|
|
| (Une version intermédiaire par le même utilisateur non affichée) |
| Ligne 45 : |
Ligne 45 : |
| [[File:Battaglia di Solferino (Henry Dunant).jpg|thumb|right|300px|亨利-杜南在索尔费里诺]] | | [[File:Battaglia di Solferino (Henry Dunant).jpg|thumb|right|300px|亨利-杜南在索尔费里诺]] |
|
| |
|
| Henri Dunant, a Swiss businessman from Geneva, played a significant role in history, particularly through his humanitarian work, which marked the beginnings of the Red Cross. His encounter with history took place in 1859 during a trip to Northern Italy, where he hoped to meet the French emperor Napoleon III. In 1859, Napoleon III was campaigning in Northern Italy, supporting his ally Victor-Emmanuel II, King of Piedmont-Sardinia. The aim of this alliance was to support the efforts to unify Italy, a historic process known as the Risorgimento. The campaign also had a confrontational dimension against the powerful Habsburg dynasty, which ruled much of central Europe and had possessions in Italy.
| | 亨利-杜南是日内瓦的一名瑞士商人，他在历史上发挥了重要作用，尤其是他的人道主义工作，标志着红十字会的开端。他与历史的邂逅发生在 1859 年的一次意大利北部之行，他希望在那里见到法国皇帝拿破仑三世。1859 年，拿破仑三世正在意大利北部竞选，支持他的盟友皮德蒙特-撒丁岛国王维克多-伊曼纽尔二世。结盟的目的是支持统一意大利的努力，这一历史进程被称为 "意大利大革命"（Risorgimento）。这场战役还涉及到与强大的哈布斯堡王朝的对抗，哈布斯堡王朝统治着中欧大部分地区，并在意大利拥有领地。 |
|
| |
|
| Dunant arrived in Italy for commercial reasons and witnessed the horrors of the Battle of Solferino, one of the bloodiest battles of the Risorgimento. Deeply affected by the suffering of the wounded soldiers and the inadequacy of medical care, he organised emergency assistance for the victims, regardless of their nationality. This experience was the catalyst for his commitment to humanitarian aid. His experience at Solferino and his desire to improve the lot of the war-wounded led him to write "Un Souvenir de Solférino", a book published in 1862, in which he called for the creation of national relief societies and the establishment of an international treaty for the protection of war victims. These ideas led to the founding of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863 and the adoption of the first Geneva Conventions. Henri Dunant's chance encounter with history in northern Italy triggered a series of events that led to major advances in international humanitarian law. His vision and actions laid the foundations for modern humanitarian aid and have profoundly influenced the way victims of armed conflict are treated today.
| | 杜南因商业原因来到意大利，目睹了索尔费里诺战役的惨烈，这是起义中最血腥的战役之一。受伤士兵的痛苦和医疗服务的不足深深地影响了他，他组织了对受害者的紧急援助，不分国籍。这段经历是他致力于人道主义援助的催化剂。他在索尔费里诺的经历和改善战争伤员命运的愿望促使他撰写了《索尔费里诺回忆录》（Un Souvenir de Solférino）一书，该书于 1862 年出版。这些主张促成了 1863 年红十字国际委员会（ICRC）的成立和第一批日内瓦公约的通过。亨利-杜南在意大利北部与历史的偶然相遇引发了一系列事件，导致国际人道法取得了重大进展。他的远见和行动为现代人道主义援助奠定了基础，并深刻影响了今天对待武装冲突受害者的方式。 |
|
| |
|
| Henri Dunant's presence at Solferino on 24 June 1859 was a decisive moment in the history of humanitarian aid. The Battle of Solferino, where Austrian forces were defeated by a Franco-Italian alliance, has gone down in history as a striking example of the brutality of modern warfare at the time. During the battle, around 40,000 soldiers were killed, wounded or reported missing, highlighting the terrible reality of war and the inadequacy of the medical care available. Dunant, who had arrived in the region for business reasons, was deeply shocked by the scenes of suffering and death he encountered there. He later described these scenes in his book "Un Souvenir de Solférino", published in 1862, which had a considerable impact on public perception of the war. Faced with this reality, Dunant took the initiative of organising aid for the wounded, regardless of nationality. With the help of the local population, he set up emergency care for wounded soldiers, illustrating through his actions the principles of humanity and impartiality that would become the foundations of the Red Cross. He was also struck by the seriousness of the injuries caused by the new weapons of the time, which made conflicts even more deadly and highlighted the urgent need for better care facilities for war victims. Dunant's experience at Solferino not only highlighted the need to improve medical care on the battlefield, but also underlined the importance of international regulation for the protection of war victims. This led to the creation of the International Committee of the Red Cross and the adoption of the first Geneva Conventions, laying the foundations of modern international humanitarian law.
| | 1859 年 6 月 24 日，亨利-杜南出现在索尔费里诺，这是人道主义援助历史上的一个决定性时刻。在索尔费里诺战役中，奥地利军队被法意联军击败，这场战役被载入史册，成为当时现代战争残酷性的鲜明例证。在这场战役中，约有 40,000 名士兵阵亡、受伤或失踪，突显了战争的可怕现实和现有医疗服务的不足。因公务原因来到该地区的杜南被当地的苦难和死亡场景深深震撼。他后来在 1862 年出版的《索尔费里诺的回忆》一书中描述了这些场景，该书对公众对战争的看法产生了相当大的影响。面对这一现实，杜南主动组织了不分国籍的伤员援助活动。在当地居民的帮助下，他为伤兵建立了紧急救护所，用行动诠释了人道、公正的原则，这也是红十字会的基础。他还对当时新式武器造成的严重伤害深有感触，这些武器使冲突变得更加致命，突出表明迫切需要为战争受害者提供更好的救护设施。杜南在索尔费里诺的经历不仅凸显了改善战场医疗服务的必要性，还强调了保护战争受害者的国际法规的重要性。这促成了红十字国际委员会的成立和第一批日内瓦公约的通过，奠定了现代国际人道主义法的基础。 |
|
| |
|
| The book "Un Souvenir de Solférino", published by Henri Dunant in 1862, is a poignant testimony to the horror of war and a visionary plea for a more humanitarian world. In it, Dunant not only describes the scenes of suffering and death he witnessed in the aftermath of the Battle of Solferino, but also proposes concrete solutions for improving the care of the war-wounded. Dunant's first suggestion was the creation of voluntary relief societies. The idea was to form groups of volunteer citizens, trained and prepared to provide medical care in wartime. These societies would work alongside the military health services and provide care for the wounded, regardless of nationality. The aim was to ensure that wounded soldiers, whatever their nationality, received the necessary medical care on the battlefield. His second proposal was to convene an international congress in Geneva to obtain government approval for the project. The aim was to create an international legal framework that would enable relief societies to operate effectively in wartime and guarantee the protection of the wounded and medical workers.
| | 亨利-杜南于 1862 年出版的《索尔费里诺的纪念》一书是战争恐怖的有力见证，也是对一个更加人道的世界的美好憧憬。在这本书中，杜南不仅描述了他在索尔费里诺战役后目睹的痛苦和死亡场景，还提出了改善战争伤员护理的具体解决方案。杜南的第一个建议是成立志愿救济协会。他的想法是组建由经过培训并准备在战时提供医疗服务的公民志愿者组成的团体。这些协会将与军队医疗服务机构并肩工作，不分国籍地为伤员提供医疗服务。这样做的目的是确保受伤的士兵，无论其国籍如何，都能在战场上获得必要的医疗服务。他的第二个建议是在日内瓦召开一次国际大会，以获得政府对该项目的批准。其目的是建立一个国际法律框架，使救济协会能够在战时有效运作，并保证伤员和医务工作者得到保护。 |
|
| |
|
| These revolutionary proposals laid the foundations of the Red Cross and international humanitarian law. In 1863, on the initiative of Dunant and others, the International Committee of the Red Cross was founded in Geneva. Then, in 1864, the first Geneva Convention was adopted, establishing legal standards for the treatment and protection of war wounded. The impact of "A souvenir of Solferino" and Henri Dunant's initiatives was considerable. Not only did they lead to the formation of one of the world's largest and most respected humanitarian organisations, but they also laid the foundations for international humanitarian law, radically changing the way victims of armed conflict are treated around the world.
| | 这些革命性的建议奠定了红十字会和国际人道法的基础。1863 年，在杜南等人的倡议下，红十字国际委员会在日内瓦成立。随后，1864 年通过了第一份《日内瓦公约》，为治疗和保护战争伤员制定了法律标准。索尔费里诺纪念品》和亨利-杜南的倡议产生了巨大影响。它们不仅促成了世界上最大、最受尊敬的人道主义组织之一的成立，还为国际人道主义法奠定了基础，从根本上改变了世界各地对待武装冲突受害者的方式。 |
|
| |
|
| Gustave Moynier, an eminent Swiss jurist, played a fundamental role in giving concrete form and structure to Henri Dunant's humanitarian ideas. After Dunant published "Un Souvenir de Solférino", Moynier recognised the importance and potential of these ideas to transform the care of the war wounded. In 1863, Moynier took the initiative of setting up a committee under the leadership of General Guillaume-Henri Dufour, a respected Swiss officer and engineer. This committee, made up of five members, including Dunant and Dufour, became the first International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). The committee's mission was to develop Dunant's ideas and create an organisation that could implement these concepts in a practical and effective way. Moynier's role was crucial in the organisational and legal structuring of the Red Cross. As a lawyer, he helped to develop the principles and legal frameworks necessary for the organisation to function effectively, particularly in times of conflict. Moynier also played a key role in promoting the idea of an international convention for the protection of war victims, which led to the first Geneva Convention in 1864. The creation of the ICRC marked a turning point in the history of humanitarian aid. The organisation quickly gained recognition and influence, setting standards for the fair treatment of the wounded on the battlefield, regardless of their nationality. The principles established by the ICRC, such as neutrality, impartiality and independence, became cornerstones of international humanitarian law.
| | 瑞士著名法学家古斯塔夫-莫尼埃（Gustave Moynier）在赋予亨利-杜南的人道主义思想以具体形式和结构方面发挥了重要作用。在杜南发表《索尔费里诺的纪念》一文后，莫尼埃认识到这些思想在改变战争伤员护理方面的重要性和潜力。1863 年，莫尼埃倡议成立一个委员会，由受人尊敬的瑞士军官兼工程师纪尧姆-亨利-杜富尔将军（Guillaume-Henri Dufour）领导。该委员会由包括杜南和杜富尔在内的五名成员组成，后来成为第一个红十字国际委员会（ICRC）。该委员会的任务是发展杜南的理念，并创建一个能够切实有效地实施这些理念的组织。莫尼埃在红十字会的组织和法律架构方面发挥了至关重要的作用。作为一名律师，他帮助制定了组织有效运作所需的原则和法律框架，尤其是在冲突时期。莫尼埃还在推动制定保护战争受害者国际公约的想法方面发挥了关键作用，这一想法促成了 1864 年第一部《日内瓦公约》的诞生。红十字国际委员会的成立标志着人道主义援助历史上的一个转折点。该组织迅速获得了认可和影响力，为公平对待战场上的伤员（无论其国籍如何）制定了标准。红十字国际委员会确立的中立、公正和独立等原则成为国际人道法的基石。 |
|
| |
|
| The International Committee of the Red Cross, spurred on by the ideas of Henri Dunant and with the legal structure provided by Gustave Moynier, organised an international congress in 1863 that marked a major milestone in the history of humanitarianism. This meeting brought together representatives of government committees and experts to discuss ways of improving health services in armed conflicts. The outcome of this congress was the creation of a charter, adopted on 29 October 1863, which laid the fundamental foundations of the Red Cross. These innovative principles included the formation in each country of relief committees to come to the aid of the wounded on the battlefield, regardless of their nationality. In addition, the charter emphasised the importance of neutralising the wounded and medical personnel, thus protecting them from attack and hostility during conflicts.
| | 在亨利-杜南（Henri Dunant）思想的推动下，红十字国际委员会在古斯塔夫-莫尼埃（Gustave Moynier）提供的法律架构下，于 1863 年组织召开了一次国际大会，标志着人道主义历史上的一个重要里程碑。这次会议汇集了政府委员会的代表和专家，讨论如何改善武装冲突中的医疗服务。这次大会的成果是于 1863 年 10 月 29 日通过了一项宪章，奠定了红十字会的根本基础。这些创新原则包括在每个国家成立救援委员会，不分国籍地救助战场上的伤员。此外，宪章还强调了伤员和医务人员中立的重要性，从而保护他们在冲突中不受攻击和敌意。 |
|
| |
|
| A distinctive element of this charter was the adoption of a universally recognised distinctive sign: the red cross on a white background. This symbol, chosen in part for its simplicity and visibility, would be used to identify medical personnel and equipment on the battlefield. The choice of the red cross was initially more pragmatic than emblematic, moving away from the original idea of a white armband. It was not until 1870 that the symbolic interpretation of the red cross as a reversal of the colours of the Swiss national flag (a white cross on a red background) was proposed, thus strengthening the links between the Red Cross and its country of origin. The adoption of this charter and the choice of the red cross symbol had a considerable impact on international humanitarian law. They formalised the principles of humanity, neutrality and impartiality that continue to guide humanitarian action throughout the world. The Red Cross has thus become a key player in efforts to protect and assist the victims of war and armed conflict, playing a crucial role in the development of international humanitarian law.
