The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940

Données clés
Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that took place between 1910 and 1940, characterized by social, economic, and political upheaval. It began with a rebellion led by Francisco Madero against the long-standing dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution eventually led to the formation of a constitutional republic in Mexico, and brought about significant changes to the country's social structure and economy. During the revolution, various factions and leaders, including Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, and Venustiano Carranza, fought for control of the government. The revolution resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million people and brought about significant changes to Mexican society and politics.

The Mexican Revolution was a significant turning point in the history of Mexico and the Americas. The long dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, known as the Porfiriato, brought about economic development but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality. The regime's focus on modernization and economic growth left many segments of the population, such as indigenous communities and rural farmers, marginalized and disadvantaged.

The revolution was a response to these failures and aimed to bring about a more inclusive and equitable society. Many of the revolutionary leaders, such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, represented the interests of rural and indigenous communities and sought to redistribute land and power. The revolution led to significant changes in the country's social and economic structure, such as the nationalization of natural resources and the implementation of agrarian reform.

The revolution was also characterized by the struggle for national identity and the integration of diverse groups into the nation. This included the rights of indigenous peoples, Afro-Mexicans and the descendants of slaves, and the rights of women and workers.

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The Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz: 1876 - 1910

the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz was a major factor that led to the Mexican Revolution. Díaz came to power in 1876 and ruled Mexico for over 30 years through a series of fraudulent elections. He implemented policies of modernization and economic growth, which brought about significant economic development but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality.

The dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz was marked by the suppression of political opposition, censorship of the press and the persecution of labor and indigenous movements. Díaz also used repression to maintain his power. He had a strong-arm police force, the rurales, who enforced his will and eliminated any opposition.

The fraudulent re-election of Díaz in 1910 was a catalyst for the revolution. Francisco Madero, a wealthy landowner and political reformer, ran against Díaz in the election and was arrested after alleging fraud. Madero's arrest sparked widespread protests and rebellions against the dictatorship. This marked the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which eventually led to the formation of a constitutional republic in Mexico, and brought about significant changes to the country's social structure and economy.

During the Porfiriato, there were a number of factors that contributed to the eventual overthrow of Porfirio Díaz and the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution. Some of the key factors include:

Increase in poverty of the vast majority: As previously discussed, the policies of modernization and economic growth implemented during the Porfiriato led to significant economic development, but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality. The concentration of land in the hands of a few wealthy landowners led to an increase in the number of landless small farmers and worsening living conditions for many rural communities
Insufficient food production for a growing population: The focus on export-oriented agriculture during the Porfiriato meant that food production was primarily aimed at the export market, rather than meeting the needs of the domestic population. This led to food shortages and a lack of access to sufficient food for the growing population.
Staggering increase in the number of landless small farmers: The concentration of land in the hands of a few wealthy landowners led to an increase in the number of landless small farmers. These farmers were often displaced from their land and had no means of earning a living, leading to worsening living conditions and poverty.
Worsening of working conditions: The dictatorship's suppression of labor unions and worker strikes led to worsening working conditions for many urban workers. This included low wages, long working hours, and poor working conditions.
Beginning of trade unionism despite repression: Despite the dictatorship's repression of labor unions, trade unionism began to gain momentum, particularly among urban workers. This was a sign of growing discontent and frustration among the working class.
Control of industries by foreign monopolies: Foreign monopolies controlled key industries in Mexico, such as oil and mining, which further exacerbated economic inequality and increased frustration among the emerging middle classes.
Inflation generated by the whole cycle: The policies of modernization and economic growth led to an increase in inflation, which further impacted the standard of living for the majority of the population.
Rise of nationalism: The rise of nationalist sentiment, particularly among the emerging middle classes, was a key factor in the revolution as people became increasingly frustrated with foreign control over the country. This frustration was further fueled by the control of key industries by foreign monopolies, which were seen as a threat to national sovereignty.

Causes of the revolution

The Mexican Revolution has been characterized by different authors and historians in various ways. Some Marxist authors argue that the revolution was not a "real" revolution because it did not result in the establishment of a socialist system in Mexico. They argue that the revolution was primarily a struggle for political power and did not fundamentally change the country's economic and social structure.

Instead, they argue that the revolution resulted in the formation of a constitutional republic, which did not fundamentally change the country's capitalist economic system or the concentration of land and wealth in the hands of a few. They also argue that the revolution was led by a coalition of middle-class and elite leaders who did not represent the interests of the working class and peasants, who were the main force behind the revolution.

