The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The period between 1877 and 1900 in the United States is known as the "Gilded Age," a term coined by Mark Twain to describe the period as one of great economic growth, but also of widespread poverty and social inequality. During this time, the country saw rapid industrialization and urbanization, as well as the rise of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the end of Reconstruction in the South, which resulted in the suppression of voting rights for African Americans and the rise of racial discrimination. The end of the period was marked by the Spanish-American War in 1898, which marked the emergence of the United States as a major imperial power.

The railroad played an important role in the reconstruction of the United States after the Civil War. The railroad helped to rebuild the economy of the South and also allowed for the transportation of goods and people across the country. It also helped to integrate the country by connecting the different regions and enabling the movement of goods and people between them. The railroad helped to spur economic growth and development and was a major contributor to the country's transformation into an industrial power.

During the period from 1870 to 1900, the United States underwent significant economic, social, and political changes. The country experienced a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization, which led to the growth of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the suppression of voting rights for African Americans in the South and the rise of racial discrimination. Despite these challenges, the period saw the United States emerge as a major imperial power, with the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

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Role of the railways

At the ceremony for the driving of the "Last Spike" at Promontory Summit, Utah, May 10, 1869.

The railroads played a crucial role in the development of the United States during the late 19th century. The expansion of the railroad network allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across the country, which helped to spur economic growth and development. The railroads also played an important role in the formation of a huge internal market by connecting the different regions of the country and enabling the movement of goods and people between them.

The rail network linked East to West and North to South, which helped to integrate the country and spurred economic growth. The railroads also helped spur industry and commerce growth, as they made transporting raw materials and finished products easier. The railway also helped promote the settlement of the western states and territories, making it easier for people to move there. The rail network also helped to spur the development of the mining, agriculture, and timber industries. The railroads were a major force in the country's transformation into an industrial power. They played a key role in shaping the economy and society of the United States during this period.

The expansion of the railroad network in the United States during the late 19th century was significant. In 1870, there were approximately 85,000 kilometers of railroads in the United States, and by 1900, that number had grown to 320,000 kilometers, an increase of four times.

All of the railroads were privately owned and their schedules were coordinated through the imposition of four eastern time zones. However, the construction of the railroads was plagued by corruption, haste, and competition, and the network was not always well-maintained. Despite these issues, the construction of the railroads was heavily subsidized by both the states and the federal government, which helped to spur their growth.

As a result of this growth, companies that owned the railroads became extremely powerful, having accumulated large land holdings along the railroads. This led to the creation of monopolies and trusts, which controlled the transportation industry, and the railroads became a symbol of the economic and social inequality that characterized the Gilded Age.

However, the growth of railroads also had a positive impact on the country, as it facilitated the movement of goods and people, helped spur economic growth and development, and helped integrate the different regions of the country. It also facilitated the settlement of the western states and territories and promoted the growth of various industries like mining, agriculture, and timber.

In addition to the expansion of the railroad network, the United States also developed a communications network through the telegraph and mail during the late 19th century. This network of telegraph lines and mail routes helped to connect people and businesses across the country, making it easier to send messages and conduct business across long distances.

However, despite the expansion of the railroad network and the new means of communication, the states of the Union remained quite different from each other. The country can be divided into three regions: the West, the South, and the Northeast. Each region had its own unique history, economy, culture, and social structure, which set them apart from the others.

The West was characterized by its vast expanses of land, sparse population, and diverse economy, which included mining, agriculture, and cattle raising. On the other hand, the South had been devastated by the Civil War and was still recovering from its effects. It was characterized by a primarily agrarian economy and a large African American population subject to discrimination and limited political rights. The Northeast was the most industrialized and urbanized region of the country, and it was home to a large number of immigrants who worked in the factories and mills. The Northeast also had a more developed economy and a more complex social structure.

The railroads and telegraph lines helped to connect the country and promote economic growth, but they could not erase the regional differences that existed in the United States.

The West

Conquest of Amerindian territories

Mass grave with Lakota who died after the massacre at Wounded Knee.

The West, which included states recently acquired from Mexico and Great Britain, was largely the territory of indigenous peoples. From 1850 to 1890, the United States government embarked on a policy of westward expansion that included the forced displacement and confinement of indigenous peoples to small reservations under federal control. This policy was known as Indian Removal and it resulted in the forced relocation of thousands of indigenous people from their ancestral lands to reservations.

The government's policy was motivated by a desire to acquire land for white settlers, mining, and other commercial interests. Many indigenous people were forced to leave their homes and were forced to walk hundreds of miles to their new homes in unfamiliar and often-unfavorable areas. This journey, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of thousands of people.

The government's policy towards indigenous peoples was often violent and brutal, resulting in the loss of lives, land, and culture for many indigenous communities. The survivors of the forced relocations were often confined to small reservations, where they were forced to live in poverty and under federal control. This policy of Indian Removal and confinement was a significant violation of the rights of indigenous peoples, and it had a devastating impact on their communities.

During the period of westward expansion in the United States, the buffalo population on the central plains was drastically reduced through hunting. The buffalo were a crucial resource for many indigenous peoples, providing food, clothing, and shelter. Hunting buffalo was seen as a way for settlers to exert control over the land and the indigenous peoples. The extermination of the buffalo devastated many indigenous communities, as it destroyed their main source of sustenance and their way of life.

The last major conflict between the United States government and indigenous peoples occurred at Wounded Knee in 1890, when the 7th Cavalry of the United States army massacred around 200 Sioux people, many of whom were women and children. The massacre at Wounded Knee marked the end of armed resistance by indigenous peoples to the government's policy of westward expansion and confinement to reservations.