| | 该宪章的一个显著特点是采用了一个举世公认的特殊标志：白底红十字。选择这一标志的部分原因是它简单易懂，可用于识别战场上的医务人员和设备。选择红十字最初更多的是为了实用，而不是为了象征，这与最初的白色臂章的想法不同。直到 1870 年，人们才提出将红十字象征性地解释为瑞士国旗颜色的反转（红底白字），从而加强了红十字会与其起源国之间的联系。宪章的通过和红十字标志的选择对国际人道法产生了重大影响。它们正式确立了人道、中立和公正的原则，这些原则将继续指导世界各地的人道行动。红十字会因此成为保护和援助战争与武装冲突受害者的重要力量，在国际人道法的发展中发挥着至关重要的作用。 |
|
| |
|
| In August 1864, the Swiss Federal Council, under the influence of the International Committee of the Red Cross, played a decisive role in promoting and adopting the humanitarian principles established at the 1863 Congress. The Federal Council invited the States of Europe, as well as the United States, Brazil and Mexico, to take part in an international conference. The aim of the conference, which was held in Geneva, was to formalise the resolutions adopted the previous year and transform them into an international treaty. This historic conference resulted in the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, officially entitled "Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Military Wounded in the Field". This convention represented a significant advance in international humanitarian law. It established clear rules for the neutralisation and protection of medical personnel in wartime, as well as for the humanitarian treatment of wounded soldiers.
| | 1864 年 8 月，在红十字国际委员会的影响下，瑞士联邦委员会在促进和通过 1863 年大会确立的人道主义原则方面发挥了决定性作用。联邦委员会邀请欧洲各国以及美国、巴西和墨西哥参加一次国际会议。会议在日内瓦举行，目的是将前一年通过的决议正式化，并将其转化为一项国际条约。这次具有历史意义的会议通过了第一个日内瓦公约，正式名称为《改善战地伤员境遇公约》。该公约代表了国际人道主义法的重大进步。它为战时医务人员的中立和保护以及伤兵的人道主义治疗制定了明确的规则。 |
|
| |
|
| Although the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1864, its effective application in armed conflicts took time. It was first implemented in a limited way during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. However, it was not until 1885, during the Serb-Bulgarian war, that the Geneva Convention was fully applied by both parties to the conflict. This event marked a turning point in the history of warfare, as for the first time an international agreement governing the treatment of the wounded on the battlefield was respected by all parties involved in a conflict. The progressive adoption and application of the Geneva Convention underlined the growing importance of international humanitarian law and set a precedent for future treaties and conventions. The Geneva Convention of 1864, and its subsequent revisions, continue to form the basis of international humanitarian law, governing the conduct of war and the protection of non-combatants.
| | 尽管《日内瓦公约》于 1864 年通过，但其在武装冲突中的有效应用却需要时间。1866 年普奥战争期间，该公约首次得到有限度的实施。然而，直到 1885 年塞尔维亚-保加利亚战争期间，冲突双方才全面适用《日内瓦公约》。这一事件标志着战争史上的一个转折点，因为关于战场伤员治疗的国际协定首次得到冲突各方的尊重。日内瓦公约》的逐步通过和适用彰显了国际人道主义法日益增长的重要性，并为未来的条约和公约开创了先例。1864 年《日内瓦公约》及其随后的修订版继续构成国际人道主义法的基础，规范战争行为和保护非战斗人员。 |
|
| |
|
| The Geneva Convention, a central pillar of humanitarian law, was originally designed to improve the lot of wounded soldiers in wartime. Its origins date back to the first Geneva Convention, adopted in 1864, following Henri Dunant's humanitarian initiative after the Battle of Solferino in 1859. This battle, marked by untold suffering and massive casualties, inspired Dunant to advocate more humane treatment of the war wounded, whatever their nationality. The Geneva Convention of 1864, supported by the International Committee of the Red Cross founded a year earlier, established fundamental principles for the care of wounded soldiers on the battlefield. It introduced the revolutionary idea of neutralising medical personnel and medical facilities, thus protecting them from attack during conflicts. It also established the principle of humane treatment of the wounded, without discrimination on the basis of nationality, marking a significant advance in the way war was conducted.
| | 日内瓦公约》是人道主义法律的核心支柱，其初衷是改善战时伤兵的命运。其起源可追溯到 1859 年索尔费里诺战役后亨利-杜南提出的人道主义倡议后于 1864 年通过的第一项《日内瓦公约》。这场战役给人们带来了无尽的苦难和巨大的伤亡，促使杜南倡导为战争伤员（无论其国籍）提供更人道的待遇。1864 年的《日内瓦公约》在一年前成立的红十字国际委员会的支持下，确立了照顾战场伤兵的基本原则。它提出了使医务人员和医疗设施中立化的革命性思想，从而保护他们在冲突中不受攻击。它还确立了不分国籍人道对待伤员的原则，标志着战争方式的重大进步。 |
|
| |
|
| Over the years, the requirements of humanitarian law have evolved with changes in the nature of armed conflicts. The Geneva Conventions have been revised and extended on several occasions to meet these new challenges. For example, the 1949 revision, which took place after the horrors of the Second World War, considerably broadened the scope of the Conventions. This revision gave rise to four separate conventions, covering not only wounded soldiers and prisoners of war, but also the protection of civilians, including those under enemy occupation. These conventions, together with their additional protocols, now form the basis of international humanitarian law. They establish essential rules for the conduct of hostilities and the protection of non-combatants. Their application in various conflicts, such as the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Serb-Bulgarian War in 1885, has demonstrated their importance and effectiveness, although compliance with them remains a constant challenge in conflict zones around the world.
| | 多年来，人道主义法的要求随着武装冲突性质的变化而不断发展。为了应对这些新的挑战，《日内瓦四公约》经过了多次修订和扩展。例如，1949 年的修订是在第二次世界大战的恐怖之后进行的，大大扩大了公约的范围。这次修订产生了四项单独的公约，不仅涉及受伤士兵和战俘，还涉及对平民的保护，包括那些处于敌人占领下的平民。这些公约及其附加议定书现已成为国际人道主义法的基础。它们确立了敌对行动和保护非战斗人员的基本规则。这些公约在各种冲突中的应用，如 1866 年的普奥战争和 1885 年的塞尔维亚-保加利亚战争，证明了它们的重要性和有效性，尽管在世界各地的冲突地区，遵守这些公约仍然是一个持续的挑战。 |
|
| |
|
| The major innovation of the Geneva Conventions lies in the establishment of permanent written standards, universal in scope, designed to protect the victims of conflicts. For the first time in history, a multilateral treaty defined clear and binding rules for the treatment of war victims, applicable to all States that ratified it. This universality and permanence mark a decisive turning point in international humanitarian law. The principles established by the Geneva Conventions mainly concern the obligation to treat wounded soldiers without discrimination. This rule represents a radical departure from previous practice, in which captured or wounded soldiers were often left untreated or even mistreated. The Convention establishes a moral and legal obligation to provide medical care to all wounded, regardless of their nationality or role in the conflict. Another crucial aspect of these standards is the obligation to respect the medical personnel dedicated to caring for these wounded, as well as the medical equipment and supplies. These elements are protected by the Red Cross emblem, which has become a universally recognised symbol of neutrality and protection in conflict situations. This symbol ensures that medical personnel and medical facilities are not targeted and can operate safely in war zones. The adoption of these rules represented a major step forward in respect for human rights in wartime. These standards have laid the foundations for an international legal framework that guarantees a certain humanity in armed conflicts, striving to reduce suffering and protecting the most vulnerable individuals. The universal scope and acceptance of the Geneva Convention testifies to its continuing importance and relevance in the contemporary world, despite the constant challenges associated with its application and observance in various conflict situations across the globe.
| | 日内瓦四公约》的主要创新在于确立了旨在保护冲突受害者的永久性、普遍性书面标准。一项多边条约明确规定了适用于所有批准国的具有约束力的战争受害者待遇规则，这在历史上尚属首次。这种普遍性和持久性标志着国际人道主义法的一个决定性转折点。日内瓦四公约》确立的原则主要涉及一视同仁地对待受伤士兵的义务。这一规则与以往的做法大相径庭，在以往的做法中，被俘或受伤的士兵往往得不到治疗，甚至受到虐待。公约》规定了为所有伤员提供医疗护理的道德和法律义务，无论其国籍或在冲突中的角色如何。这些标准的另一个重要方面是，有义务尊重专门护理这些伤员的医务人员以及医疗设备和用品。这些要素受到红十字标志的保护，该标志已成为冲突局势中中立和保护的公认象征。这一标志确保医务人员和医疗设施不会成为攻击目标，并能在战区安全运作。这些规则的通过标志着在战时尊重人权方面向前迈出了一大步。这些标准为国际法律框架奠定了基础，该框架保障武装冲突中的一定人道性，努力减少痛苦，保护最脆弱的个人。尽管《日内瓦公约》在全球各种冲突局势中的适用和遵守不断面临挑战，但《日内瓦公约》的普遍适用和接受证明了其在当今世界的持续重要性和相关性。 |
|
| |
|
| The various treaties derived from the Geneva Conventions form the cornerstone of international humanitarian law (IHL). These Conventions, together with their Additional Protocols, establish a detailed legal framework for the protection of persons who are not, or are no longer, taking part in hostilities, including the wounded, sick, shipwrecked, prisoners of war and civilians. International humanitarian law, often referred to as the "law of war" or the "law of armed conflict", is a specific branch of international law that regulates the methods and means of conducting hostilities and seeks to limit their effects. It aims to balance humanitarian considerations with military necessity, protecting those who are not, or are no longer, engaged in combat and regulating the way in which combat is conducted.
| | 由日内瓦四公约衍生出的各项条约构成了国际人道主义法（IHL）的基石。这些公约及其附加议定书为保护未参加或不再参加敌对行动的人员（包括伤员、病人、遇船难者、战俘和平民）建立了详细的法律框架。国际人道法常被称为 "战争法 "或 "武装冲突法"，是国际法的一个具体分支，它规范敌对行动的方法和手段，并寻求限制其影响。它旨在平衡人道主义考虑和军事必要性，保护那些未参战或不再参战的人，并规范作战方式。 |
|
| |
|
| The fundamental principles of IHL, such as the prohibition of torture, the humane treatment of prisoners, the protection of civilians and the obligation to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants, derive from the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols. These treaties have been supplemented and strengthened over time by other international agreements, such as the Hague Conventions and various treaties on specific weapons (such as the treaties banning the use of landmines and chemical weapons). In addition to their normative role, the Geneva Conventions also have an important symbolic role. They embody a global commitment to humanitarian principles, even in the most difficult circumstances of armed conflict. Their existence and observance underline the importance of human dignity and respect for human rights, regardless of the circumstances.
| | 国际人道主义法的基本原则，如禁止酷刑、人道对待囚犯、保护平民以及区分战斗人员和非战斗人员的义务等，均源自日内瓦四公约及其附加议定书。随着时间的推移，这些条约得到了其他国际协定的补充和加强，如《海牙公约》和关于特定武器的各种条约（如禁止使用地雷和化学武器的条约）。除了规范作用，日内瓦四公约还具有重要的象征意义。它们体现了全球对人道主义原则的承诺，即使在最困难的武装冲突情况下也是如此。它们的存在和遵守强调了人的尊严和尊重人权的重要性，无论在何种情况下。 |
|
| |
|
| = The League of Nations = | | = 国际联盟 = |
| [[Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00678, Genf.- Haus des Völkerbundrates.jpg|thumb|300px|The Palais Wilson in Geneva in 1928, the first headquarters of the League of Nations.]] | | [[Fichier:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-00678, Genf.- Haus des Völkerbundrates.jpg|thumb|300px|1928 年的日内瓦威尔逊宫，国际联盟的第一个总部。]] |
|
| |
|
| The creation of the League of Nations on 28 April 1919 was a milestone in the history of international relations and international law. Born of the ashes of the First World War, the organisation's ambition was to establish a system of collective security on a global scale, an innovative idea at the time.
| | 1919 年 4 月 28 日国际联盟的成立是国际关系和国际法史上的一个里程碑。该组织诞生于第一次世界大战的废墟，其目标是在全球范围内建立一个集体安全体系，这在当时是一个创新的想法。 |
|
| |
|
| The concept of the League of Nations was largely a response to the horrors of the First World War (1914-1918), a war that had devastating consequences and left a deep impression on people's minds at the time. The main aim was to prevent future large-scale conflicts by promoting international cooperation and resolving disputes between states peacefully. The founding pact of the League of Nations was included in the peace treaties that ended the First World War, notably the Treaty of Versailles. This pact established the guiding principles of the organisation, including the promotion of international cooperation, respect for the sovereignty of states, and a commitment to the peaceful resolution of conflicts. The League of Nations was an ambitious attempt to create a new international order, based on dialogue and consensus rather than confrontation and conflict. It comprised various bodies, including a General Assembly where each member state had one vote, and an Executive Council made up of permanent and non-permanent members.
