The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The period between 1877 and 1900 in the United States is known as the "Gilded Age," a term coined by Mark Twain to describe the period as one of great economic growth, but also of widespread poverty and social inequality. During this time, the country saw rapid industrialization and urbanization, as well as the rise of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the end of Reconstruction in the South, which resulted in the suppression of voting rights for African Americans and the rise of racial discrimination. The end of the period was marked by the Spanish-American War in 1898, which marked the emergence of the United States as a major imperial power.

The railroad played an important role in the reconstruction of the United States after the Civil War. The railroad helped to rebuild the economy of the South and also allowed for the transportation of goods and people across the country. It also helped to integrate the country by connecting the different regions and enabling the movement of goods and people between them. The railroad helped to spur economic growth and development and was a major contributor to the country's transformation into an industrial power.

During the period from 1870 to 1900, the United States underwent significant economic, social, and political changes. The country experienced a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization, which led to the growth of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the suppression of voting rights for African Americans in the South and the rise of racial discrimination. Despite these challenges, the period saw the United States emerge as a major imperial power, with the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

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Role of the railways

At the ceremony for the driving of the "Last Spike" at Promontory Summit, Utah, May 10, 1869.

The railroads played a crucial role in the development of the United States during the late 19th century. The expansion of the railroad network allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across the country, which helped to spur economic growth and development. The railroads also played an important role in the formation of a huge internal market by connecting the different regions of the country and enabling the movement of goods and people between them.

The rail network linked East to West and North to South, which helped to integrate the country and spurred economic growth. The railroads also helped to spur the growth of industry and commerce, as they made it easier to transport raw materials and finished products. The railway also helped to promote the settlement of the western states and territories, as it made it easier for people to move there. The rail network also helped to spur the development of the mining, agriculture, and timber industries. The railroads were a major force in the country's transformation into an industrial power and played a key role in shaping the economy and society of the United States during this period.

The expansion of the railroad network in the United States during the late 19th century was significant. In 1870, there were approximately 85,000 kilometers of railroads in the United States, and by 1900, that number had grown to 320,000 kilometers, an increase of four times.

All of the railroads were privately owned and their schedules were coordinated through the imposition of four eastern time zones. However, the construction of the railroads was plagued by corruption, haste, and competition, and the network was not always well-maintained. Despite these issues, the construction of the railroads was heavily subsidized by both the states and the federal government, which helped to spur their growth.

As a result of this growth, companies that owned the railroads became extremely powerful, having accumulated large land holdings along the railroads. This led to the creation of monopolies and trusts, which controlled the transportation industry, and the railroads became a symbol of the economic and social inequality that characterized the Gilded Age.

However, the growth of railroads also had a positive impact on the country, as it facilitated the movement of goods and people, helped to spur economic growth and development and also helped to integrate the different regions of the country. It also facilitated the settlement of the western states and territories and promoted the growth of various industries like mining, agriculture, and timber.

In addition to the expansion of the railroad network, the United States also developed a communications network through the telegraph and mail during the late 19th century. This network of telegraph lines and mail routes helped to connect people and businesses across the country, making it easier to send messages and conduct business across long distances.

However, despite the expansion of the railroad network and the new means of communication, the states of the Union remained quite different from each other. The country can be divided into three regions: the West, the South, and the Northeast. Each region had its own unique history, economy, culture, and social structure, which set them apart from the others.

The West was characterized by its vast expanses of land, sparse population, and diverse economy, which included mining, agriculture, and cattle raising. The South, on the other hand, had been devastated by the Civil War and was still recovering from its effects. It was characterized by a primarily agrarian economy and a large population of African Americans who were subject to discrimination and limited political rights. The Northeast was the most industrialized and urbanized region of the country, and it was home to a large number of immigrants who worked in the factories and mills. The Northeast also had a more developed economy and a more complex social structure.

The railroads and telegraph lines helped to connect the country and promote economic growth, but they could not erase the regional differences that existed in the United States.

The West

Conquest of Amerindian territories

Mass grave with Lakota who died after the massacre at Wounded Knee.

