The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

The period between 1877 and 1900 in the United States is known as the "Gilded Age," a term coined by Mark Twain to describe the period as one of great economic growth, but also of widespread poverty and social inequality. During this time, the country saw rapid industrialization and urbanization, as well as the rise of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the end of Reconstruction in the South, which resulted in the suppression of voting rights for African Americans and the rise of racial discrimination. The end of the period was marked by the Spanish-American War in 1898, which marked the emergence of the United States as a major imperial power.

The railroad played an important role in the reconstruction of the United States after the Civil War. The railroad helped to rebuild the economy of the South and also allowed for the transportation of goods and people across the country. It also helped to integrate the country by connecting the different regions and enabling the movement of goods and people between them. The railroad helped to spur economic growth and development and was a major contributor to the country's transformation into an industrial power.

During the period from 1870 to 1900, the United States underwent significant economic, social, and political changes. The country experienced a period of rapid industrialization and urbanization, which led to the growth of large corporations and monopolies. The government, however, largely favored the interests of these businesses and the wealthy elite over those of working-class Americans. Additionally, this period was marked by the suppression of voting rights for African Americans in the South and the rise of racial discrimination. Despite these challenges, the period saw the United States emerge as a major imperial power, with the acquisition of territories such as Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

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Role of the railways

At the ceremony for the driving of the "Last Spike" at Promontory Summit, Utah, May 10, 1869.

The railroads played a crucial role in the development of the United States during the late 19th century. The expansion of the railroad network allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across the country, which helped to spur economic growth and development. The railroads also played an important role in the formation of a huge internal market by connecting the different regions of the country and enabling the movement of goods and people between them.

The rail network linked East to West and North to South, which helped to integrate the country and spurred economic growth. The railroads also helped to spur the growth of industry and commerce, as they made it easier to transport raw materials and finished products. The railway also helped to promote the settlement of the western states and territories, as it made it easier for people to move there. The rail network also helped to spur the development of the mining, agriculture, and timber industries. The railroads were a major force in the country's transformation into an industrial power and played a key role in shaping the economy and society of the United States during this period.

The expansion of the railroad network in the United States during the late 19th century was significant. In 1870, there were approximately 85,000 kilometers of railroads in the United States, and by 1900, that number had grown to 320,000 kilometers, an increase of four times.

All of the railroads were privately owned and their schedules were coordinated through the imposition of four eastern time zones. However, the construction of the railroads was plagued by corruption, haste, and competition, and the network was not always well-maintained. Despite these issues, the construction of the railroads was heavily subsidized by both the states and the federal government, which helped to spur their growth.

As a result of this growth, companies that owned the railroads became extremely powerful, having accumulated large land holdings along the railroads. This led to the creation of monopolies and trusts, which controlled the transportation industry, and the railroads became a symbol of the economic and social inequality that characterized the Gilded Age.

However, the growth of railroads also had a positive impact on the country, as it facilitated the movement of goods and people, helped to spur economic growth and development and also helped to integrate the different regions of the country. It also facilitated the settlement of the western states and territories and promoted the growth of various industries like mining, agriculture, and timber.

In addition to the expansion of the railroad network, the United States also developed a communications network through the telegraph and mail during the late 19th century. This network of telegraph lines and mail routes helped to connect people and businesses across the country, making it easier to send messages and conduct business across long distances.

However, despite the expansion of the railroad network and the new means of communication, the states of the Union remained quite different from each other. The country can be divided into three regions: the West, the South, and the Northeast. Each region had its own unique history, economy, culture, and social structure, which set them apart from the others.

The West was characterized by its vast expanses of land, sparse population, and diverse economy, which included mining, agriculture, and cattle raising. The South, on the other hand, had been devastated by the Civil War and was still recovering from its effects. It was characterized by a primarily agrarian economy and a large population of African Americans who were subject to discrimination and limited political rights. The Northeast was the most industrialized and urbanized region of the country, and it was home to a large number of immigrants who worked in the factories and mills. The Northeast also had a more developed economy and a more complex social structure.

The railroads and telegraph lines helped to connect the country and promote economic growth, but they could not erase the regional differences that existed in the United States.

The West

Conquest of Amerindian territories

Mass grave with Lakota who died after the massacre at Wounded Knee.