| | 国联的概念在很大程度上是对第一次世界大战（1914-1918 年）恐怖的回应，这场战争造成了毁灭性的后果，在当时的人们心中留下了深刻的印象。其主要目的是通过促进国际合作、和平解决国家间争端来防止未来发生大规模冲突。国际联盟的创始条约被纳入结束第一次世界大战的和平条约，特别是《凡尔赛条约》。该条约确立了国联的指导原则，包括促进国际合作、尊重国家主权以及致力于和平解决冲突。国际联盟雄心勃勃，试图在对话和共识而非对抗和冲突的基础上建立新的国际秩序。国联由多个机构组成，包括每个成员国拥有一票的大会，以及由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成的执行理事会。 |
|
| |
|
| Despite its high ideals and laudable efforts, the League of Nations encountered a number of challenges and limitations. It failed to prevent the rising tensions that led to the Second World War. Several major countries, such as the United States, never joined, and others, such as Germany and the Soviet Union, were only members for a limited period. In addition, the League had no armed force of its own to enforce its resolutions, which limited its ability to intervene effectively in conflicts. Despite its shortcomings, the League of Nations laid the foundations for modern international cooperation and influenced the creation of the United Nations in 1945. Many of its principles and structures have been adopted and improved by the United Nations, which has sought to correct the mistakes and fill the gaps left by the League of Nations. So, although the League of Nations failed to fully realise its goal of world peace, its legacy lives on in ongoing efforts for effective international cooperation and governance.
| | 尽管国联有着崇高的理想和值得称赞的努力，但它也遇到了许多挑战和限制。它未能阻止导致第二次世界大战的紧张局势升级。美国等几个主要国家从未加入，德国和苏联等其他国家只是在有限的时期内加入。此外，国联没有自己的武装力量来执行其决议，这限制了其有效干预冲突的能力。尽管存在缺陷，国际联盟为现代国际合作奠定了基础，并影响了 1945 年联合国的成立。联合国采纳并改进了国际联盟的许多原则和结构，努力纠正国际联盟的错误，填补国际联盟留下的空白。因此，尽管国际联盟未能完全实现其世界和平的目标，但其遗产仍在为有效的国际合作与治理而不断努力。 |
|
| |
|
| The international enthusiasm that followed the creation of the League of Nations after the First World War was rooted in a deep desire to end the permanent state of war and establish a system of collective security. The aim of the League of Nations was ambitious: to fundamentally transform the way nations interacted, with an emphasis on the limitation of war, disarmament, the peaceful settlement of disputes and the application of sanctions against aggressor states. Limiting war was a central principle of the League of Nations. The idea was to make war less likely by encouraging nations to discuss their differences rather than resorting immediately to arms. This approach aimed to establish international standards of conduct that would discourage aggression and encourage dialogue. Disarmament was also a key objective. After the massive destruction and loss of life of the First World War, there was a strong movement to reduce military armaments. The hope was that, by limiting the military capabilities of nations, the likelihood and scale of future conflicts could be reduced. Peaceful conflict resolution was another pillar. The League of Nations sought to provide a forum where disputes could be resolved by negotiation, mediation, arbitration or judicial recourse, rather than by force. This approach was revolutionary at the time, as it offered systematic alternatives to war. Finally, the Society provided for sanctions against aggressor states. The idea was that if one state violated the principles of the Society by attacking another, the other members could impose economic sanctions or even collective military action to restore peace. Despite these lofty goals, the League of Nations encountered a number of challenges in implementing these ideals. Structural limitations, the absence of some major countries, and the lack of means to enforce its decisions have hampered its effectiveness. However, the framework and principles established by the League of Nations laid the foundations for international cooperation in the pursuit of peace and security, profoundly influencing the formation of the United Nations and the conduct of modern international relations.
| | 第一次世界大战后国际联盟成立后，国际社会的热情源于结束长期战争状态和建立集体安全体系的强烈愿望。国联的目标雄心勃勃：从根本上改变各国的互动方式，强调限制战争、裁军、和平解决争端以及对侵略国实施制裁。限制战争是国联的核心原则。其理念是通过鼓励各国讨论分歧而不是立即诉诸武力来降低战争的可能性。这一方法旨在建立阻止侵略和鼓励对话的国际行为标准。裁军也是一个关键目标。第一次世界大战造成了巨大的破坏和人员伤亡，此后出现了一场声势浩大的裁减军备运动。人们希望，通过限制各国的军事能力，可以减少未来冲突的可能性和规模。和平解决冲突是另一个支柱。国际联盟试图提供一个论坛，通过谈判、调解、仲裁或司法途径而非武力解决争端。这种方法在当时是革命性的，因为它提供了系统的战争替代办法。最后，学会规定了对侵略国的制裁。当时的想法是，如果一个国家通过攻击另一个国家违反了协会的原则，其他成员可以实施经济制裁，甚至采取集体军事行动来恢复和平。尽管有这些崇高的目标，国际联盟在实现这些理想的过程中遇到了许多挑战。结构上的限制、一些主要国家的缺席以及缺乏执行其决定的手段都阻碍了其有效性。然而，国联确立的框架和原则为追求和平与安全的国际合作奠定了基础，深刻影响了联合国的形成和现代国际关系的发展。 |
|
| |
|
| The Covenant of the League of Nations, adopted after the First World War, established an organisational structure with three main bodies, each with a specific role in the functioning of this international organisation. Firstly, the General Assembly was the deliberative body in which each member state was represented by a delegation. Each member had a single vote, which ensured fair representation of both large and small states. The General Assembly met regularly to discuss and decide on important issues affecting international peace and security. Secondly, the Council of the League of Nations was made up of permanent and non-permanent members. The permanent members were the representatives of the victorious Great Powers of the First World War, notably Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan. Initially, the United States was also intended to be a permanent member, but the Republican-dominated US Senate after the 1918 elections voted against ratification of the Treaty of Versailles. This prevented US participation in the League of Nations and marked a return to the country's isolationist policy. The absence of the United States, a major world power, was a serious blow to the credibility and effectiveness of the League. Finally, the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary General, was the third main body of the League of Nations. The Secretariat was responsible for the administrative management of the organisation, the preparation of meetings and the implementation of the decisions of the Assembly and the Council. These three bodies formed the basic structure of the League of Nations, each playing a crucial role in its efforts to maintain international peace and security. Although the League faced significant challenges and failed to prevent the Second World War, its existence marked an important milestone in the development of international governance and laid the foundations for the United Nations, which succeeded it after 1945.
| | 第一次世界大战后通过的《国际联盟盟约》建立了一个由三个主要机构组成的组织结构，每个机构都在这个国际组织的运作中发挥着特定的作用。首先，大会是审议机构，每个成员国都派代表团参加。每个成员国只有一票，这确保了大国和小国的公平代表性。大会定期举行会议，讨论并决定影响国际和平与安全的重要问题。其次，国际联盟理事会由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成。常任理事国是第一次世界大战战胜国的代表，主要是英国、法国、意大利和日本。最初，美国也打算成为常任理事国，但在 1918 年大选后，共和党占主导地位的美国参议院投票反对批准《凡尔赛条约》。这使美国无法参加国联，标志着美国恢复了孤立主义政策。作为世界大国，美国的缺席严重打击了国联的公信力和有效性。最后，由秘书长领导的秘书处是国联的第三个主要机构。秘书处负责国联的行政管理、会议筹备以及大会和理事会决定的执行。这三个机构构成了国联的基本结构，各自在维护国际和平与安全的努力中发挥着至关重要的作用。尽管国联面临重大挑战，未能阻止第二次世界大战，但它的存在标志着国际治理发展的一个重要里程碑，并为 1945 年后接替国联的联合国奠定了基础。 |
|
| |
|
| The organisational structure of the League of Nations, comprising the Assembly and the Council, was designed to ensure continuity and efficiency in the management of international affairs, particularly with regard to the maintenance of world peace. Both the General Assembly and the Council were political bodies with similar competences, particularly in the crucial areas of international peace and security. Their role was to work together to prevent conflict, facilitate international cooperation and respond to various international crises. The General Assembly, made up of all the Member States, met at regular intervals to discuss and take decisions on issues of global importance. During its sessions, the Assembly had the power to deliberate and take decisions on matters normally dealt with by the Council. This arrangement allowed flexibility in the management of global affairs, ensuring that important issues could be dealt with effectively even when the Council was not in session. For its part, the Council, made up of permanent and non-permanent members, acted when the General Assembly was not in session. The Council was responsible for managing the day-to-day business of the Society and for taking decisions on urgent or sensitive matters relating to world peace. In the absence of the Assembly, the Council therefore assumed the functions and responsibilities of the Assembly, thus ensuring continuous oversight and action on peace and security issues. This organisational structure was designed to allow a degree of flexibility in decision-making and in responding to international crises. However, in practice, the distinction between the roles of the Assembly and the Council was not always clear, and this sometimes led to overlaps and inefficiencies in the operation of the League of Nations. Despite this, the framework established by the League of Nations laid important foundations for the subsequent development of international organisations, in particular the United Nations, which adopted and refined many of its principles and organisational structures.
| | 国际联盟的组织结构由大会和理事会组成，旨在确保国际事务管理的连续性和效率，特别是在维护世界和平方面。大会和理事会都是政治机构，具有相似的权限，特别是在国际和平与安全的关键领域。它们的作用是共同预防冲突、促进国际合作和应对各种国际危机。大会由所有会员国组成，定期举行会议，讨论全球重要问题并做出决定。在大会会议期间，大会有权审议通常由理事会处理的事项并做出决定。这种安排使全球事务的管理具有灵活性，确保重要问题即使在理事会闭会期间也能得到有效处理。安理会则由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成，在大会闭会期间采取行动。理事会负责管理协会的日常事务，并就与世界和平有关的紧急或敏感事项做出决定。因此，在大会缺席时，理事会承担大会的职能和责任，从而确保对和平与安全问题的持续监督和行动。这一组织结构旨在使决策和应对国际危机具有一定程度的灵活性。然而，在实践中，大会和安理会的作用并不总是区分得很清楚，这有时会导致国际联盟运作的重叠和低效。尽管如此，国际联盟建立的框架为后来国际组织的发展奠定了重要基础，尤其是联合国，它采纳并完善了国际联盟的许多原则和组织结构。 |
|
| |
|
| The Covenant of the League of Nations established the "unanimity rule" for decisions taken by its Council and Assembly, with the exception of procedural matters. This rule meant that for a decision to be adopted, all voting members had to be in agreement. This unanimity requirement was both a guarantee of respect for the sovereignty of Member States and a potential obstacle to effective action by the Society, particularly in situations requiring a rapid or determined response. The unanimity rule reflected the caution with which the Member States of the League of Nations approached the question of national sovereignty. Although the Pact introduced significant innovations in international governance, notably by promoting cooperation and the peaceful resolution of conflicts, it never called into question the sovereignty of States. Each Member State retained its autonomy and decision-making powers, including the right of veto over the Society's decisions.
| | 国际联盟盟约》为其理事会和大会做出的决定确立了 "全体一致规则"，但程序性事项除外。这一规则意味着，要通过一项决定，所有有投票权的成员都必须同意。一致同意的要求既是尊重成员国主权的保证，也可能阻碍协会采取有效行动，特别是在需要迅速或坚决做出反应的情况下。一致同意规则反映了国际联盟成员国对国家主权问题的谨慎态度。尽管《公约》在国际治理方面进行了重大创新，特别是通过促进合作与和平解决冲突，但它从未对国家主权提出质疑。每个会员国都保留了自主权和决策权，包括对协会决定的否决权。 |
|
| |
|
| This approach reflected the context of the time, when the idea of giving up part of national sovereignty for collective international action was still widely controversial. However, the unanimity rule proved to be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, it ensured that the decisions taken had broad support among the Member States, thereby respecting their sovereignty. On the other hand, it made it difficult to adopt firm measures, particularly in crisis situations where consensus was difficult to achieve. The difficulty of achieving unanimity often hampered the League of Nations' effectiveness in preventing conflicts and responding to international crises. This limitation was particularly apparent in the years leading up to the Second World War, when the League proved incapable of effectively countering aggression by certain member states.
| | 这种做法反映了当时的背景，即放弃部分国家主权以采取集体国际行动的想法仍广受争议。然而，一致同意规则被证明是一把双刃剑。一方面，它确保所做出的决定得到会员国的广泛支持，从而尊重了会员国的主权。另一方面，它使采取坚定措施变得困难，特别是在难以达成共识的危机局势中。由于难以达成一致意见，国际联盟在预防冲突和应对国际危机方面的效率往往受到影响。这种局限性在第二次世界大战前的岁月里尤为明显，当时国联被证明无法有效反击某些成员国的侵略。 |
|
| |
|
| The unanimity rule within the League of Nations, which gave every member state, large or small, a right of veto, was one of the most distinctive and at the same time problematic features of its operation. This rule meant that any important decision required the agreement of all the members of the Council or the General Assembly, giving each state considerable power over all the Society's decisions. Although this provision was designed to protect the sovereignty of Member States and ensure consensual decision-making, it had the unintended effect of often paralysing the operation of the institution. In practice, the need to achieve unanimity for important decisions made the League of Nations particularly vulnerable to paralysis, especially in situations requiring swift and decisive action.