The West, which included states recently acquired from Mexico and Great Britain, was largely the territory of indigenous peoples. From 1850 to 1890, the United States government embarked on a policy of westward expansion that included the forced displacement and confinement of indigenous peoples to small reservations under federal control. This policy was known as Indian Removal and it resulted in the forced relocation of thousands of indigenous people from their ancestral lands to reservations.

The government's policy was motivated by a desire to acquire the land for white settlers, mining, and other commercial interests. Many indigenous people were forced to leave their homes and were forced to walk hundreds of miles to their new homes in unfamiliar and often-unfavorable areas. This journey, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of thousands of people.

The government's policy towards indigenous peoples was often violent and brutal, and it resulted in the loss of lives, land, and culture for many indigenous communities. The survivors of the forced relocations were often confined to small reservations, where they were forced to live in poverty and under federal control. This policy of Indian Removal and confinement was a significant violation of the rights of indigenous peoples and it had a devastating impact on their communities.

During the period of westward expansion in the United States, the buffalo population on the central plains was drastically reduced through hunting. The buffalo were a crucial resource for many indigenous peoples, providing food, clothing, and shelter. The hunting of buffalo was seen as a way for settlers to exert control over the land and the indigenous peoples who lived there. The extermination of the buffalo had a devastating impact on many indigenous communities, as it destroyed their main source of sustenance and their way of life.

The last major conflict between the United States government and indigenous peoples occurred at Wounded Knee in 1890, when the 7th Cavalry of the United States army massacred around 200 Sioux people, many of whom were women and children. The massacre at Wounded Knee marked the end of armed resistance by indigenous peoples to the government's policy of westward expansion and confinement to reservations.

The events at Wounded Knee, as well as the policy of Indian Removal and the extermination of buffalo, were tragic and unjust actions that had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous peoples in the United States. It is a dark chapter of the history of the United States and it continues to have an impact on the Indigenous people today.

The population of indigenous peoples in the United States declined significantly during the period of westward expansion and the forced confinement to reservations. The total number of indigenous people in the United States rose from approximately 330,000 in 1860 to 237,000 in 1900, a decrease of nearly 30%.

On the other hand, the population of the West, including the newly acquired states and territories, increased rapidly from about 2 million in 1860 to 20 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 900%. This was due to the influx of white settlers, miners, and other migrants attracted by the availability of land and the promise of economic opportunity.

Overall, the total population of the United States increased from 31 million in 1860 to 76 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 145%. This population growth was driven by both natural increase and immigration, as well as the westward expansion and the influx of settlers into the newly acquired western territories.

The drastic decline in the Indigenous population was due to the policies of the government and the impact of war, disease and displacement and it is a sad and tragic chapter of the history of the United States.

The proportion of the indigenous population in the United States declined dramatically during the period of westward expansion and forced confinement to reservations. From a population of approximately 330,000 in 1860, or about 0.1% of the total population, the indigenous population declined to 237,000 in 1900, or about 0.003% of the total population. This represents a decline of nearly 70% in the proportion of the indigenous population in the United States over the course of four decades.

This decline was due to a combination of factors, including forced removal, war, disease, and displacement, as well as the impact of policies aimed at assimilating indigenous peoples into white American society. The drastic decline in the indigenous population was a tragic outcome of the government's policies towards indigenous peoples and it had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous communities.

Rapid colonization

The American West across the Mississippi River. In dark red, the states that are still considered part of it: California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, plus Alaska and Hawaii. In hatched red, states that are sometimes considered part of the South or Middle West: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota.

The West was rapidly colonized following the forced removal of indigenous peoples and the extermination of the buffalo. The rapid expansion of the railroad network made it easier for settlers to move west and claim land, and the availability of land attracted a diverse group of settlers, including farmers, miners, and ranchers.

Cattle breeding also played a significant role in the colonization of the West, as cowboys drove large herds of cattle from Texas to the northern plains to be sold to markets in the East and Midwest. The expansion of cattle breeding was also characterized by the presence of a significant number of African-American cowboys, who faced discrimination and limited opportunities in other industries.

The expansion of the railroad network and the growth of the meatpacking industry in cities like Chicago also facilitated the growth of beef production and consumption in the United States. The advent of refrigeration allowed for the preservation of meat and made it possible to transport beef from the West to the cities, where it became a staple of the American diet.