On the other hand, some historians and authors argue that the Mexican Revolution was a social revolution. They point to the significant changes in the country's social and economic structure that resulted from the revolution, such as the nationalization of natural resources and the implementation of agrarian reform. The revolution also led to the redistribution of land and power, which benefited rural communities and indigenous peoples. Additionally, the revolution also brought about significant changes in the country's political structure, such as the formation of a constitutional republic and the establishment of greater political freedom and democracy.

the Mexican Revolution is considered a revolution by many historians and authors because it meets the definition of a revolution as a massive, popular struggle for political and social change that results in a significant alteration of the existing power structure.

Massive participation of the population: The revolution was characterized by the participation of a large segment of the Mexican population, particularly in the North and Centre of the country, where a majority of the population were peasants.
Different views on the future: The population had different views on their future, with those in the North seeking an end to political and economic hindrances, and those in the Centre seeking the return of land taken under Díaz.
Struggle for power: The revolution represented a real struggle for power that led to civil war and the destruction of the existing regime's pillars.
Replacement of the system of control: The revolutionary leaders replaced Porfirio Díaz's system of control with another system of control that also put new elites in place as well as a new dominant ideology that is nationalist. At the same time, the revolution also brought about the construction of the state, national integration and the formation of a national capitalism.

The Mexican revolution is considered as a revolution due to the massive participation of the population, the different views on their future, the struggle for power, the replacement of the system of control and the emergence of new dominant ideology and new elite.

The Mexican Revolution is considered a pioneering revolution for its time, as it was one of the first major revolutionary movements in the early 20th century. It occurred before the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the Chinese Revolution, and the Cuban Revolution, which also brought about significant changes to the social, economic, and cultural structures of their respective countries.

The Mexican Revolution was also unique in that it was one of the first major revolutions in the Americas, and it set a precedent for other revolutionary movements in the region. It was a movement that aimed to bring about political, social, and economic change, and it was characterized by the participation of a large segment of the population, particularly rural and indigenous communities.

The Mexican Revolution also had a significant impact on the rest of Latin America. It served as an inspiration for other revolutionary movements in the region and helped to promote the idea of social and political change throughout the continent. Its impact can be seen in the various social and political movements that emerged in the following years in other Latin American countries, particularly in the Andean region.

The Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution is often divided into three phases:

1910-1920: This phase is characterized by a decade of struggle and civil war, which saw the overthrow of the Porfirio Díaz dictatorship and the rise of various revolutionary leaders and factions fighting for control of the government. During this phase, a new constitution was adopted in 1917, which included important reforms such as land redistribution, labor rights, and education.
1920-1934: The years of Sonora. This phase is characterized by the rise of Alvaro Obregon and Plutarco Elías Calles, who were leaders of the revolutionary government in the state of Sonora. This period was marked by political stability and a focus on economic development, but also by increased state control and repression of political opposition.
1934-1940: The government of Lazaro Cardenas. This phase is characterized by the rise of Lazaro Cardenas as President of Mexico, who implemented a number of important reforms, including the nationalization of key industries such as oil and electricity, agrarian reform and the promotion of nationalism ideals. This period is considered a continuation of the revolution, as it brought about significant changes in the country's social, economic and political structures.

1910 - 1920: A decade of struggles. Adoption of the 1917 Constitution

The main protagonists

The first phase of the Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to 1920, was a very violent and chaotic period marked by struggles and civil war. Many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated, including Francisco Madero, the leader who initially sparked the revolution, and Emiliano Zapata, the leader of the Zapatista movement who advocated for land reform.

During this phase, various revolutionary factions fought for control of the government, and there was a high level of instability and violence. The country was in a state of constant civil war, which resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of property. The main leaders were Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Alvaro Obregon.

Despite the violence and instability, this phase also saw the adoption of the 1917 Constitution, which was a significant achievement of the revolution. This constitution included important reforms such as land redistribution, labor rights, and education, which aimed to address some of the social and economic issues that had led to the revolution in the first place.

Victoriano Huerta was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz and he came to power after the murder of Francisco Madero. Huerta was not able to control the revolution and he was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes in Texas.

This phase was marked by a high level of violence and political instability, and many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated.