The events at Wounded Knee, as well as the policy of Indian Removal and the extermination of buffalo, were tragic and unjust actions that had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous peoples in the United States. It is a dark chapter of the history of the United States and it continues to have an impact on the Indigenous people today.

The population of indigenous peoples in the United States declined significantly during the period of westward expansion and the forced confinement to reservations. The total number of indigenous people in the United States rose from approximately 330,000 in 1860 to 237,000 in 1900, a decrease of nearly 30%.

On the other hand, the population of the West, including the newly acquired states and territories, increased rapidly from about 2 million in 1860 to 20 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 900%. This was due to the influx of white settlers, miners, and other migrants attracted by the availability of land and the promise of economic opportunity.

Overall, the total population of the United States increased from 31 million in 1860 to 76 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 145%. This population growth was driven by both natural increase and immigration, as well as the westward expansion and the influx of settlers into the newly acquired western territories.

The drastic decline in the Indigenous population was due to the policies of the government and the impact of war, disease and displacement and it is a sad and tragic chapter of the history of the United States.

The proportion of the indigenous population in the United States declined dramatically during the period of westward expansion and forced confinement to reservations. From a population of approximately 330,000 in 1860, or about 0.1% of the total population, the indigenous population declined to 237,000 in 1900, or about 0.003% of the total population. This represents a decline of nearly 70% in the proportion of the indigenous population in the United States over the course of four decades.

This decline was due to a combination of factors, including forced removal, war, disease, and displacement, as well as the impact of policies aimed at assimilating indigenous peoples into white American society. The drastic decline in the indigenous population was a tragic outcome of the government's policies towards indigenous peoples and it had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous communities.

Rapid colonization

The American West across the Mississippi River. In dark red, the states that are still considered part of it: California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, plus Alaska and Hawaii. In hatched red, states that are sometimes considered part of the South or Middle West: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota.

The West was rapidly colonized following the forced removal of indigenous peoples and the extermination of the buffalo. The rapid expansion of the railroad network made it easier for settlers to move west and claim land. The availability of land attracted a diverse group of settlers, including farmers, miners, and ranchers.

Cattle breeding also played a significant role in the colonization of the West, as cowboys drove large herds of cattle from Texas to the northern plains to be sold to markets in the East and Midwest. The expansion of cattle breeding was also characterized by the presence of a significant number of African-American cowboys who faced discrimination and limited opportunities in other industries.

The expansion of the railroad network and the growth of the meatpacking industry in cities like Chicago also facilitated the growth of beef production and consumption in the United States. The advent of refrigeration allowed for the preservation of meat and made it possible to transport beef from the West to the cities, where it became a staple of the American diet.

The West's rapid colonisation significantly impacted the economy, culture, and society of the United States. The railroad network's expansion, cattle breeding growth, and the meatpacking industry's rise were all major factors that contributed to the country's transformation into an industrial power.

During this period, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Eastern, Central, and Eastern Europe also moved to the Great Plains to cultivate crops such as corn and wheat. These immigrants, mainly from countries such as Poland, Russia, and Ireland, were attracted by the promise of cheap land and economic opportunity. The government also actively promoted western settlement through policies such as the Homestead Act of 1862, which offered 160 acres of land to anyone willing to settle and improve it.

These farmers, known as "homesteaders," faced many challenges in the Great Plains, including harsh weather conditions, lack of infrastructure, and difficulty breaking up the prairie soil. Nevertheless, they persevered, and their efforts helped to transform the Great Plains into a major agricultural region. They were also instrumental in the growth of towns and cities and in the development of the agricultural industry in the United States.

The immigrants from Eastern, and Central Europe were also a significant source of labor for the railroad industry and for the mines in the West. They also played a role in industry growth, particularly in the Midwest, where many settled and worked in the factories and mills.

The settlement of the Great Plains by farmers from Eastern, Central, and Eastern Europe was a significant aspect of the westward expansion of the United States and contributed to the country's transformation into an agricultural and industrial power.

Chinese immigrants also played a role in the colonization of the American West, particularly in California. Many Chinese immigrants came to the United States during the mid-19th century to participate in the California Gold Rush of 1849 and to work in mining camps and small businesses.

The Chinese immigrants faced significant discrimination and racism, particularly in California, where they were often denied the rights and opportunities afforded to white settlers. They were also subject to violence and harassment and were often forced to live and work in segregated communities. Despite these challenges, the Chinese immigrants contributed to the growth of the California economy through their labor in the mines and their small businesses.

Chinese immigrants also played a significant role in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, which connected the East and West coasts of the United States. Many Chinese immigrants worked as laborers on the railroad and were responsible for much of the dangerous and grueling work of building the railroad through the mountains.

The colonization of the interior of the United States was difficult, despite the advancements in agriculture and transportation. The isolation of the interior, particularly in the Great Plains, made it difficult for settlers to access markets and resources. The harsh weather conditions, including cold winters and hot summers, also presented significant challenges for farmers.

The mechanization of agriculture and the improvement of transportation did help to make it easier for settlers to establish farms and ranches in the interior. Still, the isolation and harsh conditions remained significant barriers. Many settlers struggled to make a living and were forced to leave their farms, leading to the "dust bowl" phenomenon during the 1930s, where drought, economic depression and poor farming practices led to a severe ecological and agricultural disaster.

