American society in the 1920s

American society in the 1920s

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties," was a decade of great social, cultural, and economic change in the United States. After the end of World War I, the country experienced a period of prosperity and optimism, as well as significant changes in social norms and values. The rise of the "flapper" culture, in which young women embraced new styles of dress and behavior, was one of the most notable social trends of the decade. The economy boomed, and new technologies, such as automobiles and radios, became widely available. However, the prosperity of the 1920s was not shared by all Americans, as many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality. Additionally, the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States shifted its focus from annexing territories for settlement to occupying regions for political and economic control. The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a significant turning point in American imperialism in the Americas. The United States emerged victorious and gained control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, as well as gaining influence over Cuba. The subsequent construction of the Panama Canal solidified American control over the region and allowed for easier access to Central and South America. The United States then began to consider the Caribbean and Central America as its own sphere of influence and began to exert political and economic control over these regions through various means such as military intervention, economic aid, and diplomatic pressure.

The First World War, also known as World War I, did result in significant destruction and ruin in Europe, and it had a profound impact on the global balance of power. The war marked the end of European dominance and the rise of the United States as a major world power. The US entered the war in 1917 and its involvement was decisive in turning the tide against the Central Powers. The war also brought an end to the British Empire's status as the dominant global power, and the United States emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. With the end of the war, the United States took on a greater role in international affairs, and its economic and military strength allowed it to exert significant influence over global affairs. The idea of the white man's burden, a term used to describe the belief that it was the duty of the European powers and the United States to "civilize" the rest of the world, was also prevalent in the U.S foreign policy during the period.

There are similarities between the cultural and artistic developments in the United States in the 1920s and in Mexico at the same time. Both countries were undergoing a period of significant social and cultural change, and there were efforts to create a distinct national culture that was free from European influences. In the United States, the "Roaring Twenties" saw a rise in jazz music, the Harlem Renaissance, and the emergence of a new generation of writers, artists, and intellectuals who sought to create a distinct American culture. Similarly, in Mexico, the 1920s and 1930s were a time of cultural and artistic flowering known as the Mexican Renaissance, where Mexican artists and intellectuals sought to create a national culture that reflected Mexico's indigenous and mestizo heritage. They also rejected the European influence on the art and culture of Mexico. This movement was led by figures such as Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, who sought to promote a new, national identity through their art and literature.

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The Second Industrial Revolution

The first industrial revolution, which took place in the late 18th and early 19th century, was characterized by the development of new technologies and manufacturing processes in the textiles, metalworking, and transportation industries. These innovations led to an increase in productivity and a shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, which in turn led to a significant increase in economic growth and prosperity. This industrial revolution also helped to make the United States one of the wealthiest and most developed nations in the world.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, built upon the advancements of the first industrial revolution and brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. This period saw an acceleration in the pace of technological change, and new technologies such as the telegraph, telephone and internal-combustion engine. It also led to the rise of new industries such as the automobile and petrochemical industries, which further contributed to the economic growth and modernization of the United States and other developed countries. The Second Industrial Revolution also had a profound impact on society, leading to the growth of cities, the rise of new forms of transportation, and the creation of new forms of work and leisure.

The First World War, which ended in 1918, had a significant impact on the global economy and the balance of power between nations. The war caused significant destruction and loss of life in Europe and left many of the European powers in ruins, both economically and physically. The United States, on the other hand, entered the war later and did not suffer the same level of destruction and loss of life. As a result, the country emerged from the war in a much stronger economic position than the European powers.

The Second Industrial Revolution was already underway before the war, but the war accelerated the technological innovations, and the United States was in a unique position to take advantage of these new technologies and industries. The country's economy boomed in the 1920s, as the manufacturing and transportation industries expanded, and new industries such as automobiles and chemicals emerged. The country's economy was not affected by the war as much as Europe, and the US was able to take advantage of this situation to become the world's leading economic power.

The United States also had the advantage of having a large domestic market, abundant natural resources, and a well-developed infrastructure, which allowed it to become the leading producer of goods and services in the world. This economic dominance, coupled with the political and military power that the United States had gained as a result of its role in the war, positioned the country as a major player in global affairs and established it as a superpower in the 20th century.