| | 国际联盟的全体一致规则赋予每个成员国（无论大小）否决权，这是其运作的最显著特点之一，同时也是问题之一。这一规则意味着任何重要决定都需要得到理事会或大会所有成员的同意，这使得每个国家都对协会的所有决定拥有相当大的权力。尽管这一规定旨在保护会员国的主权并确保决策的协商一致，但它却产生了意想不到的效果，往往使该机构的运作陷入瘫痪。在实践中，由于重要决定需要获得一致同意，国际联盟特别容易陷入瘫痪，尤其是在需要迅速采取果断行动的情况下。 |
|
| |
|
| For example, when a Member State was involved in an international conflict or crisis, it could use its veto to block any action or resolution that did not correspond to its national interests. This dynamic made it difficult for the League of Nations to respond effectively to international aggression or treaty violations. The unanimity rule has been widely criticised for contributing to the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations, particularly in the 1930s, when it faced major challenges such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia and Nazi Germany's expansionism. These failures highlighted the limitations of a structure based on unanimity and contributed to the evolution towards a different system with the United Nations after 1945, where the right of veto was limited to the permanent members of the Security Council.
| | 例如，当一个成员国卷入国际冲突或危机时，它可以使用否决权来阻止任何不符合其国家利益的行动或决议。这种动态使国联难以有效应对国际侵略或违反条约的行为。一致同意规则因导致国联效率低下而受到广泛批评，尤其是在 20 世纪 30 年代，当时国联面临着意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚和纳粹德国扩张主义等重大挑战。这些失败凸显了以全体一致为基础的结构的局限性，并促使 1945 年后联合国向不同的制度演变，否决权仅限于安理会常任理事国。 |
|
| |
|
| The fundamental approach of the League of Nations was based on the search for compromise and consensus rather than the exercise of the veto. The idea was that the most balanced and fair decisions could be taken when all member states reached unanimous agreement after thorough deliberation. This approach aimed to ensure that the interests and concerns of all Member States, large and small, were taken into account, reflecting true international cooperation. However, the challenge of achieving consensus in an increasingly polarised world became particularly acute with the advent of totalitarian regimes in Europe in the 1930s. Countries such as Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and later Franco's Spain adopted aggressive and expansionist policies that were in direct conflict with the League of Nations' principles of peace and cooperation.
| | 国际联盟的基本方法是寻求妥协和共识，而不是行使否决权。其理念是，当所有成员国经过充分讨论达成一致意见时，才能做出最平衡、最公平的决定。这种做法旨在确保所有会员国，无论大小，其利益和关切都能得到考虑，从而体现真正的国际合作。然而，随着 20 世纪 30 年代极权主义政权在欧洲的出现，在一个日益两极化的世界中达成共识所面临的挑战变得尤为严峻。纳粹德国、法西斯意大利以及后来的佛朗哥西班牙等国采取了侵略扩张政策，与国际联盟的和平与合作原则直接冲突。 |
|
| |
|
| These totalitarian regimes, by their very nature, were often unwilling to seek compromise or conform to established international norms. Their unilateral and often aggressive approach seriously undermined the ability of the League of Nations to function effectively as a forum for consultation and peaceful conflict resolution. Events such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 and Germany's remilitarisation of the Rhineland in 1936 demonstrated the League's inability to counter such aggression, undermining its credibility and authority. Ultimately, the rise of totalitarianism in Europe not only called into question the League of Nations' ideal of concerted action, but also precipitated its decline and led to its inability to prevent the Second World War. These failures underlined the limits of an international organisation based on the principle of unanimity in a world where divergent national and ideological interests were often irreconcilable. The dissolution of the League of Nations after the Second World War and the creation of the United Nations represented an attempt to learn from these challenges and establish a new framework for international cooperation and peacekeeping.
| | 这些极权主义政权就其本质而言，往往不愿寻求妥协或遵守既定的国际准则。他们的单边主义和侵略性做法严重削弱了国际联盟作为协商与和平解决冲突的论坛有效运作的能力。1935年意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚、1936年德国将莱茵地区重新军事化等事件表明，国联无力对抗此类侵略，其公信力和权威性也随之受损。最终，极权主义在欧洲的崛起不仅使国联的一致行动理想受到质疑，还加速了国联的衰落，导致其无法阻止第二次世界大战的爆发。这些失败凸显了在一个国家和意识形态利益分歧往往无法调和的世界中，以一致原则为基础的国际组织的局限性。第二次世界大战后，国际联盟解散，联合国成立，这代表着人们试图从这些挑战中吸取教训，建立一个新的国际合作与维和框架。 |
|
| |
|
| The refusal of the United States to join the League of Nations in November 1919, following a vote in the Senate, represents a significant moment in the history of international diplomacy and had important implications for the functioning and effectiveness of the organisation. This refusal was largely due to concerns about the League of Nations' principle of universalism and the fear that membership of the League would compromise the sovereignty of the United States and involve it in international conflicts against its will. US Senators, particularly those from the Republican party, were concerned about the clauses of the League of Nations Covenant, particularly those that appeared to oblige member states to take part in collective military action to maintain peace. They feared that this would lead to compulsory military intervention without the consent of the US Congress.
| | 1919 年 11 月，美国在参议院投票后拒绝加入国际联盟，这是国际外交史上的一个重要时刻，对国际联盟的运作和有效性产生了重要影响。拒绝加入国联的主要原因是对国联普遍性原则的担忧，担心加入国联会损害美国的主权，使美国违背自己的意愿卷入国际冲突。美国参议员，尤其是共和党参议员，对《国际联盟盟约》的条款表示担忧，特别是那些似乎要求成员国参与集体军事行动以维护和平的条款。他们担心这将导致未经美国国会同意的强制性军事干预。 |
|
| |
|
| This position was largely influenced by a desire for isolationism, a political and ideological trend in the United States that advocated a non-interventionist foreign policy and maintaining a distance from European affairs. After the human and financial costs of the First World War, many Americans were reluctant to commit themselves to international alliances and commitments that could drag them into further conflicts. President Woodrow Wilson, who had played a key role in the creation of the League of Nations and had championed its membership, was deeply disappointed by this rejection. The absence of the United States, one of the world's greatest powers at the time, weakened the legitimacy and effectiveness of the League of Nations. Without the participation of the United States, the League had difficulty imposing its authority and achieving its objectives of collective security and conflict prevention.
| | 这一立场在很大程度上受到孤立主义愿望的影响，孤立主义是美国的一种政治和意识形态趋势，主张不干涉主义外交政策，与欧洲事务保持距离。在经历了第一次世界大战的人员和经济损失后，许多美国人不愿意加入国际联盟，也不愿意做出可能将自己拖入更多冲突的承诺。伍德罗-威尔逊总统在国际联盟的创建过程中发挥了关键作用，并支持加入国际联盟。美国是当时世界上最强大的国家之一，它的缺席削弱了国联的合法性和有效性。没有美国的参与，国联难以行使其权威，也难以实现其集体安全和预防冲突的目标。 |
|
| |
|
| Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations illustrates the organisation's central commitment to the promotion of international justice and international law. This article reflects the desire of the members of the League of Nations to preserve international peace and security by establishing clear consequences for any member state that resorts to war in violation of its commitments. The fundamental principle was that maintaining the territorial integrity and independence of all states was vital to international peace. Under this article, any member of the League that unilaterally initiated hostilities was considered to have declared war on all other members. This provision was intended to deter aggression by imposing severe economic and financial sanctions, as well as severing all commercial and personal relations with the aggressor state. In addition, Article 16 called on the members of the League to support each other in the application of these sanctions and, if necessary, to contribute to the armed forces to enforce the League's commitments. This provision implied a form of collective security, with Member States working together to resist aggression and maintain peace. In practice, however, the application of Article 16 proved difficult. The need for consensus for collective action, the reluctance of Member States to engage in military conflict, and the absence of a standing armed force under the direct control of the League have limited its effectiveness. Cases such as Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935 demonstrated the limits of the League's ability to impose such sanctions effectively.
| | 国际联盟盟约》第 16 条表明了该组织对促进国际正义和国际法的核心承诺。该条款反映了国际联盟成员国维护国际和平与安全的愿望，为任何违反承诺诉诸战争的成员国规定了明确的后果。基本原则是，维护所有国家的领土完整和独立对国际和平至关重要。根据该条款，任何单方面发起敌对行动的国联成员国都被视为向所有其他成员国宣战。这一条款旨在通过实施严厉的经济和金融制裁，以及断绝与侵略国的一切商业和个人关系来阻止侵略。此外，第 16 条呼吁联盟成员在实施这些制裁时相互支持，并在必要时派遣武装部队以执行联盟的承诺。这一规定意味着一种集体安全，即成员国共同努力抵御侵略、维护和平。然而，在实践中，第 16 条的应用被证明是困难的。集体行动需要达成共识，成员国不愿卷入军事冲突，以及缺乏一支由阿盟直接控制的常备武装力量，这些都限制了其有效性。1935 年意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚等事件表明，阿盟有效实施此类制裁的能力有限。 |
|
| |
|
| Article 16 of the Covenant of the League of Nations provided that certain sanctions would be automatic in the event of violation of the commitments undertaken by the Member States, particularly in the context of the illegitimate use of military force. The purpose of these sanctions was to provide a coordinated and immediate response to any act of aggression, in order to deter States from resorting to war and to maintain international peace. The automatic sanctions mainly involved severing all trade and financial relations with the aggressor state. This meant that other members of the League of Nations were obliged to cease all forms of trade and financial exchange with the state in breach of the Covenant. These economic measures were designed to isolate the aggressor state and exert economic pressure, in the hope of forcing it to return to conduct consistent with international law and the principles of the League. Alongside economic sanctions, Article 16 also stipulated that military measures could be recommended by the Council of the League of Nations. These recommendations could include the determination of the military, naval or air forces which the members of the League would respectively contribute to the armed forces intended to enforce the League's commitments. In other words, it implied a form of collective military response against the aggressor state. However, implementing these military measures proved problematic in practice. The need for consensus within the League, the absence of a permanent military force under its control, and the reluctance of some Member States to engage in military action have limited the League's effectiveness in applying military sanctions. In addition, the complex political dynamics of the time often hampered the League's ability to respond to aggression in a unified and decisive manner.
| | 国际联盟盟约》第 16 条规定，如果成员国违反承诺，特别是在非法使用军事力量的情况下，将自动实施某些制裁。这些制裁的目的是对任何侵略行为立即做出协调反应，以阻止各国诉诸战争，维护国际和平。自动制裁主要涉及断绝与侵略国的所有贸易和金融关系。这意味着国际联盟的其他成员有义务停止与违反《公约》的国家进行一切形式的贸易和金融交流。这些经济措施旨在孤立侵略国并施加经济压力，希望迫使其恢复符合国际法和国联原则的行为。除经济制裁外，第 16 条还规定，国际联盟理事会可建议采取军事措施。这些建议可包括确定国联成员国将分别向旨在执行国联承诺的武装部队派遣的军事、海军或空军部队。换句话说，这意味着对侵略国的一种集体军事回应。然而，这些军事措施的实施在实践中证明是有问题的。阿盟内部需要达成共识，阿盟缺乏一支由其控制的永久性军事力量，一些成员国不愿参与军事行动，这些都限制了阿盟实施军事制裁的有效性。此外，当时复杂的政治动态也经常阻碍国联以统一、果断的方式应对侵略的能力。 |
|
| |
|
| The League of Nations, founded in 1919 in the hope of establishing a system of collective security to maintain world peace, faced major challenges from the 1930s onwards, marking a turning point in its history. This system, based on the idea that all member states should collectively defend a member under attack, was intended to guarantee the territorial integrity and independence of each nation. In theory, this collective solidarity would act as a powerful deterrent against any aggression. However, the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe posed a major challenge to this principle. Germany under Adolf Hitler, Italy under Benito Mussolini, and later Imperial Japan adopted aggressive expansionist policies, in flagrant violation of the principles of the League of Nations. These actions put the collective security system to the test, revealing its intrinsic weaknesses. The inability of the League of Nations to act in a unified and decisive manner was highlighted by several major crises. In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia, a clear act of aggression that should have triggered a strong collective response according to the principles of the League. However, the economic sanctions imposed on Italy were too little too late to deter Mussolini. Similarly, in 1936, Germany's reoccupation of the Rhineland marked another breach of international commitments, without leading to any significant response from the League.