The West, which included states recently acquired from Mexico and Great Britain, was largely the territory of indigenous peoples. From 1850 to 1890, the United States government embarked on a policy of westward expansion that included the forced displacement and confinement of indigenous peoples to small reservations under federal control. This policy was known as Indian Removal and it resulted in the forced relocation of thousands of indigenous people from their ancestral lands to reservations.

The government's policy was motivated by a desire to acquire the land for white settlers, mining, and other commercial interests. Many indigenous people were forced to leave their homes and were forced to walk hundreds of miles to their new homes in unfamiliar and often-unfavorable areas. This journey, known as the Trail of Tears, resulted in the deaths of thousands of people.

The government's policy towards indigenous peoples was often violent and brutal, and it resulted in the loss of lives, land, and culture for many indigenous communities. The survivors of the forced relocations were often confined to small reservations, where they were forced to live in poverty and under federal control. This policy of Indian Removal and confinement was a significant violation of the rights of indigenous peoples and it had a devastating impact on their communities.

During the period of westward expansion in the United States, the buffalo population on the central plains was drastically reduced through hunting. The buffalo were a crucial resource for many indigenous peoples, providing food, clothing, and shelter. The hunting of buffalo was seen as a way for settlers to exert control over the land and the indigenous peoples who lived there. The extermination of the buffalo had a devastating impact on many indigenous communities, as it destroyed their main source of sustenance and their way of life.

The last major conflict between the United States government and indigenous peoples occurred at Wounded Knee in 1890, when the 7th Cavalry of the United States army massacred around 200 Sioux people, many of whom were women and children. The massacre at Wounded Knee marked the end of armed resistance by indigenous peoples to the government's policy of westward expansion and confinement to reservations.

The events at Wounded Knee, as well as the policy of Indian Removal and the extermination of buffalo, were tragic and unjust actions that had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous peoples in the United States. It is a dark chapter of the history of the United States and it continues to have an impact on the Indigenous people today.

The population of indigenous peoples in the United States declined significantly during the period of westward expansion and the forced confinement to reservations. The total number of indigenous people in the United States rose from approximately 330,000 in 1860 to 237,000 in 1900, a decrease of nearly 30%.

On the other hand, the population of the West, including the newly acquired states and territories, increased rapidly from about 2 million in 1860 to 20 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 900%. This was due to the influx of white settlers, miners, and other migrants attracted by the availability of land and the promise of economic opportunity.

Overall, the total population of the United States increased from 31 million in 1860 to 76 million in 1900, an increase of nearly 145%. This population growth was driven by both natural increase and immigration, as well as the westward expansion and the influx of settlers into the newly acquired western territories.

The drastic decline in the Indigenous population was due to the policies of the government and the impact of war, disease and displacement and it is a sad and tragic chapter of the history of the United States.

The proportion of the indigenous population in the United States declined dramatically during the period of westward expansion and forced confinement to reservations. From a population of approximately 330,000 in 1860, or about 0.1% of the total population, the indigenous population declined to 237,000 in 1900, or about 0.003% of the total population. This represents a decline of nearly 70% in the proportion of the indigenous population in the United States over the course of four decades.

This decline was due to a combination of factors, including forced removal, war, disease, and displacement, as well as the impact of policies aimed at assimilating indigenous peoples into white American society. The drastic decline in the indigenous population was a tragic outcome of the government's policies towards indigenous peoples and it had a devastating impact on the lives and cultures of indigenous communities.

Rapid colonization

The American West across the Mississippi River. In dark red, the states that are still considered part of it: California, Oregon, Washington, Nevada, Idaho, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, plus Alaska and Hawaii. In hatched red, states that are sometimes considered part of the South or Middle West: Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, South Dakota, North Dakota, Minnesota.

Rid of its Indians and bison, the West was very quickly colonized by railways, but also colonized by the expansion of cattle breeding by cowboys, a quarter of whom were African-Americans. The cows are quickly sent to Chicago, which becomes the capital of beef slaughter and beef industrialism thanks to refrigeration, and it is at this time that steak begins to be part of the American diet.

At the same time, hundreds of thousands of farmers from Eastern, Central and Eastern Europe moved to the Great Plains to cultivate corn and wheat, among other crops.

This colonization by the farmers was difficult, but also by a large part of Chinese who came to settle mainly in California to participate in gold mining and to work in mining camps and small businesses.

The colonization of the interior is difficult even though agriculture is becoming mechanized and transportation is improving the isolation remains strong while the winter is cold and very hot.