Mass production of consumer goods

Ford T assembly line in 1913. A swing allows to present a sub-assembly coming from an upper floor to the workstation where it will be mounted on the vehicle.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. One of the most notable developments of this period was the advent of mass production techniques, which allowed for the manufacture of consumer goods on a large scale. This led to a significant increase in productivity and a decrease in the cost of goods, making them more affordable for the average consumer.

One of the pioneers of mass production techniques was Henry Ford, who introduced the assembly line to the automobile industry. Ford's Model T was the first car to be produced on a large scale using the assembly line, and this greatly reduced the cost of production and made cars more affordable for the average consumer. This innovation revolutionized the automobile industry and had a significant impact on American society, as the car became an essential part of everyday life.

Mass production techniques were also applied to other consumer goods such as household appliances, cigarettes, and clothing. This led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. The assembly line and mass production techniques became a standard in the manufacturing industry, and it's still widely used today.

The main aim of the Second Industrial Revolution was to increase productivity, efficiency and lower costs of production. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line, interchangeable parts, and the use of electricity, were all designed to achieve this goal.

The assembly line, for example, allowed for the efficient division of labor, where workers were assigned specific tasks, which increased the speed and volume of production. Interchangeable parts allowed for the mass production of goods, and the use of electricity allowed for the mechanization of many manufacturing processes, which further increased productivity and efficiency.

The goal of producing more, faster, and cheaper was also reflected in the marketing and selling strategies of the companies. Mass production allowed for economies of scale, which made goods cheaper, and this was a key to the success of many companies. This in turn led to an increase in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also had an impact on the labor market, as it led to the increase in the number of jobs in the manufacturing sector and the rise of the working class, but also led to the exploitation of labor, and the rise of the working class labor unions.

To achieve the goal of producing more, faster, and cheaper, Henry Ford set up large, highly-efficient factories that employed the latest technologies and innovations. One of the key innovations Ford introduced was the assembly line, which revolutionized the automobile industry.

On the assembly line, each worker was assigned a specific task and was responsible for performing that task repeatedly as the car moved down the line. This division of labor greatly increased the speed and volume of production, as each worker became an expert in their specific task. This was a significant departure from the traditional method of manufacturing, where each worker would complete the entire process of building a car, which was slow and inefficient.

Ford also standardized the components and accessories of the Model T, which allowed for the mass production of the car. This made it possible to produce cars at a much lower cost, which in turn made them more affordable for the average consumer. By using interchangeable parts, it was also possible to repair and maintain the cars more easily.

The assembly line and mass production techniques led to the creation of large, highly-efficient factories that employed a large number of workers. This led to the rise of the working class, but also to the exploitation of labor, and the rise of the working class labor unions. The assembly line also led to the creation of a new type of worker, the semi-skilled worker, who was only responsible for one task in the long production chain. This method of production also led to the creation of the first industrial robots, which were designed to perform repetitive tasks and increased the efficiency of the production process.

The assembly line, which was first introduced by Henry Ford in the automobile industry, soon became the standard for many other industries as well. The success of the assembly line in the automobile industry demonstrated that mass production techniques could be applied to other consumer goods as well, and this led to the widespread adoption of the assembly line in many other industries, such as appliances, electronics, and clothing.

The widespread adoption of the assembly line also led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. Companies began to focus on marketing and advertising to promote their products and create a demand for them. They tried to present new products as indispensable to every American and to make them believe that the model they already had was obsolete and needed to be replaced.

This marketing and advertising strategy, combined with the availability of cheap consumer goods, led to a significant increase in consumer spending, which in turn contributed to the growth of the economy. The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing sector, but also led to the exploitation of labor and the rise of the working class labor unions.

The rise of consumer culture and the emphasis on mass production also had a significant impact on American society and values, as people began to place a greater emphasis on material possessions and the acquisition of goods. This led to the rise of consumerism, which continues to be a significant aspect of American culture today.