| | 国际联盟成立于 1919 年，希望建立一个集体安全体系来维护世界和平，但从 20 世纪 30 年代开始，它面临着重大挑战，成为其历史上的一个转折点。这一体系基于所有成员国应集体保卫受到攻击的成员国的理念，旨在保障每个国家的领土完整和独立。从理论上讲，这种集体团结将对任何侵略起到强大的威慑作用。然而，极权主义政权在欧洲的崛起对这一原则构成了重大挑战。阿道夫-希特勒领导下的德国、贝尼托-墨索里尼领导下的意大利以及后来的日本帝国主义都采取了侵略扩张政策，公然违反了国际联盟的原则。这些行动使集体安全体系经受了考验，暴露了其内在的弱点。几次重大危机凸显了国联无法采取统一、果断的行动。1935 年，意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚，这是一次明显的侵略行为，本应根据国 际联盟的原则做出强有力的集体反应。然而，对意大利实施的经济制裁为时已晚，不足以震慑墨索里尼。同样，1936 年，德国重新占领莱茵地区，再次违反了国际承诺，但国联却没有做出任何重大反应。 |
|
| |
|
| These failures highlighted the limits of a system requiring perfect unity and firm political will among its members, conditions rarely met in the complex reality of international relations. The fear of another war, divergent national interests, and the absence of a key player like the United States, which had chosen not to join the League, all contributed to a lack of cohesion and determination. The Second World War, which broke out in 1939, was the final straw for the League of Nations. The failure of the collective security system was a key factor in the inability to prevent this conflict. After the war, the creation of the United Nations attempted to correct the mistakes of the League of Nations, by putting in place a more robust and realistic system of international security, with the creation of the Security Council and permanent members with the right of veto. The aim of this new organisation was to build a more stable and effective world order, drawing lessons from the limitations and failures of the League of Nations.
| | 这些失败凸显了这一体系的局限性，它要求成员之间完美的团结和坚定的政治意愿，而在复杂的国际关系现实中，这些条件很少能得到满足。对另一场战争的恐惧、不同的国家利益以及像美国这样选择不加入国联的关键国家的缺席，都是导致缺乏凝聚力和决心的原因。1939 年爆发的第二次世界大战是压垮国联的最后一根稻草。集体安全体系的失败是无法阻止这场冲突的关键因素。战后，联合国的成立试图纠正国际联盟的错误，通过设立安全理事会和拥有否决权的常任理事国，建立一个更强大、更现实的国际安全体系。这个新组织的目标是从国联的局限和失败中吸取教训，建立一个更加稳定和有效的世界秩序。 |
|
| |
|
| The history of the League of Nations in the 1930s is marked by a series of international crises that gradually eroded its credibility and underlined its limitations as a peacekeeping organisation. Each of these crises represented a flagrant violation of the principles on which the League had been founded, and their ineffective management revealed the structural and political weaknesses of the organisation. Japan's aggression against Manchuria in 1931 was the first of these major tests. Japan, seeking to expand its empire in Asia, invaded Manchuria, a region in north-eastern China. The reaction of the League of Nations was widely regarded as ineffective, limited to verbal condemnations without concrete measures to counter Japanese aggression. In response, Japan simply left the League in 1933, illustrating the organisation's inability to enforce its resolutions.
| | 国际联盟在 20 世纪 30 年代的历史以一系列国际危机为标志，这些危机逐渐削弱了国际联盟的公信力，凸显了其作为维和组织的局限性。每一次危机都是对国联成立原则的公然践踏，对危机的无效管理暴露了国联在结构和政治上的弱点。1931 年日本对满洲的侵略是这些重大考验中的第一次。日本试图扩大其在亚洲的帝国版图，入侵了中国东北部的满洲。国际联盟的反应被普遍认为是无效的，仅限于口头谴责，没有采取具体措施来反击日本的侵略。作为回应，日本于1933年退出了国联，这说明国联无力执行其决议。 |
|
| |
|
| The second major crisis was Italy's invasion of Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) in 1935. This aggression, orchestrated by Mussolini as part of his imperialist ambitions, was another blow to the Society. Although economic sanctions were imposed on Italy, they proved insufficient and too late to have a deterrent effect. Italy eventually succeeded in conquering Abyssinia, and the lack of an effective response from the League of Nations further weakened its reputation. The successive annexations of Austria and Czechoslovakia by Nazi Germany in 1938, followed by the invasion of Poland in 1939, were the ultimate proof of the League of Nations' inability to keep the peace. These actions, led by Adolf Hitler, were in direct violation of the principles of non-aggression and respect for national sovereignty. The League of Nations failed to take effective measures to prevent these annexations or to protect Poland, which led directly to the outbreak of the Second World War.
| | 第二次重大危机是 1935 年意大利入侵阿比西尼亚（现埃塞俄比亚）。这场由墨索里尼策划的侵略是其帝国主义野心的一部分，是对协会的又一次打击。尽管对意大利实施了经济制裁，但事实证明这些制裁并不充分，而且为时已晚，无法起到威慑作用。意大利最终成功征服了阿比西尼亚，而国联缺乏有效的反应进一步削弱了其声誉。1938年，纳粹德国相继吞并奥地利和捷克斯洛伐克，1939年又入侵波兰，这最终证明国联无力维持和平。阿道夫-希特勒领导的这些行动直接违反了互不侵犯和尊重国家主权的原则。国联未能采取有效措施阻止这些兼并或保护波兰，这直接导致了第二次世界大战的爆发。 |
|
| |
|
| The failure of the League of Nations to prevent aggression by some of its members in the 1930s can be attributed to a lack of political will on the part of its members to fully implement the principles set out in its pact. This led to a period where impunity prevailed, despite flagrant violations of established international norms.
| | 国际联盟在 20 世纪 30 年代未能阻止其部分成员国的侵略行为，这可归因于其成员国缺乏充分执行其公约中规定的原则的政治意愿。这导致在一段时期内，尽管存在公然违反既定国际准则的行为，但有罪不罚现象却普遍存在。 |
|
| |
|
| There were several reasons for the reluctance of Member States to apply the measures provided for in the Pact, particularly as regards economic and military sanctions against aggressor states. Firstly, there was a widespread fear of another major war. After the traumatic experience of the First World War, many countries were reluctant to engage in conflicts that could degenerate into another large-scale confrontation. Secondly, divergent national interests often took precedence over collective commitment to the Society's principles. Countries were more inclined to protect their own economic and political interests rather than risk potentially serious consequences by imposing sanctions on other nations. Finally, the absence of certain key players, in particular the United States, weakened the authority and effectiveness of the League. Without the participation of all the major world powers, it was difficult for the League of Nations to present itself as a unified and powerful front against aggression.
| | 会员国不愿执行《公约》规定的措施，特别是对侵略国的经济和军事制裁，有几个原因。首先，人们普遍担心再次爆发大规模战争。在经历了第一次世界大战的创伤之后，许多国家都不愿卷入可能演变成另一场大规模对抗的冲突。其次，不同的国家利益往往优先于对学会原则的集体承诺。各国更倾向于保护本国的经济和政治利益，而不是冒着潜在的严重后果对其他国家实施制裁。最后，某些关键角色的缺席，尤其是美国的缺席，削弱了联盟的权威和效力。没有世界上所有主要大国的参与，国联就很难成为反对侵略的统一而强大的阵线。 |
|
| |
|
| The combination of these factors led to a situation where violations of the pact were often treated with indifference or inaction, allowing aggressor states to act without fear of significant reprisals. This period of impunity contributed to the rising tensions that eventually led to the Second World War, and marked the failure of the League of Nations as an effective tool for maintaining international peace. This failure served as a crucial lesson in the creation of the United Nations, underlining the importance of more decisive collective action and better coordination between nations to preserve global peace and security.
| | 这些因素结合在一起，导致违反盟约的行为往往被漠视或不作为，使侵略国可以在不必担心遭到重大报复的情况下采取行动。这段有罪不罚的时期助长了紧张局势的加剧，最终导致了第二次世界大战的爆发，也标志着国际联盟作为维护国际和平的有效工具的失败。这一失败成为创建联合国的一个重要教训，凸显了采取更果断的集体行动和加强国家间协调以维护全球和平与安全的重要性。 |
|
| |
|
| Consideration of the need to limit state sovereignty in favour of supranational bodies, such as the League of Nations, is a central debate in the history of international cooperation. Indeed, one of the main lessons learned from the failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s was the recognition of the need for a stronger international system, capable of enforcing international order and sanctioning states that violate established norms. The idea of establishing international justice and a genuine international police force was envisaged as a means of ensuring that decisions taken by international bodies were enforced. Such an approach would potentially have made it possible to monitor and punish states that fail to comply with international rules, by providing coercive means of enforcing the commitments made. However, implementing such a system would have required a significant degree of transfer of sovereignty from States to an international authority. This would have involved the creation of supranational entities with real powers, capable of taking decisions binding on Member States, and the means to enforce them, including international police or military forces.
| | 考虑是否有必要限制国家主权以支持国际联盟等超国家机构，是国际合作史上的一场核心辩论。事实上，从 20 世纪 30 年代国联失败中吸取的主要教训之一，就是认识到需要一个更强大的国际体系，能够执行国际秩序并制裁违反既定准则的国家。建立国际司法和真正的国际警察部队是确保国际机构所做决定得到执行的一种手段。这种方法有可能通过提供强制手段来履行承诺，从而监督和惩罚不遵守国际规则的国家。然而，实施这种制度需要在很大程度上将国家主权移交给国际权威机构。这就需要建立拥有实权的超国家实体，能够做出对会员国具有约束力的决定，并拥有执行这些决定的手段，包括国际警察或军队。 |
|
| |
|
| In the context of the time, such a proposal was extremely ambitious and raised complex questions about sovereignty, national independence and the global balance of power. Many states were reluctant to cede part of their sovereignty to an international organisation, fearing that this would compromise their independence and their ability to defend their own national interests. The experience of the League of Nations nevertheless laid the foundations for thinking about global governance and influenced the creation of the United Nations after the Second World War. Although the UN also has its own limitations and challenges, it has attempted to address some of these concerns by establishing a more robust system for conflict resolution and international crisis management, including the establishment of international tribunals and peacekeeping missions.
| | 在当时的背景下，这样的建议雄心勃勃，提出了有关主权、国家独立和全球力量平衡的复杂问题。许多国家不愿意将自己的部分主权让渡给一个国际组织，担心这会损害其独立性和捍卫本国利益的能力。然而，国际联盟的经验为全球治理的思考奠定了基础，并影响了第二次世界大战后联合国的创建。尽管联合国也有其自身的局限性和挑战，但它试图通过建立更强大的冲突解决和国际危机管理制度，包括设立国际法庭和维和特派团，来解决其中的一些问题。 |
|
| |
|
| The International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) are two success stories from the League of Nations era that have continued to play an important role in global governance long after its dissolution. The International Labour Organization, founded in 1919 as an affiliated agency of the League of Nations, aims to promote workers' rights, improve working conditions and advance social justice. The ILO was innovative in its tripartite structure, including representatives of governments, employers and workers, to discuss and formulate policies and international labour standards. Its ability to adapt and respond to changes in the world of work has enabled the ILO to remain relevant and influential, playing a key role in the formulation of international labour standards and the promotion of human rights at work.
| | 国际劳工组织（ILO）和国际法院（ICJ）是国际联盟时代的两个成功典范，在国际联盟解体后的很长一段时间里，它们仍在全球治理中发挥着重要作用。国际劳工组织成立于 1919 年，是国际联盟的附属机构，旨在促进工人权利、改善工作条件和推动社会正义。国际劳工组织的创新之处在于其三方结构，包括政府、雇主和工人的代表，以讨论和制定政策和国际劳工标准。国际劳工组织有能力适应和应对劳动世界的变化，这使其能够保持相关性和影响力，在制定国际劳工标准和促进工作中的人权方面发挥关键作用。 |
|
| |
|
| On the other hand, the International Court of Justice, although officially established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has its roots in the Permanent Court of International Justice, created in 1922 under the auspices of the League of Nations. The ICJ, based in The Hague in the Netherlands, plays a crucial role in the peaceful settlement of disputes between states by providing a platform for the legal resolution of international disputes. The ICJ also contributes to the development of international law by providing advisory opinions on important legal questions submitted by United Nations bodies and specialised agencies. The continuity and success of the ILO and ICJ demonstrate that, despite the failures of the League of Nations in maintaining international peace and security, some of its principles and institutions have had a lasting and positive impact on global governance. These organisations have evolved and adapted to the changing world, while preserving the legacy and ideals of international cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution initiated by the League of Nations.