It is also in this context that large mail-order companies such as Sears were created with its famous catalogue which not only made products from the cities available to farmers, but standardized consumption at the national level.

Although the West was practically conquered in 1890, it remains very rural. It is a conquest that plays a fundamental role in the national culture, as Frederick Jackson Turner theorized. According to him, the repeated experience of colonizing new frontiers on the continent has made Americans an iniquitous, adventurous, optimistic and democratic people.

It is an interpretation that has been criticized by recent historical research, but one that is still shared by most Americans today and which is maintained in the 19th century by an abundant popular culture. The metaphor of conquest endured, when Kennedy launched his aid programs in Latin America and the peace corps, he said they would conquer a new frontier.

The South

The country's reunification is to the detriment of blacks, who will very quickly react to the black codes imposed by the southerners and other violations of the law by resorting to the courts.

As early as 1876, the Supreme Court, still dominated by former slaveholders, ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment to the Citizenship Act and the Bill of Rights for American-born blacks did not require the federal government to protect the civil rights of blacks and that each state could regulate race relations as it saw fit.

In 1896, the Supreme Court legalized separation in public places as long as it did not prevent both races from having equal access to public services. Since the end of the reconstruction, the XIV and XV amendments remained a dead letter until the mid-1960s.

The right to vote was to be abolished by the codes, now the Supreme Court legalizes the "separated but equal". The United States Supreme Court carries enormous weight, rights are never taken for granted, and what black African Americans gained in the 1870s disappears very quickly.

Around 1890 in the south, segregation, racial violence, lynchings, and black codes were imposed with the Supreme Court's consent. The large plantation disappears to be replaced by sharecropping, the sharecroppers earn little and become indebted to the owners as the price of cotton on the international market falls. For the South, this is the end of the Cotton King.

In the South, this industrialization that began during the civil war continued mainly in the steel and textile industries. The exploitation of wood is also developing with the massive deforestation of the South. Due to the South's indebtedness, particularly during the war, all its industries very quickly came under the control of industrialists from the North.

The South remains mainly rural, it continues to produce mainly raw materials processed or consumed in the North and its economy depends on capital and management from the North.

Labour is segregated and slave-like systems dominate, particularly the system of forced labour through the black codes; thousands of blacks are sentenced to long terms of forced labour. All this is done at enormous mortality rates and without moving the financiers and even the citizens of the North.

In general, blacks are excluded from industrial work, but the whites who generally work there come from poor and indebted peasant families are also indebted and underpaid. Small complementary towns will be formed, dominated by a textile industry that supplies and controls everything almost as it did at the time of the plantation, but for the whites. However, the South is maintained in the illusion of the white race.

The Northeast

The northeast is changing profoundly and much more than the south.

Industrialization

In 1865 the value of manufactured goods in the United States was $2 billion, in 1900 it reached $13 billion. The United States has become the world's most productive nation and its industry produces one-third of the world's manufactured goods.

Four factors explain this rapid industrialization:

• creation of a national consumer market through railways, communications, postal services, advertising and mail order sales.
• technological innovations such as Bell's telephone in 1876 and Thomas Edison's light bulb in 1879. All this will lead to the development of industries in which mechanization and rationalization of work, in which workers are increasingly harnessed to the machine.
• Economic protectionism, i.e. the maintenance of high import taxes by a federal government that is very submissive to the major industrialists in order to protect industry from foreign competition.
• unbridled capitalism.

The era of unbridled capitalism

Portrait of John D. Rockefeller painted by John Singer Sargent in 1917.

Within the United States, wild capitalism is developing, with entrepreneurship playing a major role, becoming a model of American society replacing the great merchant and planter of the first half of the century. Two men embody this wild capitalism: Carnegie and Rockefeller.

Carnegie is the symbol of the American dream, he was born in Scotland, emigrated with his family at the age of 13, did all the trades and then joined a railway company, not hesitating to mortgage his mother's house to invest in his first business, which was sleeping cars going to the steel industry, locomotives and steel; he specializes in vertical concentration i.e. from raw material to finished product and in this case it is from coal and iron ore mining to the advanced steel industry. He became a multimillionaire, but in 1901 he gave up his empire and became a philanthropist until his death in 1919, spending 350 million in donations.

Standard Oil Refinery No. 1 in Cleveland, Ohio, 1897.