Boom of the US economy

The Second Industrial Revolution led to a spectacular boom in the American economy in the 1920s. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, which in turn led to a significant increase in economic growth.

During this period, the United States experienced a significant increase in industrial production and a rise in gross national product (GNP) of 40%. This economic growth also led to an increase in per capita income, with the average annual income per person increasing by 30% and reaching 680 dollars per person in 1929. The population of the United States also grew significantly during this period, increasing from 100 million people in 1923 to 120 million people just ten years later.

This economic boom also led to an increase in consumer spending, which in turn contributed to the growth of the economy. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

The boom was not sustainable and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and the country entered a period of economic hardship that lasted until the end of the 1930s.

The economic boom of the 1920s led to an increase in wages for industrial workers in the United States, making them some of the highest-paid workers in the world. The increase in productivity and efficiency brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the demand for labor, which in turn led to an increase in wages for industrial workers.

This increase in wages also meant that industrial workers could afford to purchase some of the consumer goods that they were manufacturing. This led to a rise in consumer spending and the growth of a consumer-based economy. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

However, the benefits of this economic boom were not evenly distributed among all Americans. Many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality and did not have the same access to these higher wages and the ability to purchase consumer goods.

The prosperity of the 1920s was not sustainable and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and many Americans found themselves out of work and unable to afford the consumer goods they once could.

Chart 1: USA GDP annual pattern and long-term trend, 1920-40, in billions of constant dollars

Price of this revolution

The Second Industrial Revolution, which brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, had a significant impact on the rural areas of the country. The focus on mass production and efficiency led to the growth of manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas, and many people, particularly farmers, left the countryside in search of work in the cities.

The growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas led to higher wages and a higher standard of living for many Americans, but this prosperity was not evenly distributed. The average annual income for industrial workers in urban areas was $680 per year, while the average annual income for farmers and rural workers was only $273 per year.

This disparity in income led to a significant migration of people from rural areas to urban areas in search of work. Millions of small farmers left the countryside in search of better opportunities in the cities. This migration led to the growth of urban areas and the decline of rural areas, which had a significant impact on American society and culture.

The focus on mass production and efficiency also had a negative impact on the environment and natural resources, as the overuse of resources and the pollution of the environment were not considered in the production process. This had a long-term impact on the environment, and it's something that is still being addressed today.

The Second Industrial Revolution, although it brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, also had negative consequences. One of the most significant negative consequences was the rise of unemployment. Despite the growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas, the focus on mass production and efficiency led to the displacement of many workers.

During the 1920s, there were several economic downturns, including a recession in 1921. This recession led to an increase in unemployment, with an estimated 5 million workers out of the labor force. This economic downturn should have been a warning sign for the country, but it was not taken seriously, and the economy continued to grow.

The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was a much more severe economic downturn, and it lasted until the end of the 1930s. The depression was caused by a combination of factors, including the stock market crash of 1929, the decline in consumer spending, and the collapse of the banking system. The depression led to a significant increase in unemployment, with an estimated 15 million people out of work. The unemployment rate reached 25% by 1933. The Great Depression was only brought to an end with the Second World War which led to a significant increase in government spending, particularly on defense, which helped to stimulate the economy and create jobs.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the growth of large, highly-efficient factories and the rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses. These large businesses, also known as oligopolies, had a significant advantage over small businesses in terms of economies of scale and access to resources. They were able to produce goods at a much lower cost than small businesses, which made it difficult for small businesses to compete.

These oligopolies also benefit from government aid, which helped to suppress the labor movement and protect their businesses from competition. High tariffs and customs barriers were also imposed on imports from Europe and other countries, which further protected these large businesses from foreign competition.

This led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses, and the decline of small businesses and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses, and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses, but also led to the exploitation of labor, and the rise of the working class labor unions.

The rise of these large oligopolies also had a significant impact on American society, as they were able to exert significant influence over the political process and government policies. This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses, or oligopolies, during the Second Industrial Revolution led to a decline in the power of the independent labor movement. The labor movement had grown very strong in 1918 and 1919, as workers organized and formed unions to demand better wages and working conditions.