| | 另一方面，国际法院虽然于 1945 年正式成立，是联合国的主要司法机关，但其前身是 1922 年在国际联盟主持下成立的常设国际法院。国际法院总部设在荷兰海牙，通过提供法律解决国际争端的平台，在和平解决国家间争端方面发挥着至关重要的作用。国际法院还就联合国机构和专门机构提交的重要法律问题提供咨询意见，为国际法的发展做出贡献。劳工组织和国际法院的连续性和成功表明，尽管国际联盟在维护国际和平与安全方面失败了，但它的一些原则和机构对全球治理产生了持久而积极的影响。这些组织不断发展，适应了不断变化的世界，同时保留了国际联盟倡导的国际合作与和平解决冲突的传统和理想。 |
|
| |
|
| = Appendices = | | = 附录 = |
| *[http://www.cicr.org/fre/resources/documents/publication/p0361.htm Un souvenir de Solférino], Henry Dunant, texte complet en téléchargement, Comité international de la Croix-Rouge. | | *[http://www.cicr.org/fre/resources/documents/publication/p0361.htm Un souvenir de Solférino], Henry Dunant, texte complet en téléchargement, Comité international de la Croix-Rouge. |
|
| |
|
| = References = | | = 参考资料 = |
| <references /> | | <references /> |
|
| |
|
根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]
自二十世纪末以来，规范国家与国际组织之间关系的国际法发生了重大变化，尤其是在国家主权和国际层面强制机制的出现方面。从历史上看，国际法是由主权国家的意愿通过条约和协定形成的。这些条约，如 1919 年的《凡尔赛条约》或 1944 年的《布雷顿森林协定》，确立了规范国际关系的准则和规则。然而，与国内法不同的是，国内法的法律规则的权威是由一个中央权威机构来确保的，而国际法的基础则是主权国家对这些规范的自愿承认。这种自愿承认是国际法的基石，也从根本上区分了国际法与国内法的运作。
然而，二十世纪末出现了具有强制力的国际机构，使传统的国家主权受到质疑。例如，1998 年成立的国际刑事法院就有能力起诉犯有战争罪和种族灭绝罪的个人，这说明了这一趋势。联合国对冲突的干预加强了这一趋势，如 1991 年海湾战争，当时一个国家联盟根据联合国授权采取行动，恢复被伊拉克入侵的科威特的主权。然而，向更强有力的强制机制演变的过程依然脆弱而复杂。这些机构的有效性在很大程度上取决于各国的合作。例如，美国决定不批准设立国际刑事法院的《罗马规约》，就凸显了这些国际机构的局限性以及国家主权的持续优先地位。
国家主权与适用国际准则之间的紧张关系仍然是一项重大挑战。各国往往不愿意服从超国家的权威，这可能导致冲突和适用国际法方面的困难。例如，叙利亚危机和国际应对措施凸显了面对严重违反国际法行为时国际行动的复杂性和局限性。
1815 年召开的维也纳会议标志着欧洲历史上的一个关键时刻，其目的是在拿破仑战争引起的动乱之后恢复和平与秩序。维也纳会议是一次规模空前的外交会议，其主要目的是在拿破仑帝国垮台后重新绘制欧洲政治版图。维也纳会议的主要成就之一是在欧洲主要国家之间建立了权力平衡，以防止未来发生大规模冲突。后来被称为 "欧洲协约 "的主要参与者是当时的大国： 英国、普鲁士、俄国、奥地利，还有法国，尽管它是战败国。将法国纳入决策进程是确保持久稳定的战略举措。
维也纳会议建立的 "欧洲协约 "以这些大国之间持续和定期合作的原则为基础。其目的是通过避免单一国家的霸权和集体处理国际问题来维护欧洲的和平与力量平衡。这种合作采取定期举行大会和会议的形式，大国在会上讨论国际问题和紧张局势。在 19 世纪的大部分时间里，这一体系都取得了一定的成功，在 1914 年第一次世界大战之前，欧洲一直没有发生过大规模战争。然而，尽管取得了初步成功，"欧洲协约 "也是有限的。它依赖于列强的合作意愿和对既定平衡的尊重，而事实并非总是如此。更重要的是，该体系没有充分考虑到欧洲兴起的民族主义愿望和革命运动，这最终导致了体系的不稳定。
1815 年维也纳会议建立的欧洲协调机制对国际法的发展起到了至关重要的作用。欧洲协约 "为欧洲主要大国之间的合作与对话建立了框架，促成了重要国际规则的通过和积极国际法的形成，标志着国际关系的转折点。欧洲协约 "的重大成就之一是通过了打击贩卖奴隶的措施。虽然没有立即废除奴隶贸易，但维也纳会议为国际社会谴责这种做法奠定了基础。各大国，特别是英国，于 1807 年废除了跨大西洋奴隶贸易，并向其他国家施加了巨大压力，迫使它们效仿。这是最终在国际范围内废除奴隶制和奴隶贸易的重要一步。实在国际法发展的另一个重要方面是确立了外交代表的特殊地位。维也纳会议帮助正式确定了外交规则和规范，为现代外交实践奠定了基础。这包括承认外交豁免权以及界定大使和其他外交代表的权利和责任。外交关系的标准化对于在更加稳定和可预测的环境中促进国际交流与合作至关重要。维也纳会议和欧洲协约的这些发展说明了各国可以如何共同努力建立国际标准和解决跨国问题。欧洲协约》虽然在某些方面存在局限性，特别是没有考虑到民族主义的愿望或新出现的社会运动，但它为加强国际合作和形成结构更合理、更有效的国际法体系奠定了基础。这些早期的国际编纂与合作努力为后来的国际法发展铺平了道路，如第一次世界大战后成立的国际联盟以及后来的联合国，这表明国际社会仍在继续努力维护和平、安全和国家间的合作。
1815 年维也纳会议承认瑞士的永久中立地位，就是这种国际协商对欧洲地缘政治产生影响的一个典型例子。除了在拿破仑战争后重新划定边界和恢复秩序外，大会还批准了瑞士的中立国地位，这一原则在瑞士今后几个世纪的国家认同和外交政策中发挥了至关重要的作用。瑞士的中立地位得到了欧洲主要大国的正式承认，这使瑞士得以在接连不断的欧洲冲突中保持中立。这种独特的地位使瑞士在国际事务中扮演了重要的调停者角色，并成为众多国际组织的所在地，尤其是在日内瓦。维也纳会议不仅开创了承认国家中立的先例，还为整个 19 世纪和 20 世纪更有组织的国际合作铺平了道路。这种合作有不同的形式，从外交联盟到国际组织。这种合作不断发展，以应对当时不断变化的挑战，特别是第一次世界大战后成立了国际联盟，第二次世界大战后又成立了联合国。这些组织以维也纳会议确立的国际合作理念为基础，旨在促进各国之间的和平、合作与对话。
工业革命和通讯的发展对国际法的发展和国际关系的动态产生了深远的影响。这一始于十八世纪并在十九世纪加速发展的进程不仅改变了经济和社会，还在全球范围内加强和扩大了人类的互动。
工业革命对国际法的主要影响之一是国际贸易和商业的大幅增长。工业化带来了对原材料和新市场的更大需求，促使各国制定更有条理的贸易规则和国际协定。在此期间，双边协议（通常仅限于两个国家）逐渐过渡到涉及多个国家的多边协议。这些多边协定促进了共同标准和规则的建立，推动了现在公认的国际法的发展。此外，以电报和后来的电话等创新技术为特征的通信革命使国家间的通信更加快捷有效。这使得国家间更紧密的协调和更快的谈判成为可能，而这对于处理复杂的国际关系至关重要。
在这些发展的同时，19 世纪和 20 世纪初出现了许多新的国家，这往往是非殖民化进程或帝国解体的结果。这些新国家试图维护自己的主权并参与国际体系，从而增加了国际关系的多样性和复杂性。新国家的出现也导致需要在国际法框架内承认和尊重国家主权，同时处理边界、资源和人权保护等问题。
因此，工业革命和通信技术的进步在改变国际关系和国际法的面貌方面发挥了至关重要的作用。这些变化不仅促进了国际合作和一体化的发展，也对全球监管和治理提出了新的挑战和需求。
亨利-杜南是日内瓦的一名瑞士商人，他在历史上发挥了重要作用，尤其是他的人道主义工作，标志着红十字会的开端。他与历史的邂逅发生在 1859 年的一次意大利北部之行，他希望在那里见到法国皇帝拿破仑三世。1859 年，拿破仑三世正在意大利北部竞选，支持他的盟友皮德蒙特-撒丁岛国王维克多-伊曼纽尔二世。结盟的目的是支持统一意大利的努力，这一历史进程被称为 "意大利大革命"（Risorgimento）。这场战役还涉及到与强大的哈布斯堡王朝的对抗，哈布斯堡王朝统治着中欧大部分地区，并在意大利拥有领地。
杜南因商业原因来到意大利，目睹了索尔费里诺战役的惨烈，这是起义中最血腥的战役之一。受伤士兵的痛苦和医疗服务的不足深深地影响了他，他组织了对受害者的紧急援助，不分国籍。这段经历是他致力于人道主义援助的催化剂。他在索尔费里诺的经历和改善战争伤员命运的愿望促使他撰写了《索尔费里诺回忆录》（Un Souvenir de Solférino）一书，该书于 1862 年出版。这些主张促成了 1863 年红十字国际委员会（ICRC）的成立和第一批日内瓦公约的通过。亨利-杜南在意大利北部与历史的偶然相遇引发了一系列事件，导致国际人道法取得了重大进展。他的远见和行动为现代人道主义援助奠定了基础，并深刻影响了今天对待武装冲突受害者的方式。
1859 年 6 月 24 日，亨利-杜南出现在索尔费里诺，这是人道主义援助历史上的一个决定性时刻。在索尔费里诺战役中，奥地利军队被法意联军击败，这场战役被载入史册，成为当时现代战争残酷性的鲜明例证。在这场战役中，约有 40,000 名士兵阵亡、受伤或失踪，突显了战争的可怕现实和现有医疗服务的不足。因公务原因来到该地区的杜南被当地的苦难和死亡场景深深震撼。他后来在 1862 年出版的《索尔费里诺的回忆》一书中描述了这些场景，该书对公众对战争的看法产生了相当大的影响。面对这一现实，杜南主动组织了不分国籍的伤员援助活动。在当地居民的帮助下，他为伤兵建立了紧急救护所，用行动诠释了人道、公正的原则，这也是红十字会的基础。他还对当时新式武器造成的严重伤害深有感触，这些武器使冲突变得更加致命，突出表明迫切需要为战争受害者提供更好的救护设施。杜南在索尔费里诺的经历不仅凸显了改善战场医疗服务的必要性，还强调了保护战争受害者的国际法规的重要性。这促成了红十字国际委员会的成立和第一批日内瓦公约的通过，奠定了现代国际人道主义法的基础。
亨利-杜南于 1862 年出版的《索尔费里诺的纪念》一书是战争恐怖的有力见证，也是对一个更加人道的世界的美好憧憬。在这本书中，杜南不仅描述了他在索尔费里诺战役后目睹的痛苦和死亡场景，还提出了改善战争伤员护理的具体解决方案。杜南的第一个建议是成立志愿救济协会。他的想法是组建由经过培训并准备在战时提供医疗服务的公民志愿者组成的团体。这些协会将与军队医疗服务机构并肩工作，不分国籍地为伤员提供医疗服务。这样做的目的是确保受伤的士兵，无论其国籍如何，都能在战场上获得必要的医疗服务。他的第二个建议是在日内瓦召开一次国际大会，以获得政府对该项目的批准。其目的是建立一个国际法律框架，使救济协会能够在战时有效运作，并保证伤员和医务工作者得到保护。
这些革命性的建议奠定了红十字会和国际人道法的基础。1863 年，在杜南等人的倡议下，红十字国际委员会在日内瓦成立。随后，1864 年通过了第一份《日内瓦公约》，为治疗和保护战争伤员制定了法律标准。索尔费里诺纪念品》和亨利-杜南的倡议产生了巨大影响。它们不仅促成了世界上最大、最受尊敬的人道主义组织之一的成立，还为国际人道主义法奠定了基础，从根本上改变了世界各地对待武装冲突受害者的方式。
瑞士著名法学家古斯塔夫-莫尼埃（Gustave Moynier）在赋予亨利-杜南的人道主义思想以具体形式和结构方面发挥了重要作用。在杜南发表《索尔费里诺的纪念》一文后，莫尼埃认识到这些思想在改变战争伤员护理方面的重要性和潜力。1863 年，莫尼埃倡议成立一个委员会，由受人尊敬的瑞士军官兼工程师纪尧姆-亨利-杜富尔将军（Guillaume-Henri Dufour）领导。该委员会由包括杜南和杜富尔在内的五名成员组成，后来成为第一个红十字国际委员会（ICRC）。该委员会的任务是发展杜南的理念，并创建一个能够切实有效地实施这些理念的组织。莫尼埃在红十字会的组织和法律架构方面发挥了至关重要的作用。作为一名律师，他帮助制定了组织有效运作所需的原则和法律框架，尤其是在冲突时期。莫尼埃还在推动制定保护战争受害者国际公约的想法方面发挥了关键作用，这一想法促成了 1864 年第一部《日内瓦公约》的诞生。红十字国际委员会的成立标志着人道主义援助历史上的一个转折点。该组织迅速获得了认可和影响力，为公平对待战场上的伤员（无论其国籍如何）制定了标准。红十字国际委员会确立的中立、公正和独立等原则成为国际人道法的基石。