The rapid colonization of the West had a significant impact on the economy, culture, and society of the United States. The expansion of the railroad network, the growth of cattle breeding, and the rise of the meatpacking industry were all major factors that contributed to the country's transformation into an industrial power.

During this period, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Eastern, Central, and Eastern Europe also moved to the Great Plains to cultivate crops such as corn and wheat. These immigrants, mainly from countries such as Poland, Russia, and Ireland, were attracted by the promise of cheap land and economic opportunity. The government also actively promoted western settlement through policies such as the Homestead Act of 1862, which offered 160 acres of land to anyone willing to settle and improve it.

These farmers, known as "homesteaders," faced many challenges in the Great Plains, including harsh weather conditions, lack of infrastructure, and the difficulty of breaking up the prairie soil. Nevertheless, they persevered, and their efforts helped to transform the Great Plains into a major agricultural region. They were also instrumental in the growth of towns and cities, as well as in the development of the agricultural industry in the United States.

The immigrants from Eastern, and Central Europe were also a significant source of labor for the railroad industry and for the mines in the West. They also played a role in the growth of industry, particularly in the Midwest, where many of them settled and worked in the factories and mills.

The settlement of the Great Plains by farmers from Eastern, Central, and Eastern Europe was a significant aspect of the westward expansion of the United States and contributed to the country's transformation into an agricultural and industrial power.

Chinese immigrants also played a role in the colonization of the American West, particularly in California. Many Chinese immigrants came to the United States during the mid-19th century to participate in the California Gold Rush of 1849 and to work in mining camps and small businesses.

The Chinese immigrants faced significant discrimination and racism, particularly in California, where they were often denied the rights and opportunities afforded to white settlers. They were also subject to violence and harassment, and were often forced to live and work in segregated communities. Despite these challenges, the Chinese immigrants contributed to the growth of the California economy through their labor in the mines and their small businesses.

Chinese immigrants also played a significant role in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, which connected the East and West coasts of the United States. Many Chinese immigrants worked as laborers on the railroad and were responsible for much of the dangerous and grueling work of building the railroad through the mountains.

the colonization of the interior of the United States was difficult, despite the advancements in agriculture and transportation. The isolation of the interior, particularly in the Great Plains, made it difficult for settlers to access markets and resources. The harsh weather conditions, including cold winters and hot summers, also presented significant challenges for farmers.

The mechanization of agriculture and the improvement of transportation did help to make it easier for settlers to establish farms and ranches in the interior, but the isolation and harsh conditions remained significant barriers. Many settlers struggled to make a living and were forced to leave their farms, leading to the phenomenon of the "dust bowl" during the 1930s, where drought, economic depression and poor farming practices led to a severe ecological and agricultural disaster.

Despite these challenges, the colonization of the interior of the United States was an important aspect of the country's westward expansion and contributed to the growth and development of the economy and society. The interior of the country became an important agricultural region and the population continued to grow, leading to the emergence of towns and cities.

The mail-order industry, exemplified by companies such as Sears, played an important role in the colonization and development of the interior of the United States. The mail-order industry emerged in the late 19th century and it allowed farmers and other residents of the interior to purchase goods and products that were otherwise unavailable to them.

These catalogs, such as the famous Sears catalog, offered a wide range of products, from clothing and household goods to farm equipment and tools, and made it possible for people in the interior to purchase goods without having to travel to the cities. The mail-order industry also played a role in standardizing consumption patterns across the country, as people in the interior were able to purchase goods that were similar to those available in the cities.

Despite the rapid colonization and development of the West, it remained a primarily rural region well into the 20th century. The conquest of the West played a fundamental role in shaping American culture and identity, as historian Frederick Jackson Turner theorized in his famous "Frontier Thesis."

According to Turner, the repeated experience of colonizing new frontiers on the continent had a profound impact on American society, making Americans a unique people characterized by their individualism, optimism, and democratic spirit. He argued that the existence of a "frontier" - a place of free land and opportunity - had played a vital role in shaping American culture and that, as the frontier closed, American society would be forced to adapt to a new reality.