However, the large, powerful businesses were able to neutralize the labor movement by using various tactics, such as creating company-controlled unions, offering company-provided welfare programs, and using government policies to suppress the labor movement.

One of the tactics used by these large corporations was the establishment of "welfare capitalism" programs, which were contracts that promised various benefits to workers, such as better wages and working conditions, and even pension programs for the remaining workers in the company. These programs were intended to pacify the workers and reduce the need for independent labor unions.

However, these programs were not always effective and many workers continued to organize and form independent unions, despite the efforts of the large corporations to suppress the labor movement. The labor movement continued to grow and evolve, and it played a significant role in shaping American society and politics in the 20th century.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the decline of craft work and the rise of assembly line work. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, but it also led to the displacement of many skilled craft workers.

The process of eliminating small businesses and craft work was also seen in the retail sector, where small stores and independent merchants were replaced by large distribution chains and department stores. The growth of large, shareholder-owned businesses, or oligopolies, during the Second Industrial Revolution led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses, and the decline of small businesses and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses, and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses.

This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person. The decline of small businesses and craft work also had a significant impact on American society, as it led to a decline in the number of small businesses and independent merchants, which had a significant impact on the communities they served.

The new urban culture

Overall, the symptoms of this mass production are uniformity and standardization. The so-called 'roaring twenties' of the 1920s will soon run out of steam since the number of consumers will not increase as quickly as production and sales will decrease.

Mass consumption

Advertising is an agent of economic development. Advertising for Palmolive soap in 1922.

The big beneficiaries of these years are the elite and middle class who can buy cars, can settle in the villas. After a while, they have bought all the durable or semi-durable goods they need.

Then only a small part of the industrial workers and even less of the farmers can buy these goods which are produced through the credit or hire-purchase system to encourage purchase.

Due to the increasingly unequal distribution of wealth, the market for consumer goods is rapidly becoming saturated, which will also contribute to the great krak of 1929.

A new urban culture is born in the 1920s, the major milestones of American culture are set: cars, individual villas, department stores, skyscrapers; this landscape will change with the growing importance of the car: highway, hotel, drive through, etc..

The skyscrapers on the Manhattan peninsula in New York in 1932.

At the same time, urban culture is changing with the arrival of mass production and advertising as well as mass culture and leisure.

Radio is developing through channels like NBC, which is largely financed by advertising. Through this new media, information circulates much faster while sports such as golf, boxing and football develop like baseball, but remain segregated complements.

Sports were also broadcast by radio allowing it to become national, it was also during this period that Hollywood became the great centre of film production, many of which went against the American prude culture causing a certain reaction and the development of the number of cinemas.

Vote

That is when women won the right to vote. This gain of suffrage by women is not going to change much in the country's politics in general since black people in the south continue to be excluded from voting by the black codes, especially black women; on the other hand, women's access to suffrage does not change the role of men - women since men continue to be the main wage-earning economic breadwinners in the family.

Once women's suffrage is achieved, the feminist movement is divided with one side moving towards social goals obtaining advances from the federal government while other feminists struggle against the Victorian straitjacket and for personal fulfilment, including sexual fulfilment.

This shift towards women's emancipation was facilitated by the decline in births and the advent of the household appliance that reduced the amount of time middle-class women spent in the home.

Children no longer enter the labour market as teenagers, but attend high school and university, which lengthens their lives with their parents.

The artistic creation

The 1920s were, for the first time in U.S. history, a time of great literary and artistic flourishing.

The literary flowering

With the growth of cities comes a new intellectual elite, writers who are often critical of the industrial revolution and the alienation it produces.

Many of them were shocked by the new materialism of American culture, some like Hemingway went into exile in Europe, others remained in the United States like Fitzgerald, who criticized the emptiness and lack of humanity of the American elite.

Harlem Renaissance

W. E. B. Du Bois.

Artistic blooming is not only the work of white men, but is happening everywhere, especially in the African-American community where men and women are contributing to the Harlem Renaissance.

