rights Act was a victory for the 11 million blacks living in the South, but did not address the needs of the 7 million blacks residing in inner-city ghettos.

Significant civil rights leaders were assassinated during this time, including Malcolm X in 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert Kennedy in 1968. This period was characterized by widespread violence, riots, and unrest in the ghettos of the North and California, which were often met with police and military repression. The violence and unrest in these communities, coupled with the murders of prominent civil rights leaders, created a sense of chaos and instability in the country.

It is the wide gap between the northern ghettos and the suburban residential areas that is the root cause of the explosive violence and unrest, which can only be addressed by implementing a solution similar to the Marshall Plan.

President Lyndon B. Johnson launched a policy to fight poverty, but at the same time, he was heavily invested in the Vietnam War. Unfortunately, a disproportionate number of black Americans were being killed in this conflict, which created further division and discontent within the black community. In 1968, youth revolts and protests erupted worldwide, including in the United States, leading to a wave of social and political upheaval. This unrest ultimately resulted in the election of Richard Nixon as president in 1968.

The deep south was still resisting the changes brought about by the Civil Rights laws and movements, as demonstrated by the candidacy of George Wallace for the presidency in 1968. Wallace, who was a segregationist, created the American Independent Party intending to have a president who shared his views. However, his campaign was unsuccessful, highlighting that attitudes and beliefs take time to change and that it is necessary to continue fighting for all individuals' rights.

Annexes

Brown v. Board of Education - les arrêts

• Brown v. Board of Education 347 U.S. 493 (1954)
• Brown v. Board of Education 349 U.S. 294 (1955)
• Bolling v. Sharpe 347 U.S. 497 (1955)