Francisco Madero, who came from Coahuila and was a great landowner from the North, was assassinated in 1913. He was the leader who initially sparked the revolution and advocated for political and social reforms.
Pancho Villa, a half-breed bandit from Chihuahua, was assassinated in 1923. He was one of the leaders of the revolution and led a powerful revolutionary army, Villa's Division of the North.
Pascual Orozco, a transport entrepreneur from Chihuahua, was first allied with Villa and then with Huerta, but he ended up being murdered by the police in Texas in 1916.
Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the Zapatista movement which advocated for land reform, was murdered in 1919.
Alvaro Obregón, a farmer, landowner, and important politician of Sonora, was murdered in 1928.
Venustiano Carranza, one of the main leaders of the revolution and president of Mexico, was murdered in 1920.

These leaders were key figures of the Mexican Revolution, and their deaths had a significant impact on the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government.

Victoriano Huerta
Francisco Madero
Pancho Villa
Pascual Orozco
Eufemio et Emiliano Zapata
Obregón Salido, Álvaro
Venustiano Carranza à La Cañada

The Mexican Revolution was a period marked by a real war for power and the struggle for control of the government. Out of the seven main leaders of the revolution that you have mentioned, Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, only Victoriano Huerta, who was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz, did not die from violence. He was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes from cancer in Texas.

The deaths of these leaders had a significant impact on the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government, as new leaders and factions emerged to take their place and continue the struggle for power. The high level of violence and political instability during this period was a characteristic of the Mexican revolution and it is also one of the reasons for the difficulty to establish a stable government and a new social, economic and political order.

Plan of San Luis Potosí

The Mexican Revolution began in the North of the country in 1910, with the opposition to the re-election of Porfirio Díaz, who was then 80 years old. The North of Mexico was a more industrialized and mining region, and it was here that the initial revolt broke out, following the launch of the Plan of San Luis Potosí by the liberal leader Francisco Madero. The Plan called for free elections and had the support of the large peasantry of the North, as well as industrialists.

Madero formed an army of 25,000 men under the leadership of Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa, which managed to defeat the forces of Díaz and negotiate his departure from power. Díaz went into exile and died in France of old age in 1915.

This phase of the revolution was characterized by the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions, each with their own agendas and ideologies, which led to a period of political instability and civil war in the country. The adoption of the 1917 Constitution was a significant achievement of this phase and it represented an effort to establish a new social, economic and political order.

In 1911, Francisco Madero was elected president of Mexico in free and fair elections, following the departure of Porfirio Díaz. However, Madero's presidency was marked by challenges and difficulties, as many of the revolutionary leaders and factions who had fought to overthrow Díaz were not satisfied with Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place.

In particular, the northern revolutionary leaders, such as Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata, were dissatisfied with Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. They had expected Madero to bring about more radical change, but they were disappointed by his more moderate approach.

This dissatisfaction led to a split within the revolutionary movement and to a new round of civil war and political instability. Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and other leaders formed a coalition against Madero, which contributed to his downfall and his assassination in 1913.

In the center of Mexico, particularly in the state of Morelos, the peasants under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place and to not attack the large sugar plantations in the region was particularly disappointing to the Zapatistas.

In response, Zapata and the Zapatistas took up arms again and declared the Plan of Ayala, also known as the Second Plan of the Mexican Revolution. This plan denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.

The Zapatistas and their demands for land reform became one of the most important parts of the Mexican revolution, and Zapata became a powerful leader and symbol of the revolution, especially in the center and south of the country.

The Zapatistas, under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata, also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes, and declared the Plan of Ayala which denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.

Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913 and established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, with the support of the big landowners, the church, and foreign investors. Huerta's regime was characterized by a return to authoritarian rule, repression of political opposition, and a focus on maintaining the status quo rather than implementing significant social and economic reforms.

However, Huerta's days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza, while in the center, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilized. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionized and calling for reforms.

A new intelligentsia emerged, linked to socialist nationalist, indigenous, and somewhat romantic ideas, which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change. Huerta's regime was widely unpopular and had to face multiple factions fighting for power, which eventually led to his downfall.

Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913, established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, but his days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza, and in the center, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilized. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionized, and calling for reforms. A new intelligentsia emerged which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change.

Guadalupe Plan

The Guadalupe Plan, also known as the Third Plan of the Mexican Revolution, was a political program launched in 1914. It was led by Venustiano Carranza, a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North, who had previously served as governor of Coahuila and as a member of Madero's cabinet.