Despite these challenges, the colonization of the interior of the United States was an important aspect of the country's westward expansion and contributed to the growth and development of the economy and society. The interior of the country became an important agricultural region and the population continued to grow, leading to the emergence of towns and cities.

The mail-order industry, exemplified by companies such as Sears, played an important role in the colonization and development of the interior of the United States. The mail-order industry emerged in the late 19th century and allowed farmers and other interior residents to purchase goods and products that were otherwise unavailable to them.

These catalogs, such as the famous Sears catalog, offered a wide range of products, from clothing and household goods to farm equipment and tools, making it possible for people in the interior to purchase goods without travelling to the cities. The mail-order industry also played a role in standardizing consumption patterns across the country, as people in the interior could purchase goods similar to those available in the cities.

Despite the rapid colonization and development of the West, it remained a primarily rural region well into the 20th century. The conquest of the West played a fundamental role in shaping American culture and identity, as historian Frederick Jackson Turner theorized in his famous "Frontier Thesis."

According to Turner, the repeated experience of colonizing new frontiers on the continent profoundly impacted American society, making Americans a unique people characterized by their individualism, optimism, and democratic spirit. He argued that the existence of a "frontier" - a place of free land and opportunity - had played a vital role in shaping American culture and that, as the frontier closed, American society would be forced to adapt to a new reality.

Turner's thesis has been debated and criticized over the years. Still, it remains an influential interpretation of American history, and the conquest and settlement of the West remains a significant aspect of American culture and identity. The West, with its vast and open spaces, rugged terrain, and diverse population, has come to symbolize the American spirit of adventure and optimism.

Frederick Jackson Turner's "Frontier Thesis" has been criticized by recent historical research, highlighting the complexities and nuances of the conquest and colonization of the West. Critics have pointed out that Turner's thesis overemphasized the role of the frontier in shaping American culture and identity, while ignoring the significant impact of other factors such as race, class, and gender.

Despite these criticisms, Turner's thesis remains an influential interpretation of American history, and the metaphor of conquest continues to be a powerful cultural symbol in American society. This is evident in the way that the idea of "conquering a new frontier" has been used in American politics and culture. For example, when President John F. Kennedy launched his aid programs in Latin America and the Peace Corps, he spoke of the need to "conquer a new frontier" in order to promote democracy and economic development in the region.

The metaphor of conquest is also present in the popular culture, where the Western genre has been a staple of American literature, film and television, and has shaped the way Americans view the conquest of the West and the American identity. This conquest metaphor also illustrates how American culture views itself and its relationship with the rest of the world.

The conquest and colonization of the West remains an important aspect of American culture and identity, and the metaphor of conquest continues to be a powerful cultural symbol in American society, despite the criticisms of the historical research.

The South

The reunification of the United States after the Civil War was to the detriment of African Americans, particularly in the South. Following the war, Southern states passed a series of laws known as "Black Codes" that were designed to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. These laws included measures such as restrictions on voting rights, limits on employment opportunities, and measures to control the movement and behavior of African Americans.

In response to these discriminatory laws and practices, African Americans in the South turned to the courts to challenge their legal status. However, the courts were often unresponsive to their grievances, and many were met with resistance from white officials and the broader white community.

Despite these obstacles, African Americans in the South continued to fight for their rights and equality through various means such as forming their own organizations, joining the Republican Party and participating in grassroots movements. These efforts led to the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s, which ultimately led to the dismantling of the system of Jim Crow laws and segregation in the South.

The reunification of the United States after the Civil War was a difficult and challenging process for African Americans in the South, who were met with discriminatory laws and practices designed to restrict their rights and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. Despite these challenges, African Americans continued to fight for their rights and equality through various means, leading to the eventual dismantling of the system of segregation.

the United States Supreme Court, which former slaveholders still dominated in the early years after the Civil War, played a significant role in shaping the legal status of African Americans in the South. In a series of cases, known as the Civil Rights Cases of 1883, the court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the United States, did not require the federal government to protect the civil rights of African Americans.

The court held that the amendment's equal protection clause applied only to discrimination by the federal government and not by state or local governments. This decision effectively left the regulation of race relations to the individual states and allowed Southern states to pass discriminatory laws, known as "Jim Crow" laws, that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination.

The court's ruling in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 set the stage for a long and difficult struggle for civil rights for African Americans in the United States, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that the federal government began to intervene to protect the rights of African Americans in the South.

Overall, the Supreme Court's ruling in the Civil Rights Cases of 1883 was a significant setback for the rights of African Americans in the United States, and it set the stage for a long and difficult struggle for civil rights. The court's decision effectively left the regulation of race relations to the individual states, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement.

In 1896, the United States Supreme Court made a landmark decision in Plessy v. Ferguson that legalized racial segregation in public places, as long as it did not prevent both races from having equal access to public services. This ruling effectively established the "separate but equal" doctrine, which allowed for the segregation of African Americans in public spaces, such as schools, public transportation, and other public facilities, as long as the separate facilities were equal in quality.

This ruling significantly impacted the legal status of African Americans in the United States, particularly in the South, where it allowed for the widespread implementation of discriminatory "Jim Crow" laws that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination. The Plessy v. Ferguson decision was not overturned until 1954, in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education, which declared that segregation in public schools was inherently unequal and therefore, unconstitutional.

It is true that the 14th and 15th amendments to the US Constitution, which were adopted after the Civil War to protect the rights of African Americans, remained largely a dead letter until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s. The court's interpretation of these amendments effectively allowed for the institutionalization of racial segregation and discrimination in many areas of American society for decades.