在亨利-杜南（Henri Dunant）思想的推动下，红十字国际委员会在古斯塔夫-莫尼埃（Gustave Moynier）提供的法律架构下，于 1863 年组织召开了一次国际大会，标志着人道主义历史上的一个重要里程碑。这次会议汇集了政府委员会的代表和专家，讨论如何改善武装冲突中的医疗服务。这次大会的成果是于 1863 年 10 月 29 日通过了一项宪章，奠定了红十字会的根本基础。这些创新原则包括在每个国家成立救援委员会，不分国籍地救助战场上的伤员。此外，宪章还强调了伤员和医务人员中立的重要性，从而保护他们在冲突中不受攻击和敌意。
该宪章的一个显著特点是采用了一个举世公认的特殊标志：白底红十字。选择这一标志的部分原因是它简单易懂，可用于识别战场上的医务人员和设备。选择红十字最初更多的是为了实用，而不是为了象征，这与最初的白色臂章的想法不同。直到 1870 年，人们才提出将红十字象征性地解释为瑞士国旗颜色的反转（红底白字），从而加强了红十字会与其起源国之间的联系。宪章的通过和红十字标志的选择对国际人道法产生了重大影响。它们正式确立了人道、中立和公正的原则，这些原则将继续指导世界各地的人道行动。红十字会因此成为保护和援助战争与武装冲突受害者的重要力量，在国际人道法的发展中发挥着至关重要的作用。
1864 年 8 月，在红十字国际委员会的影响下，瑞士联邦委员会在促进和通过 1863 年大会确立的人道主义原则方面发挥了决定性作用。联邦委员会邀请欧洲各国以及美国、巴西和墨西哥参加一次国际会议。会议在日内瓦举行，目的是将前一年通过的决议正式化，并将其转化为一项国际条约。这次具有历史意义的会议通过了第一个日内瓦公约，正式名称为《改善战地伤员境遇公约》。该公约代表了国际人道主义法的重大进步。它为战时医务人员的中立和保护以及伤兵的人道主义治疗制定了明确的规则。
尽管《日内瓦公约》于 1864 年通过，但其在武装冲突中的有效应用却需要时间。1866 年普奥战争期间，该公约首次得到有限度的实施。然而，直到 1885 年塞尔维亚-保加利亚战争期间，冲突双方才全面适用《日内瓦公约》。这一事件标志着战争史上的一个转折点，因为关于战场伤员治疗的国际协定首次得到冲突各方的尊重。日内瓦公约》的逐步通过和适用彰显了国际人道主义法日益增长的重要性，并为未来的条约和公约开创了先例。1864 年《日内瓦公约》及其随后的修订版继续构成国际人道主义法的基础，规范战争行为和保护非战斗人员。
日内瓦公约》是人道主义法律的核心支柱，其初衷是改善战时伤兵的命运。其起源可追溯到 1859 年索尔费里诺战役后亨利-杜南提出的人道主义倡议后于 1864 年通过的第一项《日内瓦公约》。这场战役给人们带来了无尽的苦难和巨大的伤亡，促使杜南倡导为战争伤员（无论其国籍）提供更人道的待遇。1864 年的《日内瓦公约》在一年前成立的红十字国际委员会的支持下，确立了照顾战场伤兵的基本原则。它提出了使医务人员和医疗设施中立化的革命性思想，从而保护他们在冲突中不受攻击。它还确立了不分国籍人道对待伤员的原则，标志着战争方式的重大进步。
多年来，人道主义法的要求随着武装冲突性质的变化而不断发展。为了应对这些新的挑战，《日内瓦四公约》经过了多次修订和扩展。例如，1949 年的修订是在第二次世界大战的恐怖之后进行的，大大扩大了公约的范围。这次修订产生了四项单独的公约，不仅涉及受伤士兵和战俘，还涉及对平民的保护，包括那些处于敌人占领下的平民。这些公约及其附加议定书现已成为国际人道主义法的基础。它们确立了敌对行动和保护非战斗人员的基本规则。这些公约在各种冲突中的应用，如 1866 年的普奥战争和 1885 年的塞尔维亚-保加利亚战争，证明了它们的重要性和有效性，尽管在世界各地的冲突地区，遵守这些公约仍然是一个持续的挑战。
日内瓦四公约》的主要创新在于确立了旨在保护冲突受害者的永久性、普遍性书面标准。一项多边条约明确规定了适用于所有批准国的具有约束力的战争受害者待遇规则，这在历史上尚属首次。这种普遍性和持久性标志着国际人道主义法的一个决定性转折点。日内瓦四公约》确立的原则主要涉及一视同仁地对待受伤士兵的义务。这一规则与以往的做法大相径庭，在以往的做法中，被俘或受伤的士兵往往得不到治疗，甚至受到虐待。公约》规定了为所有伤员提供医疗护理的道德和法律义务，无论其国籍或在冲突中的角色如何。这些标准的另一个重要方面是，有义务尊重专门护理这些伤员的医务人员以及医疗设备和用品。这些要素受到红十字标志的保护，该标志已成为冲突局势中中立和保护的公认象征。这一标志确保医务人员和医疗设施不会成为攻击目标，并能在战区安全运作。这些规则的通过标志着在战时尊重人权方面向前迈出了一大步。这些标准为国际法律框架奠定了基础，该框架保障武装冲突中的一定人道性，努力减少痛苦，保护最脆弱的个人。尽管《日内瓦公约》在全球各种冲突局势中的适用和遵守不断面临挑战，但《日内瓦公约》的普遍适用和接受证明了其在当今世界的持续重要性和相关性。
由日内瓦四公约衍生出的各项条约构成了国际人道主义法（IHL）的基石。这些公约及其附加议定书为保护未参加或不再参加敌对行动的人员（包括伤员、病人、遇船难者、战俘和平民）建立了详细的法律框架。国际人道法常被称为 "战争法 "或 "武装冲突法"，是国际法的一个具体分支，它规范敌对行动的方法和手段，并寻求限制其影响。它旨在平衡人道主义考虑和军事必要性，保护那些未参战或不再参战的人，并规范作战方式。
国际人道主义法的基本原则，如禁止酷刑、人道对待囚犯、保护平民以及区分战斗人员和非战斗人员的义务等，均源自日内瓦四公约及其附加议定书。随着时间的推移，这些条约得到了其他国际协定的补充和加强，如《海牙公约》和关于特定武器的各种条约（如禁止使用地雷和化学武器的条约）。除了规范作用，日内瓦四公约还具有重要的象征意义。它们体现了全球对人道主义原则的承诺，即使在最困难的武装冲突情况下也是如此。它们的存在和遵守强调了人的尊严和尊重人权的重要性，无论在何种情况下。
1928 年的日内瓦威尔逊宫，国际联盟的第一个总部。
1919 年 4 月 28 日国际联盟的成立是国际关系和国际法史上的一个里程碑。该组织诞生于第一次世界大战的废墟，其目标是在全球范围内建立一个集体安全体系，这在当时是一个创新的想法。
国联的概念在很大程度上是对第一次世界大战（1914-1918 年）恐怖的回应，这场战争造成了毁灭性的后果，在当时的人们心中留下了深刻的印象。其主要目的是通过促进国际合作、和平解决国家间争端来防止未来发生大规模冲突。国际联盟的创始条约被纳入结束第一次世界大战的和平条约，特别是《凡尔赛条约》。该条约确立了国联的指导原则，包括促进国际合作、尊重国家主权以及致力于和平解决冲突。国际联盟雄心勃勃，试图在对话和共识而非对抗和冲突的基础上建立新的国际秩序。国联由多个机构组成，包括每个成员国拥有一票的大会，以及由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成的执行理事会。
尽管国联有着崇高的理想和值得称赞的努力，但它也遇到了许多挑战和限制。它未能阻止导致第二次世界大战的紧张局势升级。美国等几个主要国家从未加入，德国和苏联等其他国家只是在有限的时期内加入。此外，国联没有自己的武装力量来执行其决议，这限制了其有效干预冲突的能力。尽管存在缺陷，国际联盟为现代国际合作奠定了基础，并影响了 1945 年联合国的成立。联合国采纳并改进了国际联盟的许多原则和结构，努力纠正国际联盟的错误，填补国际联盟留下的空白。因此，尽管国际联盟未能完全实现其世界和平的目标，但其遗产仍在为有效的国际合作与治理而不断努力。
第一次世界大战后国际联盟成立后，国际社会的热情源于结束长期战争状态和建立集体安全体系的强烈愿望。国联的目标雄心勃勃：从根本上改变各国的互动方式，强调限制战争、裁军、和平解决争端以及对侵略国实施制裁。限制战争是国联的核心原则。其理念是通过鼓励各国讨论分歧而不是立即诉诸武力来降低战争的可能性。这一方法旨在建立阻止侵略和鼓励对话的国际行为标准。裁军也是一个关键目标。第一次世界大战造成了巨大的破坏和人员伤亡，此后出现了一场声势浩大的裁减军备运动。人们希望，通过限制各国的军事能力，可以减少未来冲突的可能性和规模。和平解决冲突是另一个支柱。国际联盟试图提供一个论坛，通过谈判、调解、仲裁或司法途径而非武力解决争端。这种方法在当时是革命性的，因为它提供了系统的战争替代办法。最后，学会规定了对侵略国的制裁。当时的想法是，如果一个国家通过攻击另一个国家违反了协会的原则，其他成员可以实施经济制裁，甚至采取集体军事行动来恢复和平。尽管有这些崇高的目标，国际联盟在实现这些理想的过程中遇到了许多挑战。结构上的限制、一些主要国家的缺席以及缺乏执行其决定的手段都阻碍了其有效性。然而，国联确立的框架和原则为追求和平与安全的国际合作奠定了基础，深刻影响了联合国的形成和现代国际关系的发展。
第一次世界大战后通过的《国际联盟盟约》建立了一个由三个主要机构组成的组织结构，每个机构都在这个国际组织的运作中发挥着特定的作用。首先，大会是审议机构，每个成员国都派代表团参加。每个成员国只有一票，这确保了大国和小国的公平代表性。大会定期举行会议，讨论并决定影响国际和平与安全的重要问题。其次，国际联盟理事会由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成。常任理事国是第一次世界大战战胜国的代表，主要是英国、法国、意大利和日本。最初，美国也打算成为常任理事国，但在 1918 年大选后，共和党占主导地位的美国参议院投票反对批准《凡尔赛条约》。这使美国无法参加国联，标志着美国恢复了孤立主义政策。作为世界大国，美国的缺席严重打击了国联的公信力和有效性。最后，由秘书长领导的秘书处是国联的第三个主要机构。秘书处负责国联的行政管理、会议筹备以及大会和理事会决定的执行。这三个机构构成了国联的基本结构，各自在维护国际和平与安全的努力中发挥着至关重要的作用。尽管国联面临重大挑战，未能阻止第二次世界大战，但它的存在标志着国际治理发展的一个重要里程碑，并为 1945 年后接替国联的联合国奠定了基础。
国际联盟的组织结构由大会和理事会组成，旨在确保国际事务管理的连续性和效率，特别是在维护世界和平方面。大会和理事会都是政治机构，具有相似的权限，特别是在国际和平与安全的关键领域。它们的作用是共同预防冲突、促进国际合作和应对各种国际危机。大会由所有会员国组成，定期举行会议，讨论全球重要问题并做出决定。在大会会议期间，大会有权审议通常由理事会处理的事项并做出决定。这种安排使全球事务的管理具有灵活性，确保重要问题即使在理事会闭会期间也能得到有效处理。安理会则由常任理事国和非常任理事国组成，在大会闭会期间采取行动。理事会负责管理协会的日常事务，并就与世界和平有关的紧急或敏感事项做出决定。因此，在大会缺席时，理事会承担大会的职能和责任，从而确保对和平与安全问题的持续监督和行动。这一组织结构旨在使决策和应对国际危机具有一定程度的灵活性。然而，在实践中，大会和安理会的作用并不总是区分得很清楚，这有时会导致国际联盟运作的重叠和低效。尽管如此，国际联盟建立的框架为后来国际组织的发展奠定了重要基础，尤其是联合国，它采纳并完善了国际联盟的许多原则和组织结构。
国际联盟盟约》为其理事会和大会做出的决定确立了 "全体一致规则"，但程序性事项除外。这一规则意味着，要通过一项决定，所有有投票权的成员都必须同意。一致同意的要求既是尊重成员国主权的保证，也可能阻碍协会采取有效行动，特别是在需要迅速或坚决做出反应的情况下。一致同意规则反映了国际联盟成员国对国家主权问题的谨慎态度。尽管《公约》在国际治理方面进行了重大创新，特别是通过促进合作与和平解决冲突，但它从未对国家主权提出质疑。每个会员国都保留了自主权和决策权，包括对协会决定的否决权。