The Guadalupe Plan called for the establishment of a constitutional government and the restoration of order in the country. It did not mention any specific social or agrarian reforms, unlike the previous plans of the revolution. Instead, it emphasized the need to restore the rule of law and establish a stable government.

The Guadalupe Plan was supported by many of the revolutionary leaders in the North, including Alvaro Obregon, and it helped to unite the various factions fighting for control of the government. Carranza and his followers emerged as the dominant force in the revolution, and in 1915, Carranza declared himself First Chief of the Constitutional Army and began to assume control of the government..

among the supporters of Venustiano Carranza were Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón. In 1914, they launched an assault on Mexico City with the goal of ousting Victoriano Huerta's government. At the same time, the Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, mobilized and advanced on Mexico City from the south.

Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement as it faced pressure from both the northern and southern revolutionary forces. In 1914, Obregón entered Mexico City, forced Huerta to flee, and installed Carranza in power. Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan.

This marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution, which was characterized by a decade of civil war, political instability, and the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions. Carranza's government, which was supported by Villa and Obregón, was able to establish a measure of stability and begin the process of rebuilding the country.

Carranza's supporters, Pancho Villa and Alvaro Obregón, launched an assault on Mexico City in 1914, while in the south the Zapatistas mobilized and advanced on Mexico City, Victoriano Huerta's government was caught in a pincer movement and was forced to flee. Obregón entered Mexico City and installed Carranza in power, Carranza declared himself the President of Mexico and formed a government based on the Guadalupe Plan, this marked the end of the first phase of the Mexican Revolution.

Between 1914 and 1915, Venustiano Carranza's government, also known as the "interregnum" was established in power, but once he was in power, the differences between the different revolutionary groups came to light. Carranza's government failed to achieve many of the social and economic reforms that had been promised during the revolution.

Carranza's government was marked by political infighting and a lack of clear direction. Carranza was more interested in consolidating his own power than in implementing meaningful reforms, and this led to a growing sense of disillusionment among many of the revolutionary leaders and factions.

Carranza's government also faced challenges from the Zapatistas in the south, who were dissatisfied with the lack of progress on land reform and other issues, as well as from Pancho Villa and other leaders in the north, who felt that Carranza was not fulfilling the promises of the revolution.

The Zapatistas, led by Emiliano Zapata, were one of the most important factions of the Mexican Revolution, and they mobilized behind the slogan "tierra y libertad" (land and freedom). Their movement focused on the issue of land reform and the redistribution of land to the indigenous peasant communities. They advocated for the expropriation of large landholdings, particularly those owned by wealthy landowners, and the redistribution of the land to small farmers and indigenous communities.

The Zapatistas were democratic and communitarian in their approach, and they sought to empower local communities and give them control over their own land and resources. However, they were not against the Catholic Church, and they had a complex relationship with the Church, which was sometimes supportive of their cause and sometimes opposed it.

Pancho Villa, also known as Francisco Villa, was a leader of the revolutionary forces in the North and his movement had a different approach compared to Zapatistas. He was often referred to as a caudillo, which is a term used to describe a strongman or leader who governs through personal charisma and force of will, rather than through democratic means.

Pancho Villa's movement was focused on the expropriation of haciendas, which were large landholdings owned by wealthy landowners. He did not follow the Zapatistas' approach of giving the land back to the peasants, but instead, he confiscated the haciendas and gave them to his lieutenants to administer them for the benefit of the revolution.

This approach was controversial and it drew criticism from other revolutionary leaders who saw it as a betrayal of the principles of the revolution. Villa's movement was also marked by violence and repression, and his followers were known for their brutality and disregard for human rights.

Venustiano Carranza and Alvaro Obregón were leaders from the state of Sonora and they had a different approach from Zapatistas and Villa's movement. They were less focused on agrarian issues and more interested in urban and democratic reforms. They were driven by the support of urban and middle-class elements of society, who were dissatisfied with the lack of political and economic progress under the Porfiriato.

Carranza and Obregón's approach was also characterized by a strong anti-clerical sentiment, which was directed against the Catholic Church. They saw the Church as a powerful and conservative institution that was opposed to the goals of the revolution. Carranza's government passed a number of laws that restricted the Church's power and influence, including the 1917 Constitution which contained articles that limited the Church's role in public life.

Carranza's army, known as the Constitutionalists, was relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 20,000 to 40,000 soldiers. Pancho Villa's forces, known as the Division of the North, were much larger, with estimates ranging from around 100,000 to 200,000 soldiers. Zapata's forces, known as the Zapatistas, were also relatively small, with estimates ranging from around 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers.