The African Americans' right to vote was severely restricted through the implementation of discriminatory voting laws and practices, known as "Black Codes," following the Civil War. These laws and practices largely aimed at preventing African Americans from exercising their right to vote, included measures such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and other discriminatory practices that effectively disenfranchised African American voters.

The Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which legalized racial segregation in public places as long as it did not prevent both races from having equal access to public services, further perpetuated the discrimination and disenfranchisement of African Americans in the United States. This ruling, which established the doctrine of "separate but equal", allowed for the widespread implementation of discriminatory "Jim Crow" laws that institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination.

The United States Supreme Court carries enormous weight in shaping legal rights and protections for citizens, and that the rights and protections gained by African Americans in the 1870s were quickly eroded through discriminatory laws and practices. The struggle for voting rights and civil rights for African Americans was a long and difficult one, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling the system of discrimination and disenfranchisement that had been established in the decades following the Civil War.

Around 1890, the South was marked by widespread racial segregation, violence, and discrimination, which was often imposed with the consent of the Supreme Court. The "Black Codes" passed by Southern states in the years following the Civil War had effectively re-established a system of racial control and segregation, which was reinforced by the Supreme Court's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.

The large plantations that had been the backbone of the South's economy before the Civil War began to disappear, replaced by a system of sharecropping, in which landless farmers worked land owned by others in exchange for a share of the crop. Sharecroppers, who were disproportionately African American, earned very little and often fell into debt to the landowners as the price of cotton on the international market fell.

The decline of the cotton economy, combined with the discriminatory laws and practices of the era, left many African Americans in the South trapped in a cycle of poverty and debt, with few opportunities for economic or social advancement. This marked the end of the "Cotton Kingdom" and the beginning of a long and difficult period for the South, which was marked by poverty, discrimination, and social upheaval.

In the South, industrialization continued mainly in the steel and textile industries after the Civil War. These industries were established in the South during the war as a way to support the Confederate war effort, and they continued to grow after the war, driven by the availability of cheap labour and resources such as coal and iron.

The exploitation of wood resources, including massive deforestation, also developed in the South during this period. The region's abundant forests were harvested to supply the growing demand for lumber and other wood products.

However, the South's economy remained primarily agrarian, which was heavily impacted by the fall of cotton prices and the decline of the large plantations. Due to the South's heavy indebtedness, particularly during the war, many of its industries fell under the control of industrialists from the North, who acquired Southern businesses and assets at low prices.

The South remained largely a rural and agricultural region for many years, and it was not until the 20th century that the region began to experience significant industrialization and urbanization. Despite this, the South's economy remained heavily dependent on agriculture and raw materials. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s that the region began to experience significant economic growth and diversification.

The South remained mainly rural after the Civil War, and it continued to produce mainly raw materials, such as cotton, tobacco, and timber, that were processed or consumed in the North. The region's economy remained heavily dependent on agriculture and raw materials, and it was not until the 20th century that the South began to experience significant industrialization and urbanization.

The South's economy also remained heavily dependent on capital and management from the North. This is partly due to the heavy indebtedness of the region after the Civil War, which resulted in many Southern businesses and assets being acquired by Northern industrialists at low prices. This led to a situation where much of the South's economy was controlled by outside interests, and Southern workers depended on Northern-controlled industries for employment.

This economic dependency on the North, combined with the region's history of racial discrimination and social inequality, contributed to the South's relative economic underdevelopment and poverty compared to other regions of the country. However, over the years, the South has undergone significant economic and social changes, and today it has a diverse economy that includes manufacturing, services, and high-tech industries.

In the South after the Civil War, labour was heavily segregated, and systems of forced labour, similar to slavery, were implemented through the use of the "Black Codes." These laws, which were passed by Southern states in the years following the Civil War, were designed to restrict the rights and freedoms of African Americans and maintain a system of racial segregation and control. They were used to impose heavy penalties, including long terms of forced labor, on African Americans for various alleged offenses, such as vagrancy or loitering.

This system of forced labor was often done under brutal conditions and at great cost to the lives and well-being of the African Americans who were forced to work. The mortality rates among these workers were high, and the conditions under which they worked were often inhumane.

It is also true that this system of forced labor was not widely opposed by Northern industrialists and financiers, who often profited from the cheap labor provided by this system. Many Northern citizens also turned a blind eye to the conditions faced by African Americans in the South, and it was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling this system of forced labor and discrimination.

Blacks were largely excluded from industrial work in the South after the Civil War, and that the majority of whites who worked in these industries came from poor and indebted peasant families. These white workers were often paid low wages and were also heavily in debt.

This system led to the formation of small, complementary towns dominated by textile and other industries, which controlled and supplied all aspects of life much like the large plantations of the past did. However, these towns were primarily for whites, and African Americans were excluded from them and the economic opportunities they provided.

This system reinforced the illusion of the white race's superiority and reinforced the belief that whites were superior to blacks, even though they were in similar economic conditions. The discrimination, segregation and forced labor systems, were used to maintain the social, economic and political control over the African American population in the South.

The South's economy and labor force remained heavily segregated and discriminatory towards African Americans, even as it underwent significant changes after the Civil War. These discriminatory practices and systems perpetuated the region's poverty, inequality, and racial divisions. It was not until the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s that significant progress was made in dismantling these systems of discrimination and oppression.