With the culture of Harlem Renaissance, it is a very strong claim of African-Americans to have their place in American society; Harlem as well as Chicago will become black cultural centers with the development of jazz, the Blues, but also of literature which launches out in search of the roots and the African diaspora.

It was at this time that W.E.B. Du Bois became the intellectual voice of African-Americans and the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) moved to Harlem.

With the continued arrival of hundreds of thousands of blacks fleeing the segregated South, other cities such as Detroit and Philadelphia saw their black population double and become centers of mobilization against the segregated South.

All that did not mean that the North was not racist or segregationist; United States foreign policy was extremely racist, particularly with regard to Central America and the Caribbean; it was also in the cities of the North that segregation was certainly not manifested in law, but in fact.

Marcus Garvey in 1924.

The massive arrival of black migrants from the South is causing major riots. In response, many blacks join black nationalist movements, especially since this is the era of nationalism in Europe, but also in the United States.

The red, black and green flag created by the UNIA in 1920.

Pour ces noirs et notamment le mouvement de la Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) founded by a Jamaican immigrant named Marcus Garvey, This movement reproduces the main symbols of nationalists who argue that to get out of this, the blacks of the Americas must unite in order to create their own nation, have their own institutions and businesses; it is black capitalism that allows them to defend their race.

At that time, in the 1920s, UNIA said it had several million adherents not only in the United States, but also among British West Indians working in the Caribbean and Central America. UNIA had its own press, its own navy, its own uniforms, but also its own Red Cross; all this movement manifested itself in large parades in Harlem and other cities.

This era was also marked by the idea of the "New Negro" that breaks away from all the stereotypes associated with it and forced to manifest its value.

The Protestant and Anglo-Saxon reaction

Non-WASP Americans

The 1920s are years of economic dreams, they are years that are politically dominated by the Republican Party, we have three Republican presidents in succession: Harding, Coolidge and Hoover. These three presidents practise a policy of protectionism against all imports of goods produced industrially abroad, on the other hand they ignore the problems of post-World War I Europe, which is experiencing many problems, including the rise of perilous movements.

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  Official portrait of the President of the United States by President Warren G. Harding 1921-1923.

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  Official portrait of the President of the United States by Charles S. Coolidge. Hopinknson.

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  President Harding and Vice President Coolidge with their wives.

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  Herbert Hoover in 1925.

Within the United States, these presidents practice policies of "absolute liberalism," but this is not quite the case, as they cut taxes heavily for corporations and the wealthiest.

With this apparent liberalism, they are not concerned about the huge pockets of poverty that are forming in the country and especially in the countryside; they are not concerned about the fact that in the countryside 6 million small farmers are forced to leave the countryside to seek work in the cities.

All of this is generated by overproduction, which leads to a general fall in the prices of agricultural products and makes it impossible for small producers to survive.

Face à ces problèmes qui s’accumulent, la réaction de l’Amérique anglo-saxonne profonde ne se tourne pas vers le gouvernement, les grandes corporations ou les plus riches, mais contre des boucs émissaires toujours faibles et facilement résignables.

It is during these years that the Ku Klux Klan rose from its ashes since it had almost disappeared after 1865 and with the black codes it was no longer necessary; after 1915 it is the rebirth of the Ku Klux Klan which is linked to the diffusion of the film The Birth of a Nation which is a film to the glory of the southern confederates during the Civil War promoting a shocking racism.

En 1925, le Klan déclare avoir 5 millions de membres actifs, c’est aussi une époque où les lynchages se multiplient, mais pas seulement contre les noirs au Sud, mais se répandent aussi à l’Ouest et dans certains États du Nord contre les Mexicains, les Italiens, les Russes, les juifs, les catholiques et contre certains blancs notamment contre les femmes blanches qui avaient des relations avec des noirs.

C’est une violence raciale qui va aller au-delà de la violence anti-noire, néanmoins ce sont les Afro-Américains qui paient le prix le plus terrible.

Cependant, des scandales se produisent au Ku Klux Klan perdant peu à peu son pouvoir vers 1930.