Zapata's body was exhibited in Cuautla (Morelos) on April 10, 1919.

After 1914, the struggles between these different forces were very intense, with an alliance between Villa and Zapata to take control of Mexico City. They were eventually driven out by Carranza's forces, known as the Constitutionalists, allowing Carranza to regain power shortly after. This alliance was known as the Ejército Libertador del Sur (Liberation Army of the South) which was created to fight against Carranza's government.

This alliance between Villa and Zapata was not very stable and it was based on a common enemy rather than a shared ideology. Villa and Zapata had different goals and visions for the revolution, and their alliance was more of a tactical move than a true partnership.

In 1915, the Zapatistas retreated to Morelos, and Villa's forces were defeated by Carranza's army in 1916, which enabled Carranza to take control of Mexico City, and be recognized as the President of Mexico by the United States and other countries.

In 1919, Carranza orchestrated an ambush that led to the murder of Emiliano Zapata. He then focused on suppressing the remaining resistance from Villa's forces. In 1923, Carranza himself was murdered by political rivals, which marked the end of his presidency.

Carranza's assassination in 1923 was a turning point in the revolution, as it marked the end of the struggle for power between the different factions. Carranza's death created a power vacuum, which was filled by his former general, Alvaro Obregon, who would become the next president of Mexico.

It is important to note that Carranza's murder was not only a political assassination but also an act of revenge by his former general, Obregon and his followers, who were tired of Carranza's authoritarianism, and his refusal to carry out land and labor reforms.

The constitution of 1917

the adoption of the Constitution of 1917 was one of the main accomplishments of the first phase of the Mexican revolution. The constitution was written by a constituent assembly that was elected by the people, and it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857.

The 1917 Constitution introduced several major reforms that aimed to address the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution. These included:

Agrarian reform: which aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities and ejidos (communal landholding)
Labor reform: which aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers
Educational reform: which aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens
Religious reform: which aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church.

The 1917 Constitution was also a very progressive document for its time. It included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions. It was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples.

The Constitution of 1917 was the main result of the first phase of the Mexican revolution, it was adopted by an elected constituent assembly, it was a significant departure from the previous constitution of 1857, it included several major reforms that aimed to address the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution such as Agrarian reform, Labor reform, Educational reform, and Religious reform, it was also a very progressive document for its time, it included provisions for women's suffrage, the right to free speech and free press, and the right to form trade unions, it was also the first constitution in the Americas to include rights for indigenous peoples.

General Lázaro Cárdenas.

the Constitution of 1917 was largely written by Francisco Mujica, a socialist who was close to Lazaro Cardenas. He was a nationalist and progressive man who was committed to addressing the social and economic grievances of the population that had led to the revolution.

The 1917 Constitution is considered a liberal constitution as it established a presidential system of government, while at the same time being one of the most socially progressive constitutions of its time. It introduced several major reforms aimed at addressing the social and economic grievances that had led to the revolution, such as agrarian reform, labor reform, educational reform, and religious reform.

Agrarian reform was a key component of the constitution, it aimed to redistribute land to small farmers, indigenous communities, and ejidos (communal landholding) to address the issue of landlessness. The labor reform aimed to improve working conditions and protect the rights of workers. The educational reform aimed to provide free and secular education for all citizens. The religious reform aimed to separate Church and State, with the government taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. The constitution also provided for social protection for its citizens.

The Constitution of 1917 was also a nationalist constitution. It defined that the subsoil resources, including the oil that was being exploited at the time by the British and Americans, belonged to the nation, and it placed limits on foreign property ownership. This was an important aspect of the constitution as it aimed to protect Mexico's natural resources and sovereignty from foreign exploitation.

The constitution also included a provision that allowed the government to expropriate foreign-owned property in cases where it was deemed to be in the national interest. This was seen as a way of protecting Mexico's resources and economy from foreign control. The constitution also restricted foreign ownership of land near the border and coast..

Another important dimension of the 1917 Constitution is that it was secular and even anticlerical. It suppressed the privileges of the Catholic Church by separating Church and State, and it also limited the power of the Church by taking control of the education system and the properties of the Catholic Church. This was a significant change from the previous constitution of 1857, which had granted the Catholic Church a special status and significant political and economic power. The anticlerical stance of the 1917 Constitution was in line with the progressive and secular ideals of many of the revolution's leaders, who saw the Church as a hindrance to the modernization and democratization of Mexico.