The Northeast

The Northeast underwent significant changes during the period of 1877-1900. It was the center of the country's industrial revolution, and it was here that many of the new technologies and innovations that drove the growth of the American economy were developed and implemented. Cities like New York and Boston experienced rapid population growth and urbanization as immigrants and rural residents flocked to the region in search of work in the factories and mills.

The Northeast's economy was heavily industrialized, with a focus on manufacturing, particularly in the areas of textiles, steel, and machinery. These industries were driven by the availability of resources such as coal and iron, and by the large number of immigrants who provided a ready supply of labor.

The Northeast's society also underwent significant changes during this period, with the rise of the middle class and the growth of the labor movement. The working conditions in the factories were often harsh, and many workers organized to demand better wages and working conditions. The labor movement in the Northeast played a vital role in the development of the American labor movement, and it was here that many of the key battles for workers' rights were fought.

Industrialization

The United States underwent a period of rapid industrialization between 1865 and 1900, during which the value of manufactured goods produced in the country grew significantly. The value of manufactured goods in the United States was approximately $2 billion in 1865 and reached $13 billion in 1900, reflecting the tremendous growth and expansion of the country's industrial sector.

The United States became one of the world's most productive nations during this period, and its industry produced one-third of the world's manufactured goods by 1900. This growth was driven by a number of factors, including the availability of natural resources, the rapid expansion of the railroads and other transportation networks, and the large number of immigrants who provided a ready supply of labor.

New technologies and innovations, such as the Bessemer process for steel production and the invention of the electric motor, also played a significant role in the country's industrial growth. The growth of the American economy during this period was transformative, and it played a significant role in shaping the United States into the global economic power it is today.

There were several factors that contributed to the rapid industrialization of the United States during the period of 1877-1900. Four major factors that explain this industrialization include:

1. The creation of a national consumer market through the expansion of the railroads, telegraph and telephone lines, postal services, and other forms of communication and transportation. This allowed goods and services to be easily transported and distributed across the country, creating a large and growing market for manufacturers and other businesses.
2. Technological innovations such as the telephone and the lightbulb, as well as advancements in steel production and other manufacturing processes, made it possible for businesses to increase productivity and efficiency. This led to the development of industries in which mechanization and rationalization of work, in which workers were increasingly harnessed to the machine.
3. Economic protectionism, in which the federal government maintained high import tariffs to protect American industry from foreign competition. This policy helped to create a domestic market for American goods and allowed American manufacturers to operate without fear of foreign competition.
4. Unbridled capitalism, in which there was little government regulation of business and industry, allowed industrialists to operate without much interference from the government. This led to a situation where the major industrialists had a lot of power and influence over government policies.

The era of unbridled capitalism

Portrait of John D. Rockefeller painted by John Singer Sargent in 1917.

The period of 1877-1900 was characterized by the rise of unbridled capitalism in the United States, with entrepreneurship playing a major role in the country's economic growth and development. This era was characterized by the rapid expansion of industry and the growth of large corporations, many of which were controlled by a small number of powerful industrialists.

Two men who embody this era of wild capitalism were Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. Andrew Carnegie was a businessman and industrialist who made his fortune in the steel industry and is known for his philanthropy and efforts to promote wealth redistribution's importance. John D. Rockefeller was an industrialist and philanthropist who made his fortune in the oil industry and was the wealthiest man in the world at the time. These men were known for their ruthless business practices and immense wealth and power.

Standard Oil Refinery No. 1 in Cleveland, Ohio, 1897.

Andrew Carnegie is often seen as a symbol of the American dream, as he rose from humble beginnings to become one of the wealthiest and most powerful industrialists in the United States. Carnegie was born in Scotland and emigrated to the United States with his family at the age of 13. He worked a variety of jobs before joining a railway company, and he was not afraid to take risks and invest in his own ventures.

Carnegie's business career began in the railway industry, where he developed an interest in the steel industry. He then went on to invest in coal and iron ore mining, and eventually became a major player in the advanced steel industry, through his company Carnegie Steel. He focused on vertical integration, controlling all aspects of the production process from the raw materials to the finished product.

Carnegie's business acumen and hard work led him to become a multimillionaire. Still, in 1901 he sold his company, Carnegie Steel, to J.P. Morgan for $250 million (equivalent to $7 billion in today's money) and turned his attention to philanthropy. He donated more than $350 million to support various causes such as education, libraries and scientific research, and he is considered as one of the greatest philanthropists in history.

Carnegie's story is an example of the opportunities that were available for immigrants in the United States during the late 19th century, and how hard work, determination, and risk-taking could lead to success in the new world.

John D. Rockefeller was known for his specialization in horizontal concentration, which consolidates a large number of companies that produce the same product, effectively creating a virtual monopoly in a given sector.

Rockefeller was born in New York and began his career as an accountant and then as an executive in a brokerage firm. He quickly realized the oil industry's potential, and in 1870 he founded the Standard Oil Company. Through a series of mergers and acquisitions, Rockefeller's company quickly came to dominate the oil industry, controlling 95% of the country's oil production by 1880. He often used coercion and underhanded tactics to achieve this dominance. He established the first oil trust, which allowed him to control the production and pricing of oil.

Rockefeller's business practices were controversial and were criticized for their monopolistic nature and the way they stifled competition. However, his business acumen and the wealth it brought him allowed him to become one of the wealthiest men in the world at the time and also one of the most influential philanthropists in the United States. He donated large sums of money to support various causes such as education, scientific research, and healthcare, which significantly impacted American society.