Immigrants

Immigrants are also the scapegoat, this anti-immigrant feeling spreads quite quickly; already in 1917 there are demonstrations and riots against emigrants. It was the first government that passed laws against emigrants; in 1917 the literacy law was passed to give emigrants a reading test. In the 1920s a quota law was passed limiting the number of immigrants according to their origins. Pseudo-scientific theories were used to establish a hierarchy of immigrants according to race, with the Anglo-Saxons at the top.

These laws do not currently affect migrants from the Americas. In this period there is a whole press against immigrants.

This emigration is limited for Europeans, but is open for Mexicans and Puerto Ricans.

The "Reds"

Illustration from 1919 depicting a "European anarchist" attacking the Statue of Liberty.

This anti-immigrant feeling also takes a political form with the fear of the Reds, communists, anarchists and socialists.

It is interesting to see that the rise of this feeling increases a lot during the First World War and especially at the end because there are many strikes. After the First World War, American nationalism found a new enemy in Bolshevik Russia, which found a leader in the strikes of 1918 and 1919.

Communism is worrying while some attacks favour collective hysteria against emigrants consisting of mass deportations, but also lynchings.

The most symbolic case is that of two Italian anarchists, Nicola Sacco and Venzetti, who were arrested in 1905 after two hold-ups in Boston. These two men have always claimed their innocence, yet they were tried by a xenophobic extreme right-wing jury at the same time as an election campaign in Massachusetts.

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  Nicola Sacco (droite) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (gauche)

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  Nicola Sacco

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  Bartolomeo Venzetti

This verdict aroused an outrage that went beyond the United States and spread throughout the world, becoming symbols of American class justice. Arrested in 1920, many years of litigation were conducted with evidence exonerating them, but in 1926 the Massachusetts Supreme Court upheld their conviction and in 1927 the state governor refused to grant them a pardon despite interventions from the Vatican and the left.

Before being executed Venzetti says:

« not only have I never committed this crime, but I have never committed violence in all my life, but I am actually convinced that I am being condemned for things of which I am guilty: radical and Italian; and if I could be reborn after my execution I would be radical and Italian again and I would do again what I have done with my life and you would execute me a second time for what I have done ».

The Prohibition

A police raid in 1925 in Elk Lake, Ontario.

It must be seen that Anglo-Saxon America's reaction will also be a rural reaction against the debauchery of the cities, which is attributed in large part to the consumption of alcoholic beverages manifested by Prohibition.

Between 1903 and 1918, 32 states passed laws condemning the consumption of alcohol; in 1919, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquor within the United States and its dominions.

It is the prohibition that encourages smuggling and clandestine consumption that will strengthen crime and in particular the power of the mafias with Al Capone; it will also encourage government corruption.

Christian fundamentalism

Grant Wood, American Gothic (1930), Art Institute of Chicago. Une représentation symbolique de l’Amérique « puritaine »

Finally the Anglo-Saxon reaction manifests itself in Christian fundamentalism; men and women brandish the Pioneer Bible against atheists, Catholics, Jews and socialists; the most notorious case is the conviction in 1925 of a biology teacher who had violated a law banning the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution being sentenced, but to a penalty that will be minimal.

Shortly afterwards it was also during this period that more aggressive cults such as Jehova's witnesses recruited not only in the countryside but also in the cities.

Conclusion

The 1920s saw in the United States a rapid growth of industrial production and consumption by the upper and middle classes, which gave rise to great optimism and a blind belief by the governments in liberalism, which was in fact distorted by the protectionists who shielded US production from international competition.

At the same time all these governments ignore the dysfunctions, the growing gap between the rich and the great majority, all of which will contribute to the great crash of 1929.

Annexes

• NAACP | National Association for the Advancement of Colored People.
• Édition du 23 août 1927 du journal Le Devoir, Montréal - "La fin de Sacco et Venzetti".
• Articles de H.L. Mencken relatifs au procès Scopes.
• Tennessee vs. John Scopes: The "Monkey Trial", site sur le procès du singe.
• Monkey Trial sur PBS.
• Foreign Affairs,. (2015). The Great Depression. Retrieved 29 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1932-07-01/great-depression