An unenforced constitution

Carranza, who came to power in 1914, did very little to enforce the provisions of the 1917 Constitution during his time in office. He was more focused on consolidating his own power and maintaining control over the country rather than implementing the social and economic reforms outlined in the constitution.

In addition, Carranza's government was plagued by corruption and political infighting, and he faced several challenges to his rule from other revolutionary leaders such as Villa and Obregon. He also faced opposition from Zapatistas who were pushing for agrarian reform and land redistribution in the south of the country.

Carranza also attempted to maintain himself in power illegally by seeking to change the constitution to allow him to run for re-election. This move was widely opposed and led to his government split. He was eventually overthrown in 1920, and as he was trying to flee the country with a significant amount of the national treasure, he was assassinated.

After Carranza's assassination in 1920, Obregón emerged as the revolution's most powerful and influential leader. He quickly took control of the government and was elected president in 1920.

During this time, the country was indeed ravaged by civil war, with estimates of the death toll ranging from 1 to 1.5 million people, or 10-15% of the total population. The war affected all sectors of society, with many people being displaced and suffering from the violence and destruction. The war also had a significant economic impact, with many businesses and farms being destroyed, and the country's infrastructure being severely damaged.

Obregón's presidency was marked by a period of relative stability and economic recovery. However, the country was still recovering from the devastation of the civil war, and the social and economic reforms outlined in the 1917 Constitution were yet to be fully implemented. Obregón's government did make some progress in agrarian reform, but the implementation of these reforms was not completed.

The railways played a significant role in the Mexican Revolution, allowing for the rapid transport of troops and supplies across the country. This mobility was a key factor in the success of the various revolutionary factions, as they quickly moved troops and resources to where they were needed.

Women also played an important role in the revolution, many of them actively participating in the fighting. In contrast, others supported the troops by working as nurses, cooks, and in other support roles. They also played a key role in organizing the resistance and supporting the war effort, especially in rural areas, where they were often left alone to manage farms and households while the men were away fighting.

It is important to note that this revolution was a significant human cost. A large number of people lost their lives, and many more were displaced and suffered from the violence and destruction caused by the war. The country was also left with significant economic and social challenges that would take many years to overcome.

1920 - 1934 : The years of the Sonorians

Project

The period between 1920 and 1934 is often referred to as the "Years of the Sonorians", during which leaders from the northern state of Sonora, such as Obregón and Calles, held significant power and influence in the national government.

During this time, the country was undergoing a process of modernization and economic development, and the Sonorian leaders sought to transform Mexico into a more developed, industrialized nation, similar to the United States. They implemented policies aimed at promoting economic growth and modernization, such as building infrastructure, encouraging foreign investment, and promoting industrialization.

However, this period was also marked by political repression and authoritarianism, as the Sonorian leaders sought to maintain control over the country and suppress any opposition to their policies. This led to a number of human rights abuses and political repression during this period, including the persecution of labor unions, the suppression of political dissent, and the forced exile of many political opponents.

The modernization program implemented by the Sonorian leaders during the 1920s and 1930s focused on developing agriculture, irrigation, transportation, and banking infrastructure in order to create a more prosperous and self-sufficient economy. This program was similar in many ways to the modernization program of the Porfiriato era, but it did have some important differences.

One key difference was that the Sonorian leaders were more focused on developing Mexico's agricultural sector, rather than the industrial sector. They implemented policies to increase agricultural productivity, such as building irrigation systems, constructing roads, and providing bank credits to farmers. However, they also sought to promote some industrialization, specifically in the agricultural sector, for example, in the production of cotton, sugar, and other agricultural products.

Another important difference is that the Sonorian modernization program was more focused on national development and self-sufficiency, rather than relying on foreign investment. They sought to create a more independent and self-sufficient economy, by promoting domestic industry and limiting the influence of foreign investors.

The Mexican economy suffered during the 1921 and 1929 crises, leading to many Mexican workers returning from the United States. The Sonorian leaders were able to implement some of their modernization policies during this period, leading to significant growth in the agricultural sector and infrastructure development in the north of the country. However, the center of the country faced more difficulties, particularly with food production.

The population of Mexico doubled from 20 million in 1920 to 40 million in 1940, putting pressure on the country's food production capacity. Despite the modernization efforts, the agricultural sector struggled to keep up with the demands of a rapidly growing population, leading to a decline in food production.