John D. Rockefeller's business practices and his dominance of the oil industry through Standard Oil Company led to more reactions and controversy than Andrew Carnegie's. As a result of the public concern over the monopolistic nature of Standard Oil and other large corporations, Congress attempted to protect small businesses by passing antitrust laws.

Rockefeller, however, navigated these laws by surrounding himself with legal experts and finding ways to maintain his control over the industry without technically violating the antitrust laws. One such strategy was the creation of holding companies, which were companies that controlled other companies by acquiring a significant portion of their capital, but without necessarily having a monopoly. This allowed Rockefeller to maintain his control over the industry while avoiding antitrust laws.

The public and government criticism of Standard Oil and other monopolies led to a series of antitrust lawsuits and legislation aimed at breaking up these monopolies, such as the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 and the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914. Standard Oil was eventually broken up in 1911 by the United States Supreme Court, through the case of Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States.

Rockefeller's business practices and the public reactions they sparked had a lasting impact on American business and antitrust laws. They continue to be studied and debated by legal and economic experts today.

This era of unbridled capitalism had a significant impact on the United States, it brought prosperity to many Americans but also created a wide divide between the rich and the poor, contributing to the growth of social and economic inequality. It led to the rise of monopolies and trusts, which dominated many industries, and it led to the creation of large, powerful corporations that controlled much of the country's economy. This era of capitalism also led to the rise of the modern consumer culture and the growth of the middle class.

During the last years of the 19th century, many small companies in various industries were absorbed by larger ones, creating a concentration of power and wealth in the hands of a few large corporations. This consolidation process was facilitated by the protection of the Supreme Court, which often upheld the actions of these large corporations, even when they were in violation of antitrust laws.

At the same time, trade unions, which were formed to protect the rights and interests of workers, were often targeted by the government and the courts under the pretext that they were anarchists and threatened the free competition of labor. The government and courts often used the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, which was passed to prevent monopolies, to target and break up trade unions, arguing that they were a restraint of trade. This was a ironic, as the antitrust laws were not being enforced against the monopolies of big corporations, but against the trade unions who were trying to protect the rights and wages of workers.

This period of unbridled capitalism and consolidation of power in the hands of a few large corporations had a significant impact on American society and economy. It led to the growth of social and economic inequality and the weakening of the labor movement and workers' rights. This would be a contentious issue for many years to come, and the antitrust laws would be further developed and enforced to try to prevent monopolies and promote fair competition.

The law of the strongest

During the late 19th century, a small percentage of the population, known as the "happy few," owned a disproportionate amount of the national wealth. In 1890, it is estimated that around 2% of the population, or 125,000 out of 63 million Americans, owned around half of the country's wealth. This concentration of wealth was due to the rise of industrialization and the consolidation of power in the hands of a few large corporations, as well as the lack of regulation and oversight of the economy.

These wealthy individuals, often referred to as "robber barons," were not shy about flaunting their wealth and lived lavish lifestyles. They were also known for their philanthropy, but often used their charitable donations to further their own interests and maintain their power and influence.

All of these wealthy individuals were practicing Protestants and Anglo-Saxons. This reflects the fact that during this period in American history, there was a significant amount of discrimination and prejudice against other ethnic and religious groups, particularly immigrants and people of color, which made it harder for them to access economic opportunities and accumulate wealth. This led to a significant level of social and economic inequality, which would continue to be a contentious issue in American society for many years to come.

the immense wealth of the "happy few" during the late 19th century was often justified by the theories of social Darwinism, which applied Darwin's theory of evolution to human society. Social Darwinism posits that society is a Darwinian struggle for survival in which the strongest, most gifted, and most deserving individuals rise to the top, while the weak and inferior fall behind. This ideology was often used to justify the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small group of industrialists and the social and economic inequality that resulted from it.

Herbert Spencer, an influential British philosopher, was one of the most prominent proponents of social Darwinism. He argued that the evolution of society was driven by the same principles that govern the evolution of species, and that the wealthy and powerful were naturally selected to lead society because they were the strongest and most gifted.

Social Darwinism was also used to justify the belief in the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race and the idea that their success in America was a result of their innate superiority. This idea was used to defend the discrimination and prejudice against other ethnic and religious groups, particularly immigrants and people of color, and to argue that their lack of success was a result of their own inferiority.

Social Darwinism was a controversial theory, many critics pointed out that it did not account for the role of social and economic structures in shaping the distribution of wealth and power, and also it was used to justify imperialism and colonialism, as well as eugenics and racism.

many of the wealthy industrialists of the late 19th century justified their immense wealth by claiming that it was the result of natural laws and the will of God. Andrew Carnegie, for example, wrote a book called "The Gospel of Wealth" in which he argued that the accumulation of wealth was a natural and desirable process and that the wealthy had a moral obligation to use their wealth for the betterment of society. He believed that the law of nature and the law of God supported the idea that the strong and gifted should rise to the top and that this was reflected in the distribution of wealth in society.

Similarly, John D. Rockefeller, one of the wealthiest men of his time, was known for declaring that "God gave me my money." He believed that his success was a result of divine providence and that he had been chosen by God to accumulate wealth and use it for good.

These beliefs were used to justify the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small group of individuals and to defend the social and economic inequality that resulted from it. These ideas were controversial, and many critics pointed out that they ignored the role of social and economic structures in shaping the distribution of wealth and power and the fact that many people's lack of success was not a result of their own shortcomings but of the unjust systems in place.