这种做法反映了当时的背景，即放弃部分国家主权以采取集体国际行动的想法仍广受争议。然而，一致同意规则被证明是一把双刃剑。一方面，它确保所做出的决定得到会员国的广泛支持，从而尊重了会员国的主权。另一方面，它使采取坚定措施变得困难，特别是在难以达成共识的危机局势中。由于难以达成一致意见，国际联盟在预防冲突和应对国际危机方面的效率往往受到影响。这种局限性在第二次世界大战前的岁月里尤为明显，当时国联被证明无法有效反击某些成员国的侵略。
国际联盟的全体一致规则赋予每个成员国（无论大小）否决权，这是其运作的最显著特点之一，同时也是问题之一。这一规则意味着任何重要决定都需要得到理事会或大会所有成员的同意，这使得每个国家都对协会的所有决定拥有相当大的权力。尽管这一规定旨在保护会员国的主权并确保决策的协商一致，但它却产生了意想不到的效果，往往使该机构的运作陷入瘫痪。在实践中，由于重要决定需要获得一致同意，国际联盟特别容易陷入瘫痪，尤其是在需要迅速采取果断行动的情况下。
例如，当一个成员国卷入国际冲突或危机时，它可以使用否决权来阻止任何不符合其国家利益的行动或决议。这种动态使国联难以有效应对国际侵略或违反条约的行为。一致同意规则因导致国联效率低下而受到广泛批评，尤其是在 20 世纪 30 年代，当时国联面临着意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚和纳粹德国扩张主义等重大挑战。这些失败凸显了以全体一致为基础的结构的局限性，并促使 1945 年后联合国向不同的制度演变，否决权仅限于安理会常任理事国。
国际联盟的基本方法是寻求妥协和共识，而不是行使否决权。其理念是，当所有成员国经过充分讨论达成一致意见时，才能做出最平衡、最公平的决定。这种做法旨在确保所有会员国，无论大小，其利益和关切都能得到考虑，从而体现真正的国际合作。然而，随着 20 世纪 30 年代极权主义政权在欧洲的出现，在一个日益两极化的世界中达成共识所面临的挑战变得尤为严峻。纳粹德国、法西斯意大利以及后来的佛朗哥西班牙等国采取了侵略扩张政策，与国际联盟的和平与合作原则直接冲突。
这些极权主义政权就其本质而言，往往不愿寻求妥协或遵守既定的国际准则。他们的单边主义和侵略性做法严重削弱了国际联盟作为协商与和平解决冲突的论坛有效运作的能力。1935年意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚、1936年德国将莱茵地区重新军事化等事件表明，国联无力对抗此类侵略，其公信力和权威性也随之受损。最终，极权主义在欧洲的崛起不仅使国联的一致行动理想受到质疑，还加速了国联的衰落，导致其无法阻止第二次世界大战的爆发。这些失败凸显了在一个国家和意识形态利益分歧往往无法调和的世界中，以一致原则为基础的国际组织的局限性。第二次世界大战后，国际联盟解散，联合国成立，这代表着人们试图从这些挑战中吸取教训，建立一个新的国际合作与维和框架。
1919 年 11 月，美国在参议院投票后拒绝加入国际联盟，这是国际外交史上的一个重要时刻，对国际联盟的运作和有效性产生了重要影响。拒绝加入国联的主要原因是对国联普遍性原则的担忧，担心加入国联会损害美国的主权，使美国违背自己的意愿卷入国际冲突。美国参议员，尤其是共和党参议员，对《国际联盟盟约》的条款表示担忧，特别是那些似乎要求成员国参与集体军事行动以维护和平的条款。他们担心这将导致未经美国国会同意的强制性军事干预。
这一立场在很大程度上受到孤立主义愿望的影响，孤立主义是美国的一种政治和意识形态趋势，主张不干涉主义外交政策，与欧洲事务保持距离。在经历了第一次世界大战的人员和经济损失后，许多美国人不愿意加入国际联盟，也不愿意做出可能将自己拖入更多冲突的承诺。伍德罗-威尔逊总统在国际联盟的创建过程中发挥了关键作用，并支持加入国际联盟。美国是当时世界上最强大的国家之一，它的缺席削弱了国联的合法性和有效性。没有美国的参与，国联难以行使其权威，也难以实现其集体安全和预防冲突的目标。
国际联盟盟约》第 16 条表明了该组织对促进国际正义和国际法的核心承诺。该条款反映了国际联盟成员国维护国际和平与安全的愿望，为任何违反承诺诉诸战争的成员国规定了明确的后果。基本原则是，维护所有国家的领土完整和独立对国际和平至关重要。根据该条款，任何单方面发起敌对行动的国联成员国都被视为向所有其他成员国宣战。这一条款旨在通过实施严厉的经济和金融制裁，以及断绝与侵略国的一切商业和个人关系来阻止侵略。此外，第 16 条呼吁联盟成员在实施这些制裁时相互支持，并在必要时派遣武装部队以执行联盟的承诺。这一规定意味着一种集体安全，即成员国共同努力抵御侵略、维护和平。然而，在实践中，第 16 条的应用被证明是困难的。集体行动需要达成共识，成员国不愿卷入军事冲突，以及缺乏一支由阿盟直接控制的常备武装力量，这些都限制了其有效性。1935 年意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚等事件表明，阿盟有效实施此类制裁的能力有限。
国际联盟盟约》第 16 条规定，如果成员国违反承诺，特别是在非法使用军事力量的情况下，将自动实施某些制裁。这些制裁的目的是对任何侵略行为立即做出协调反应，以阻止各国诉诸战争，维护国际和平。自动制裁主要涉及断绝与侵略国的所有贸易和金融关系。这意味着国际联盟的其他成员有义务停止与违反《公约》的国家进行一切形式的贸易和金融交流。这些经济措施旨在孤立侵略国并施加经济压力，希望迫使其恢复符合国际法和国联原则的行为。除经济制裁外，第 16 条还规定，国际联盟理事会可建议采取军事措施。这些建议可包括确定国联成员国将分别向旨在执行国联承诺的武装部队派遣的军事、海军或空军部队。换句话说，这意味着对侵略国的一种集体军事回应。然而，这些军事措施的实施在实践中证明是有问题的。阿盟内部需要达成共识，阿盟缺乏一支由其控制的永久性军事力量，一些成员国不愿参与军事行动，这些都限制了阿盟实施军事制裁的有效性。此外，当时复杂的政治动态也经常阻碍国联以统一、果断的方式应对侵略的能力。
国际联盟成立于 1919 年，希望建立一个集体安全体系来维护世界和平，但从 20 世纪 30 年代开始，它面临着重大挑战，成为其历史上的一个转折点。这一体系基于所有成员国应集体保卫受到攻击的成员国的理念，旨在保障每个国家的领土完整和独立。从理论上讲，这种集体团结将对任何侵略起到强大的威慑作用。然而，极权主义政权在欧洲的崛起对这一原则构成了重大挑战。阿道夫-希特勒领导下的德国、贝尼托-墨索里尼领导下的意大利以及后来的日本帝国主义都采取了侵略扩张政策，公然违反了国际联盟的原则。这些行动使集体安全体系经受了考验，暴露了其内在的弱点。几次重大危机凸显了国联无法采取统一、果断的行动。1935 年，意大利入侵埃塞俄比亚，这是一次明显的侵略行为，本应根据国 际联盟的原则做出强有力的集体反应。然而，对意大利实施的经济制裁为时已晚，不足以震慑墨索里尼。同样，1936 年，德国重新占领莱茵地区，再次违反了国际承诺，但国联却没有做出任何重大反应。
这些失败凸显了这一体系的局限性，它要求成员之间完美的团结和坚定的政治意愿，而在复杂的国际关系现实中，这些条件很少能得到满足。对另一场战争的恐惧、不同的国家利益以及像美国这样选择不加入国联的关键国家的缺席，都是导致缺乏凝聚力和决心的原因。1939 年爆发的第二次世界大战是压垮国联的最后一根稻草。集体安全体系的失败是无法阻止这场冲突的关键因素。战后，联合国的成立试图纠正国际联盟的错误，通过设立安全理事会和拥有否决权的常任理事国，建立一个更强大、更现实的国际安全体系。这个新组织的目标是从国联的局限和失败中吸取教训，建立一个更加稳定和有效的世界秩序。
国际联盟在 20 世纪 30 年代的历史以一系列国际危机为标志，这些危机逐渐削弱了国际联盟的公信力，凸显了其作为维和组织的局限性。每一次危机都是对国联成立原则的公然践踏，对危机的无效管理暴露了国联在结构和政治上的弱点。1931 年日本对满洲的侵略是这些重大考验中的第一次。日本试图扩大其在亚洲的帝国版图，入侵了中国东北部的满洲。国际联盟的反应被普遍认为是无效的，仅限于口头谴责，没有采取具体措施来反击日本的侵略。作为回应，日本于1933年退出了国联，这说明国联无力执行其决议。
第二次重大危机是 1935 年意大利入侵阿比西尼亚（现埃塞俄比亚）。这场由墨索里尼策划的侵略是其帝国主义野心的一部分，是对协会的又一次打击。尽管对意大利实施了经济制裁，但事实证明这些制裁并不充分，而且为时已晚，无法起到威慑作用。意大利最终成功征服了阿比西尼亚，而国联缺乏有效的反应进一步削弱了其声誉。1938年，纳粹德国相继吞并奥地利和捷克斯洛伐克，1939年又入侵波兰，这最终证明国联无力维持和平。阿道夫-希特勒领导的这些行动直接违反了互不侵犯和尊重国家主权的原则。国联未能采取有效措施阻止这些兼并或保护波兰，这直接导致了第二次世界大战的爆发。
国际联盟在 20 世纪 30 年代未能阻止其部分成员国的侵略行为，这可归因于其成员国缺乏充分执行其公约中规定的原则的政治意愿。这导致在一段时期内，尽管存在公然违反既定国际准则的行为，但有罪不罚现象却普遍存在。
会员国不愿执行《公约》规定的措施，特别是对侵略国的经济和军事制裁，有几个原因。首先，人们普遍担心再次爆发大规模战争。在经历了第一次世界大战的创伤之后，许多国家都不愿卷入可能演变成另一场大规模对抗的冲突。其次，不同的国家利益往往优先于对学会原则的集体承诺。各国更倾向于保护本国的经济和政治利益，而不是冒着潜在的严重后果对其他国家实施制裁。最后，某些关键角色的缺席，尤其是美国的缺席，削弱了联盟的权威和效力。没有世界上所有主要大国的参与，国联就很难成为反对侵略的统一而强大的阵线。
这些因素结合在一起，导致违反盟约的行为往往被漠视或不作为，使侵略国可以在不必担心遭到重大报复的情况下采取行动。这段有罪不罚的时期助长了紧张局势的加剧，最终导致了第二次世界大战的爆发，也标志着国际联盟作为维护国际和平的有效工具的失败。这一失败成为创建联合国的一个重要教训，凸显了采取更果断的集体行动和加强国家间协调以维护全球和平与安全的重要性。
考虑是否有必要限制国家主权以支持国际联盟等超国家机构，是国际合作史上的一场核心辩论。事实上，从 20 世纪 30 年代国联失败中吸取的主要教训之一，就是认识到需要一个更强大的国际体系，能够执行国际秩序并制裁违反既定准则的国家。建立国际司法和真正的国际警察部队是确保国际机构所做决定得到执行的一种手段。这种方法有可能通过提供强制手段来履行承诺，从而监督和惩罚不遵守国际规则的国家。然而，实施这种制度需要在很大程度上将国家主权移交给国际权威机构。这就需要建立拥有实权的超国家实体，能够做出对会员国具有约束力的决定，并拥有执行这些决定的手段，包括国际警察或军队。
在当时的背景下，这样的建议雄心勃勃，提出了有关主权、国家独立和全球力量平衡的复杂问题。许多国家不愿意将自己的部分主权让渡给一个国际组织，担心这会损害其独立性和捍卫本国利益的能力。然而，国际联盟的经验为全球治理的思考奠定了基础，并影响了第二次世界大战后联合国的创建。尽管联合国也有其自身的局限性和挑战，但它试图通过建立更强大的冲突解决和国际危机管理制度，包括设立国际法庭和维和特派团，来解决其中的一些问题。
国际劳工组织（ILO）和国际法院（ICJ）是国际联盟时代的两个成功典范，在国际联盟解体后的很长一段时间里，它们仍在全球治理中发挥着重要作用。国际劳工组织成立于 1919 年，是国际联盟的附属机构，旨在促进工人权利、改善工作条件和推动社会正义。国际劳工组织的创新之处在于其三方结构，包括政府、雇主和工人的代表，以讨论和制定政策和国际劳工标准。国际劳工组织有能力适应和应对劳动世界的变化，这使其能够保持相关性和影响力，在制定国际劳工标准和促进工作中的人权方面发挥关键作用。
另一方面，国际法院虽然于 1945 年正式成立，是联合国的主要司法机关，但其前身是 1922 年在国际联盟主持下成立的常设国际法院。国际法院总部设在荷兰海牙，通过提供法律解决国际争端的平台，在和平解决国家间争端方面发挥着至关重要的作用。国际法院还就联合国机构和专门机构提交的重要法律问题提供咨询意见，为国际法的发展做出贡献。劳工组织和国际法院的连续性和成功表明，尽管国际联盟在维护国际和平与安全方面失败了，但它的一些原则和机构对全球治理产生了持久而积极的影响。这些组织不断发展，适应了不断变化的世界，同时保留了国际联盟倡导的国际合作与和平解决冲突的传统和理想。
.jpg)