It's also worth mentioning that the forced return of Mexican workers from the United States was not a positive development for the country's economy, as it added to the already existing unemployment and poverty problems. Additionally, the population growth and economic struggles of this period, combined with the political repression and authoritarianism of the Sonorian government, created a difficult situation for many Mexicans during this period.

The Sonorian leaders sought to control the working classes through integration rather than repression, which was the approach used by Porfirio Díaz. They believed that by improving the standard of living of the working classes, they could reduce the threat of revolution and social unrest.

The agrarian reform implemented during this period was significant in scope, as it affected a large number of peasants. However, not all peasants were able to benefit from the reform. It is estimated that only 10% of the peasantry, or about 40% of the rural population, benefited from the agrarian reform. This was particularly true in the center of the country, where Zapatism had been strong.

The agrarian reform was a central part of the Sonorian's modernization program, intending to create a more prosperous and self-sufficient agricultural sector. The government implemented policies to increase agricultural productivity and improve the standard of living of the rural population. Despite the limitations, it was a significant step forward in addressing the problem of land distribution and poverty in the rural areas.

During this period, the government's approach towards the working class was a mixture of control, co-optation, and repression. The main trade union was gradually brought under the control of the Minister of Industry, which was a way for the government to exert control over the workers' movement. At the same time, socialist, anarchist, and communist unions were repressed and the right to strike was restricted.

The government believed that by controlling the trade union movement and co-opting its leaders, they could prevent the rise of radical or revolutionary movements among the workers. However, this approach also meant that the government was able to suppress any form of dissent among the working class, and restrict their rights to organize and protest.

The repression and control of the working class was part of a broader strategy of the government to maintain social stability and control over the population during this period. While the government's modernization efforts improved the standard of living, the repression of the workers' movement and the restriction of their rights created a difficult situation for many Mexicans during this period.

The government's approach towards political parties during this period was to neutralize independent parties and create a dominant party system. This was achieved through the formation of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), which was the institutional forerunner of the current Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). The PNR was created in 1929 and dominated Mexico's political scene until the 2000s. The party had a vast network of patronage and control, and it was able to co-opt and neutralize other political parties.

The PNR was created as a coalition of different factions, including the sonorians, Zapatistas, and other groups that emerged from the revolution. The party's main goal was to maintain stability and continuity in the government, and it was able to achieve this through a combination of control, co-optation, and repression. The PNR's dominance in the political scene meant that opposition parties were marginalized, and the government was able to maintain a high degree of control over the population.

The PNR's dominance also meant that the government was able to implement policies that were beneficial to the country's modernization and development. Still, it also meant that there was a lack of political competition and accountability, leading to a lack of transparency and a concentration of power in the hands of the ruling party.

One of the key changes that occurred during the Mexican Revolution was the reorganization of the military. Under the Porfirio Díaz regime, the rural guard was the main military force responsible for maintaining order and enforcing the government's policies in the countryside. However, during the revolution, the rural guard was replaced by a new national army that was more centralized and better equipped.

The new national army was created to consolidate power and control over the different regions of the country, as well as to defend against foreign aggression. The new army was better trained and equipped and had more advanced weaponry than the rural guard, which helped maintain stability and order during the revolution.

The new national army was also used to implement modernisation and development policies, such as building infrastructure, promoting education and public health, and carrying out agrarian reform. The new army also played a key role in maintaining stability and security during the period of the Sonorians government and the years that followed.

In addition to the new national army, the government also created a new police force, the Federal Rural Police, to maintain order in rural areas and to support the national army in carrying out its tasks. This new police force was responsible for enforcing the government's policies and maintaining order in the countryside, particularly in areas where agrarian reform was implemented.

Building Mexican nationalism

It was during these years that revolutionary Mexico built a nationalism based on its mixed race and Indian roots. This is something very original that is happening in the Americas, we are in an era where every country, every ethnic group is trying to show that it is a nation with its race, culture, language, art and territory.

Fresque by Diego Rivera.

It is also the same period when in the United States racism and the Ku Klux Klan are being revived, and when Mexico glorifies interbreeding and revalorizes, among others, the Maya and the Aztecs and their great urban civilizations as the foundations of the country's history.

What is interesting to see is that in 1917, when the constitution was formed, the government opened an anthropology office that also dealt with archaeology and studied the various indigenous communities that enriched Mexican culture.