There were also some religious leaders who promoted the idea that accumulating wealth was a Christian duty. One of the most prominent examples was a pastor named Russell Conwell, who wrote a pamphlet called "Acres of Diamonds" which sold over a million copies. In this pamphlet, Conwell argued that building a fortune was not only a natural right, but also a Christian duty, and that success in business was a sign of God's favor. He also gave a famous speech, known as "Acres of Diamonds" lecture where he told the story of an Arabian farmer who gave up his farm in search of diamonds and instead found them in his own backyard, the moral of the story was that one should not search for opportunities far away, but instead look for them in one's own community.

It is important to note that the idea of wealth accumulation as a religious duty was not widely accepted by the entire religious community and there were many religious leaders and theologians who criticized this idea and argued that it ignored the biblical teachings on compassion and justice for the poor.

During the late 19th century, the working conditions for many Americans were indeed harsh, with long hours, low wages, and little or no protection against economic downturns, accidents, illness, or old age. Many workers, particularly in the industrial sector, were required to work 10 to 14 hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week, for a daily wage of less than a dollar. These conditions were particularly dire for immigrant and minority workers, who were often the most vulnerable and had the least protection.

Workers in this era were also often subjected to dangerous working conditions, with little or no safety measures in place. This led to a high rate of accidents and injuries in the workplace, and many workers were left disabled or killed as a result.

The lack of protection against economic downturns, accidents, illness, or old age meant that many workers and their families were left to suffer during times of hardship. The lack of social safety net and unemployment benefits led to many workers and their families falling into poverty during economic downturns.

This harsh reality led to the rise of the labor movement and the rise of workers unions, which began to advocate for better working conditions, fair wages and benefits, and the rights of workers. The labor movement was able to achieve some improvements in working conditions over time, but it was a long and difficult struggle.

Many workers during this period tried to improve their living conditions by migrating from one place to another and working longer hours. Some workers also began to organize themselves into unions in order to advocate for better working conditions, fair wages, and benefits.

One of the first major unions to form during this period was the Knights of Labor, which was founded in 1869 and accepted workers of all origins and races. The Knights of Labor initially focused on improving working conditions, but later expanded their demands to include broader social and economic issues such as the 8-hour workday, the abolition of child labor, and the right to collective bargaining. At its peak in 1886, the Knights of Labor had over one million members, making it one of the largest and most influential unions of the time.

However, it was difficult for workers to organize across different ethnic and racial lines, and many unions were segregated, with separate unions for white workers, Black workers, and immigrant workers. This made it difficult for workers to unite and advocate for their rights, and it also made them more vulnerable to being exploited by employers.

Despite these difficulties, the labor movement continued to grow and evolve, and over time, it was able to achieve some improvements in working conditions and wages for many workers. This was a long and difficult struggle, but it was an important step towards creating a more fair and just society for all workers.

1886 engraving published in Harper's Weekly newspaper depicting the Haymarket Square tragedy.

On May 1, 1886, a bomb was thrown during a labor demonstration in Chicago, which resulted in the deaths of seven police officers. The incident, known as the Haymarket affair, was a turning point in the history of the labor movement in the United States.

Following the bombing, the police and press quickly blamed the incident on anarchists, and several individuals were arrested and put on trial for the crime. Four individuals were eventually convicted and sentenced to death, despite a lack of evidence linking them to the bomb.

The press also falsely accused the Knights of Labor of having links to the anarchists, and this led to a public backlash against the union. The Knights of Labor, which had already been in decline, saw its membership drop dramatically following the Haymarket affair and was effectively banned in many parts of the country.

The Haymarket affair had a chilling effect on the labor movement, and it was a setback for workers' rights and for the cause of organized labor. It also led to a wave of anti-anarchist sentiment and repression that lasted well into the 20th century. In recent years, the Haymarket affair is widely considered as a miscarriage of justice, the guilty verdicts were based on flimsy evidence and the prosecution's reliance on anti-radical and anti-immigrant sentiment.

Following the Haymarket affair in 1886, the labor movement in the United States went through a period of decline, with many unions struggling to maintain membership and influence. One of the reasons for this decline was the shift away from class-based unionism, which had been the focus of the Knights of Labor, to sectoral bargaining unionism.

Sectoral bargaining unionism focused on organizing workers in specific industries, such as steel, textiles, and railroads, and negotiating for better wages and working conditions for members on a case-by-case basis. This approach was seen as more pragmatic and less likely to provoke a backlash from employers and the public.

One of the major unions that emerged during this period was the American Federation of Labor (AFL), which was founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers. The AFL represented skilled workers, such as carpenters and printers, and focused on negotiating for better wages and working conditions for its members, rather than pursuing a broader political agenda. The AFL was also exclusive, only representing white workers and did not organize unskilled or black workers.

It's worth noting that the AFL's approach of sectoral bargaining and its exclusionary policies helped to preserve the status quo of racial and ethnic divisions in the workplace and reinforced social inequality. Unskilled workers and immigrants, who were not organized by the AFL, were often paid less and worked under worse conditions than their skilled counterparts.

The labor movement in the United States during the late 19th century was marked by setbacks and challenges, with unions struggling to maintain membership and influence. However, despite these difficulties, the labor movement continued to evolve and adapt, and over time, it was able to achieve some important improvements in working conditions and wages for many workers.

The AFL's approach of sectoral bargaining and its exclusionary policies helped to preserve the status quo of racial and ethnic divisions in the workplace and reinforced social inequality. This approach of bargaining unionism rejected class struggle and focused on negotiating for better wages and working conditions for its members, rather than pursuing a broader political agenda.