Turner's thesis has been debated and criticized over the years, but it remains an influential interpretation of American history, and the conquest and settlement of the West remains a significant aspect of American culture and identity. The West, with its vast and open spaces, its rugged terrain, and its diverse population, has come to symbolize the American spirit of adventure and optimism.

Frederick Jackson Turner's "Frontier Thesis" has been criticized by recent historical research, which has highlighted the complexities and nuances of the conquest and colonization of the West. Critics have pointed out that Turner's thesis overemphasized the role of the frontier in shaping American culture and identity, while ignoring the significant impact of other factors such as race, class, and gender.

Despite these criticisms, Turner's thesis remains an influential interpretation of American history, and the metaphor of conquest continues to be a powerful cultural symbol in American society. This is evident in the way that the idea of "conquering a new frontier" has been used in American politics and culture. For example, when President John F. Kennedy launched his aid programs in Latin America and the Peace Corps, he spoke of the need to "conquer a new frontier" in order to promote democracy and economic development in the region.

The metaphor of conquest is also present in the popular culture, where the Western genre has been a staple of American literature, film and television, and has shaped the way Americans view the conquest of the West and the American identity. This metaphor of conquest also illustrates the way American culture views itself and its relationship with the rest of the world.

The conquest and colonization of the West remains an important aspect of American culture and identity, and the metaphor of conquest continues to be a powerful cultural symbol in American society, despite the criticisms of the historical research..

The South

the reunification of the United States after the Civil War was to the detriment of African Americans, particularly in the South. Following the war, Southern states passed a series of laws known as "Black Codes" that were designed to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. These laws included measures such as restrictions on voting rights, limits on employment opportunities, and measures to control the movement and behavior of African Americans.

In response to these discriminatory laws and practices, African Americans in the South turned to the courts to challenge their legal status. However, the courts were often unresponsive to their grievances, and many were met with resistance from white officials and the broader white community.

Despite these obstacles, African Americans in the South continued to fight for their rights and equality through various means such as forming their own organizations, joining the Republican Party and participating in grassroots movements. These efforts led to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s, which ultimately led to the dismantling of the system of Jim Crow laws and segregation in the South.

The reunification of the United States after the Civil War was a difficult and challenging process for African Americans in the South, who were met with discriminatory laws and practices designed to restrict their rights and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. Despite these challenges, African Americans continued to fight for their rights and equality through various means, leading to the eventual dismantling of the system of segregation.

the United States Supreme Court, which was still dominated by former slaveholders in the early years after the Civil War, played a significant role in shaping the legal status of African Americans in the South. In a series of cases, known as the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, did not require the federal government to protect the civil rights of African Americans.

The court held that the amendment's equal protection clause applied only to discrimination by the federal government and not by state or local governments. This decision effectively left the regulation of race relations to the individual states and allowed Southern states to pass discriminatory laws, known as "Jim Crow" laws, that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination.

The court's ruling in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 set the stage for a long and difficult struggle for civil rights for African Americans in the United States, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that the federal government began to intervene to protect the rights of African Americans in the South.

Overall, the Supreme Court's ruling in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 was a significant setback for the rights of African Americans in the United States, and it set the stage for a long and difficult struggle for civil rights. The court's decision effectively left the regulation of race relations to the individual states, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement.

In 1896, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Plessy v. Ferguson that legalized racial segregation in public places, as long as it did not prevent both races from having equal access to public services. This ruling effectively established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which allowed for the segregation of African Americans in public spaces, such as schools, public transportation, and other public facilities, as long as the separate facilities were equal in quality.

This ruling had a significant impact on the legal status of African Americans in the United States, particularly in the South, where it allowed for the widespread implementation of discriminatory "Jim Crow" laws that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision was not overturned until 1954, in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education, which declared that segregation in public schools was inherently unequal and therefore unconstitutional.

It is true that the 14th and 15th amendments to the US Constitution, which were adopted after the Civil War to protect the rights of African Americans, remained largely a dead letter until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s. The court's interpretation of these amendments effectively allowed for the institutionalization of racial segregation and discrimination in many areas of American society for decades.