This celebration of crossbreeding was carried out under the aegis of Vasconcelos, who was Minister of Education between 1921 and 1924. He is best known for his work La Raza Comisca^[8] which he published in 1925 imagining the cosmic race made up of mixed race, Europeans, Indians and Africans.

That was the time when intellectuals in Europe and the United States were declaring that whites should dominate the world; it was a bold thing for the time, but that doesn't mean that Vasconcelos is not racist, because he thought that in the long term the Indians and Africans will disappear because they will be absorbed by the mixed race and the whites in order to re-found the Mexicans in a cosmic race.

Diego Rivera with Frida Kahlo, his third wife.

At the same time, we are still in the ideology where we think that education can improve the race and especially the Indians, it was at that time that Vasconcelos among others had pushed the education of the country a lot.

All this was first done at school, just as after the French Revolution, the Mexican revolution was convinced that the school teacher would replace the priest, becoming the link between the citizens and the State.

Under Vasconcelos, education accounted for up to 14% of the national budget, schools were opened in villages, itinerant teachers were sent out to remote areas, evening schools were opened to teach adults to read and write, and libraries were opened with works by Mexican authors. Between 1921 and 1934, the illiteracy rate fell from 72% to 62% and almost half of the children went to school.

The other major axis in order to develop the national culture is the arts, the government mobilizes artists, musicians, singers, sculptors to promote the national consciousness paying them materials and providing them with buildings on which the artists will illustrate the epic of the Mexican people, it is a revised epic where the Maya and Aztec past will be glorified and the colonial past will be condemned; some artists will become artists of international audience such as Diego Rivera, Orozco or Frida Kahlho.

All this unique national art movement in Latin America is fundamental in the formation of "mexicanidad", the national pride and independence of the country and in the beginning of the acceptance of the elites in popular culture; it is a movement that continues until 1940 having repercussions throughout Latin America with the populisms.

The government of Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934 - 1940

Lázaro Cárdenas.

It is a government by a man who comes from Michoacán, who came to power after the crisis of 1929, who was military during the revolution, but who knows well the needs of the small peasantry of the South, a man who remains modest, at least in appearance, and who does not seek to get rich.

Unlike the sonorians, Cárdenas believes in dialogue and the power of conviction travelling throughout the country. Under Cárdenas, the great spike of the agrarian revolution took place, redistributing 18 million hectares in six years, almost double what was distributed between 1915 and 1934; in 1940, 47% of the country's cultivated land belonged to village and indigenous communities.

This policy allowed the regime to ally itself with the small peasantry; Cárdenas also unified the trade unions and integrated socialists and communists into a pro-government workers' centre.

In the field of education, he continued the policies begun under the ministry of Vasconcelos; compared to the Catholic Church, he was much more conciliatory than the anticlerical sonorians who let the churches function almost autonomously.

Cárdenas was most innovative in relation to the United States, because after a series of strikes in which the big American and English companies refused government arbitration, in 1938 Cárdenas nationalized the oil industry.

In response, the United States and France boycotted Mexican oil while England broke off diplomatic relations. It is felt that war will break out, but the great powers will go further not wanting to alienate Mexico at this key moment in history; the nationalization of oil produces a national union that unites everyone behind Cárdenas, from bishops to socialist university students.

Cárdenas also reformed the governing party, making this revolutionary party the precursor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party to which he attached the peasants and the workers' unions.

In 1938, a good part of the Mexican revolutionary project of state building, national integration and national capitalism was achieved. The revolution changed the country profoundly, moreover the Mexican revolution shows the importance of Mexico for all the Americas and many Latin American countries are trying to imitate some of these policies.

The year 1938 was the apogee of the Mexican revolution, but the governments that followed the government of Cárdenas would quickly destroy the achievements of the revolution, especially its agrarian revolution.

Annexes

Posada, et al. “La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso El Ascenso De Francisco Madero.” El Ascenso De Francisco Madero - La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso | Exposiciones - La Biblioteca Del Congreso, www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/rise-madero-sp.html.

References

[1] Aline Helg - UNIGE

[2] Aline Helg - Academia.edu

[3] Aline Helg - Wikipedia

[4] Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com

[5] Aline Helg - Researchgate.net

[6] Aline Helg - Cairn.info

[7] Aline Helg - Google Scholar

[8] La Raza Cósmica Misión de la raza iberoamericana Notas de viajes a la América del SurAgencia Mundial de Librería, Madrid 1925 (Spanish)

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