This approach, which rejected class struggle, has had a lasting impact on the labor movement in the United States, with many unions continuing to focus on sectoral bargaining and avoiding more radical or political actions. This has contributed to the weakening of the labor movement in the United States, as unions have struggled to maintain membership and influence in the face of anti-union policies and globalization.

The belief in the American Dream, the idea that anyone can achieve success and prosperity through hard work and determination, has also played a role in shaping the labor movement in the United States. This belief has led many workers to believe that they can achieve success through individual effort rather than collective action, making them less likely to join unions and participate in labor struggles.

Furthermore, the belief in the American Dream also perpetuated the idea that poverty is the result of individual shortcomings and lack of effort, rather than systemic issues such as economic inequality, discrimination, and lack of opportunity. This belief has been used to justify policies that benefit the wealthy at the expense of working people, further exacerbating income inequality and poverty.

The labor movement in the United States has been shaped by a number of factors, including the AFL's approach of sectoral bargaining, repression of unions and class struggle, and belief in the American Dream. These factors have contributed to the weakening of the labor movement, but it's worth noting that despite these challenges, labor unions have played a crucial role in achieving important improvements in working conditions and wages for many workers over the course of the 20th century.

Urbanization

Broadway in 1909.

Urbanization was a significant trend during the period of 1877 to 1900, as the growth of industry and the concentration of factory jobs in cities led to a rapid increase in urban populations. The Northeast, in particular, saw a large influx of immigrants and rural residents seeking employment in the cities. This led to the creation of large and rapidly growing urban centers, such as New York City, which had a population of over 3 million by 1890.

This rapid urbanization led to a number of social and economic challenges, as the influx of new residents led to overcrowding, poor housing conditions, and inadequate infrastructure in many urban areas. The concentration of wealth and poverty in cities also led to significant social and economic inequality, as the wealthy lived in upscale neighborhoods and enjoyed the benefits of urban life, while the poor lived in overcrowded and squalid conditions in the inner city.

Urbanization also led to the development of new forms of social organization and culture, as the density and diversity of urban populations led to the creation of new institutions and social networks. The growth of cities also led to the development of new forms of leisure and entertainment, such as vaudeville, and new forms of political organization, such as the rise of the urban political machine.

Urbanization played a significant role in shaping the social, economic, and cultural landscape of the United States during the period of 1877 to 1900, as the growth of industry and the concentration of factory jobs in cities led to a rapid increase in urban populations, and with it a host of new challenges and opportunities.

As urbanization progressed during this period, many cities saw the development of distinct communities and neighborhoods based on factors such as income, race, and ethnicity. The wealthy lived in upscale neighborhoods with good housing, services, and amenities, while the poor lived in overcrowded and squalid conditions in the inner city, often in ghettos characterized by poor housing, inadequate sanitation, and limited access to services and opportunities.

These ghettos were often home to immigrant and minority populations, who faced discrimination and segregation in housing and employment. The residents of these communities often lived in overcrowded tenements and faced poor living conditions, limited access to education and health care, and high rates of poverty and unemployment.

This segregation and inequality in urban areas had a significant impact on the lives of the residents of these communities, and contributed to the ongoing struggles for civil rights and social justice during this period and beyond.

The Democratic and Republican parties

During this period, the Democratic and Republican parties were the main political parties in the United States, and their support bases and political platforms reflected the regional and economic divisions in the country. The Republican Party, which had been the party of Lincoln and the abolition of slavery, was associated with the industrial North and Midwest, and generally supported high tariffs to protect American industry, as well as a strong federal government and a pro-business agenda.

The Democratic Party, on the other hand, had traditionally been the party of the South, and during this period it was associated with the interests of white Southern farmers, as well as immigrant groups in the urban North and Midwest. The party generally supported low tariffs and a more limited role for the federal government in the economy, as well as a more populist and pro-labor agenda.

As you mentioned, during this period, the two parties were relatively evenly matched and there was a relatively high degree of political polarization and competition between them. This often resulted in closely contested elections and a lack of clear majority control of the government.

It's worth noting that the Republican party had a strong support in the West as well as in the North. The party had a strong stance on protectionism and business-friendly policies. The Democrats, on the other hand, had a strong support in the south, where farmers and rural communities were the majority. The party had a more populist stance and were in favor of low tariffs and limited federal government involvement in the economy.

The period from 1877 to 1900 was a transformative period for the United States, as it underwent rapid industrialization, urbanization and economic growth. The country was united after the Civil War, but the South remained largely rural and impoverished, with a large black population that faced discrimination and segregation. The West was conquered and colonized, with the displacement and extermination of the indigenous population. The Northeast saw the rise of powerful industrialists and the growth of large cities, with a divide between the wealthy and the poor. The political system was dominated by the Democratic and Republican parties, with elections becoming a costly and corrupt spectacle. This period laid the foundation for the United States to become a major industrial and economic power, but also highlighted deep social and economic inequalities that would continue to shape the country in the coming years.

Annexes

• Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire; the United States Army in the Spanish-American War. Columbia: U of Missouri, 1971. Print.
• Wealth, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.148, Issue 391 pp. 653–665, June 1889. (Later published as Part I of The Gospel of Wealth)
• The Best Fields for Philanthropy, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.149, Issue 397 pp. 682–699, December 1889. (Later published as Part II of The Gospel of Wealth)
• Excerpts from "Wealth" by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review, 148, no. 391 (June 1889)*Carnegie, South American View, 223 no. 876 (October 1982)