The right to vote was severely restricted for African Americans through the implementation of discriminatory voting laws and practices, known as "Black Codes," following the Civil War. These laws and practices, which were largely aimed at preventing African Americans from exercising their right to vote, included measures such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and other discriminatory practices that effectively disenfranchised African American voters.

The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which legalized racial segregation in public places as long as it did not prevent both races from having equal access to public services, further perpetuated the discrimination and disenfranchisement of African Americans in the United States. This ruling, which established the doctrine of "separate but equal", allowed for the widespread implementation of discriminatory "Jim Crow" laws that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination.

The United States Supreme Court carries enormous weight in shaping legal rights and protections for citizens, and that the rights and protections gained by African Americans in the 1870s were quickly eroded through discriminatory laws and practices. The struggle for voting rights and civil rights for African Americans was a long and difficult one, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling the system of discrimination and disenfranchisement that had been established in the decades following the Civil War.

Around 1890, the South was marked by widespread racial segregation, violence, and discrimination, which was often imposed with the consent of the Supreme Court. The "Black Codes" passed by Southern states in the years following the Civil War had effectively re-established a system of racial control and segregation, which was reinforced by the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.

The large plantations that had been the backbone of the South's economy before the Civil War began to disappear, replaced by a system of sharecropping, in which landless farmers worked land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crop. Sharecroppers, who were disproportionately African American, earned very little and often fell into debt to the landowners as the price of cotton on the international market fell.

The decline of the cotton economy, combined with the discriminatory laws and practices of the era, left many African Americans in the South trapped in a cycle of poverty and debt, with few opportunities for economic or social advancement. This marked the end of the "Cotton Kingdom" and the beginning of a long and difficult period for the South, which was marked by poverty, discrimination, and social upheaval.

In the South, industrialization continued mainly in the steel and textile industries after the Civil War. These industries were established in the South during the war as a way to support the Confederate war effort, and they continued to grow after the war, driven by the availability of cheap labor and resources such as coal and iron.

The exploitation of wood resources, including massive deforestation, also developed in the South during this period, as the region's abundant forests were harvested to supply the growing demand for lumber and other wood products.

However, the South's economy remained primarily agrarian, and it was heavily impacted by the fall of cotton prices and the decline of the large plantations. Due to the South's heavy indebtedness, particularly during the war, many of its industries fell under the control of industrialists from the North, who acquired Southern businesses and assets at low prices.

The South remained largely a rural and agricultural region for many years, and it was not until the 20th century that the region began to experience significant industrialization and urbanization. Despite this, the South's economy remained heavily dependent on agriculture and raw materials, and it was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the region began to experience significant economic growth and diversification.

The South remained mainly rural after the Civil War and it continued to produce mainly raw materials, such as cotton, tobacco, and timber, that were processed or consumed in the North. The region's economy remained heavily dependent on agriculture and raw materials, and it was not until the 20th century that the South began to experience significant industrialization and urbanization.

The South's economy also remained heavily dependent on capital and management from the North. This is partly due to the heavy indebtedness of the region after the Civil War, which resulted in many Southern businesses and assets being acquired by Northern industrialists at low prices. This led to a situation where much of the South's economy was controlled by outside interests and where Southern workers were dependent on Northern-controlled industries for employment.

This economic dependency on the North, combined with the region's history of racial discrimination and social inequality, contributed to the South's relative economic underdevelopment and poverty compared to other regions of the country. However, over the years, the South has undergone significant economic and social changes, and today it has a diverse economy that includes manufacturing, services, and high-tech industries.

In the South after the Civil War, labor was heavily segregated, and systems of forced labor, similar to slavery, were implemented through the use of the "Black Codes." These laws, which were passed by Southern states in the years following the Civil War, were designed to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. They were used to impose heavy penalties, including long terms of forced labor, on African Americans for various alleged offenses, such as vagrancy or loitering.

This system of forced labor was often done under brutal conditions and at great cost to the lives and well-being of the African Americans who were forced to work. The mortality rates among these workers were high, and the conditions under which they worked were often inhumane.

It is also true that this system of forced labor was not widely opposed by Northern industrialists and financiers, who often profited from the cheap labor provided by this system. Many Northern citizens also turned a blind eye to the conditions faced by African Americans in the South, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling this system of forced labor and discrimination.

lBacks were largely excluded from industrial work in the South after the Civil War, and that the majority of whites who worked in these industries came from poor and indebted peasant families. These white workers were often paid low wages and were also heavily in debt.

This system led to the formation of small, complementary towns, dominated by textile and other industries, which controlled and supplied all aspects of life much like the large plantations of the past did. However, these towns were primarily for whites, and African Americans were excluded from them and the economic opportunities they provided.

This system reinforced the illusion of the white race's superiority and reinforced the belief that whites were superior to blacks, even though they were in similar economic conditions. The discrimination, segregation and forced labor systems, were used to maintain the social, economic and political control over the African American population in the South.

Tthe South's economy and labor force remained heavily segregated and discriminatory towards African Americans, even as it underwent significant changes after the Civil War. These discriminatory practices and systems perpetuated poverty, inequality, and racial divisions in the region, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling these systems of discrimination and oppression.

The Northeast

The Northeast underwent significant changes during the period of 1877-1900. It was the center of the country's industrial revolution, and it was here that many of the new technologies and innovations that drove the growth of the American economy were developed and implemented. Cities like New York and Boston experienced rapid population growth and urbanization as immigrants and rural residents flocked to the region in search of work in the factories and mills.

The Northeast's economy was heavily industrialized, with a focus on manufacturing, particularly in the areas of textiles, steel, and machinery. These industries were driven by the availability of resources such as coal and iron, and by the large number of immigrants who provided a ready supply of labor.

The Northeast's society also underwent significant changes during this period, with the rise of the middle class and the growth of the labor movement. The working conditions in the factories were often harsh, and many workers organized to demand better wages and working conditions. The labor movement in the Northeast played a vital role in the development of the American labor movement, and it was here that many of the key battles for workers' rights were fought.

Industrialization

In 1865 the value of manufactured goods in the United States was $2 billion, in 1900 it reached $13 billion. The United States has become the world's most productive nation and its industry produces one-third of the world's manufactured goods.

Four factors explain this rapid industrialization:

• creation of a national consumer market through railways, communications, postal services, advertising and mail order sales.
• technological innovations such as Bell's telephone in 1876 and Thomas Edison's light bulb in 1879. All this will lead to the development of industries in which mechanization and rationalization of work, in which workers are increasingly harnessed to the machine.
• Economic protectionism, i.e. the maintenance of high import taxes by a federal government that is very submissive to the major industrialists in order to protect industry from foreign competition.
• unbridled capitalism.

The era of unbridled capitalism

Portrait of John D. Rockefeller painted by John Singer Sargent in 1917.

Within the United States, wild capitalism is developing, with entrepreneurship playing a major role, becoming a model of American society replacing the great merchant and planter of the first half of the century. Two men embody this wild capitalism: Carnegie and Rockefeller.

Carnegie is the symbol of the American dream, he was born in Scotland, emigrated with his family at the age of 13, did all the trades and then joined a railway company, not hesitating to mortgage his mother's house to invest in his first business, which was sleeping cars going to the steel industry, locomotives and steel; he specializes in vertical concentration i.e. from raw material to finished product and in this case it is from coal and iron ore mining to the advanced steel industry. He became a multimillionaire, but in 1901 he gave up his empire and became a philanthropist until his death in 1919, spending 350 million in donations.

Standard Oil Refinery No. 1 in Cleveland, Ohio, 1897.

Rockefeller is a specialist in horizontal concentration, i.e. the concentration of a maximum number of companies producing the same product, i.e. a virtual monopoly in a given sector. He was born in the State of New York, first as an accountant and then as an executive in a brokerage firm; in 1859 he understood the importance that oil was going to have and in 1870 he founded the Standard Oil Company, 10 years later he controlled 95% of the country's oil production, often thanks to the coercion that founded the first oil trust that allowed him to fix the quantity of oil and the price at which it was sold.

Rockefeller will produce more reactions than Carnegie. When Congress tried to protect small businesses through antitrust law, Rockefeller surrounded himself with legal experts and founded the first holding company - a company that controlled different companies by acquiring a significant portion of their capital, but without having a monopoly.

During the last years of the 19th century, in all the major sectors, hundreds of companies disappeared to be absorbed by giants such as Goodyear or General Electric; everything was done with the protection of the Supreme Court, while ironically the antitrust law was applied against the trade unions under the pretext that they were anarchists and threatened the free competition of labour.

The law of the strongest

In 1890, 125,000 out of 63 million Americans, or just under 2% of the population, owned half of the national wealth, which they spread out shamelessly. Almost all of these "happy few" were practicing Protestants and Anglo-Saxons.

Their monumental richness provokes some caricatures, but not much in-depth criticism, as it is justified by Herbert Spencer's social Darwinism, which applies Darwin's theory of the evolution of species to humanity. The triumph of industrialists is explained by the survival of the strongest, the most gifted, the most deserving; the industrial triumph of the United States is explained by the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race.

All this is also the law of nature and the law of God. Carnegie publishes The Gospel of Fortune. At the same time, Rockefeller declares that "God gave me my money ». A pastor sells a million copies of a pamphlet that argues that building a fortune is a Christian duty.

Men, women and children of various origins and races will be competing against each other, who have no protection against the economic crisis, accidents at work, sickness or old age. Workers work 10 to 14 hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week for a daily wage of less than a dollar and without any protection.

Workers try to improve their living conditions by migrating from one place to another, working more and organizing themselves. However, it is difficult to organize when you are different; a union called the Knights of Labour formed in 1870 accepts workers of all origins and colours and in 1886 had one million members thanks to a campaign in favour of the 8-hour day.

1886 engraving published in Harper's Weekly newspaper depicting the Haymarket Square tragedy.

On May 1, 1886, a bomb in a demonstration against police violence in Chicago killed 7 policemen. The bomb was quickly attributed without evidence to anarchists, four of whom were condemned to be hanged, while the press falsely accused the Knights of Labor of having links with these anarchists leading to the banning of the union.

As early as May 1886, class unionism was in freefall in the United States, to be replaced by sectoral bargaining unionism. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) is the embodiment of this unionism, representing only the labor aristocracy, skilled workers, whites, but not migrants, negotiating on a case-by-case basis for better conditions for its members while polishing the unskilled workers and rejecting any political agenda.

Bargaining unionism that rejects class struggle still dominates today both because of the repression of all trade unionism and classism and in faith in the American dream that everyone can become a Carnegie or a Rockefeller; conversely, if one is poor it is because one is less capable and does not work enough, one deserves to be rich, and one deserves to be poor.

Urbanization

Broadway in 1909.

Urbanization is due to the fact that large factories are located in cities and that is where workers are concentrated. It must be seen that the Northeast is becoming even more urbanized, as early as 1890 there are several cities with more than 250,000 inhabitants, New York has more than 3 million inhabitants; in these cities is concentrated both great wealth and great poverty.

Increasingly, the inhabitants live in distinct communities in limited spaces and ghettos for the poor.

The Democratic and Republican parties

There has been an attempt by a section of the people to bring together farmers from the north and south, with the Republican bipartisan system in the north and California representing industry and protectionism against imports and the Democrats representing the white south, farmers and immigrant groups in the centre, the bipartisan system holding firm without one party winning a large majority.

From 1880 onward, elections were a spectacular and costly mobilization; with the enormous growth of the state apparatus and civil service, each party became a political machine recruiting voters from among new migrants; corruption was widespread, probusiness legislators received shares from the industries that protected them, and voters and activists received public jobs. This is a far cry from the rural, virtuous, puritanical America of 1776.

Annexes

• Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire; the United States Army in the Spanish-American War. Columbia: U of Missouri, 1971. Print.
• Wealth, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.148, Issue 391 pp. 653–665, June 1889. (Later published as Part I of The Gospel of Wealth)
• The Best Fields for Philanthropy, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.149, Issue 397 pp. 682–699, December 1889. (Later published as Part II of The Gospel of Wealth)
• Excerpts from "Wealth" by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review, 148, no. 391 (June 1889)*Carnegie, South American View, 223 no. 876 (October 1982)