Rockefeller is a specialist in horizontal concentration, i.e. the concentration of a maximum number of companies producing the same product, i.e. a virtual monopoly in a given sector. He was born in the State of New York, first as an accountant and then as an executive in a brokerage firm; in 1859 he understood the importance that oil was going to have and in 1870 he founded the Standard Oil Company, 10 years later he controlled 95% of the country's oil production, often thanks to the coercion that founded the first oil trust that allowed him to fix the quantity of oil and the price at which it was sold.

Rockefeller will produce more reactions than Carnegie. When Congress tried to protect small businesses through antitrust law, Rockefeller surrounded himself with legal experts and founded the first holding company - a company that controlled different companies by acquiring a significant portion of their capital, but without having a monopoly.

During the last years of the 19th century, in all the major sectors, hundreds of companies disappeared to be absorbed by giants such as Goodyear or General Electric; everything was done with the protection of the Supreme Court, while ironically the antitrust law was applied against the trade unions under the pretext that they were anarchists and threatened the free competition of labour.

The law of the strongest

In 1890, 125,000 out of 63 million Americans, or just under 2% of the population, owned half of the national wealth, which they spread out shamelessly. Almost all of these "happy few" were practicing Protestants and Anglo-Saxons.

Their monumental richness provokes some caricatures, but not much in-depth criticism, as it is justified by Herbert Spencer's social Darwinism, which applies Darwin's theory of the evolution of species to humanity. The triumph of industrialists is explained by the survival of the strongest, the most gifted, the most deserving; the industrial triumph of the United States is explained by the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race.

All this is also the law of nature and the law of God. Carnegie publishes The Gospel of Fortune. At the same time, Rockefeller declares that "God gave me my money ». A pastor sells a million copies of a pamphlet that argues that building a fortune is a Christian duty.

Men, women and children of various origins and races will be competing against each other, who have no protection against the economic crisis, accidents at work, sickness or old age. Workers work 10 to 14 hours a day, 6 to 7 days a week for a daily wage of less than a dollar and without any protection.

Workers try to improve their living conditions by migrating from one place to another, working more and organizing themselves. However, it is difficult to organize when you are different; a union called the Knights of Labour formed in 1870 accepts workers of all origins and colours and in 1886 had one million members thanks to a campaign in favour of the 8-hour day.

1886 engraving published in Harper's Weekly newspaper depicting the Haymarket Square tragedy.

On May 1, 1886, a bomb in a demonstration against police violence in Chicago killed 7 policemen. The bomb was quickly attributed without evidence to anarchists, four of whom were condemned to be hanged, while the press falsely accused the Knights of Labor of having links with these anarchists leading to the banning of the union.

As early as May 1886, class unionism was in freefall in the United States, to be replaced by sectoral bargaining unionism. The American Federation of Labor (AFL) is the embodiment of this unionism, representing only the labor aristocracy, skilled workers, whites, but not migrants, negotiating on a case-by-case basis for better conditions for its members while polishing the unskilled workers and rejecting any political agenda.

Bargaining unionism that rejects class struggle still dominates today both because of the repression of all trade unionism and classism and in faith in the American dream that everyone can become a Carnegie or a Rockefeller; conversely, if one is poor it is because one is less capable and does not work enough, one deserves to be rich, and one deserves to be poor.

Urbanization

Broadway in 1909.

Urbanization is due to the fact that large factories are located in cities and that is where workers are concentrated. It must be seen that the Northeast is becoming even more urbanized, as early as 1890 there are several cities with more than 250,000 inhabitants, New York has more than 3 million inhabitants; in these cities is concentrated both great wealth and great poverty.

Increasingly, the inhabitants live in distinct communities in limited spaces and ghettos for the poor.

The Democratic and Republican parties

There has been an attempt by a section of the people to bring together farmers from the north and south, with the Republican bipartisan system in the north and California representing industry and protectionism against imports and the Democrats representing the white south, farmers and immigrant groups in the centre, the bipartisan system holding firm without one party winning a large majority.

From 1880 onward, elections were a spectacular and costly mobilization; with the enormous growth of the state apparatus and civil service, each party became a political machine recruiting voters from among new migrants; corruption was widespread, probusiness legislators received shares from the industries that protected them, and voters and activists received public jobs. This is a far cry from the rural, virtuous, puritanical America of 1776.

Annexes

• Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire; the United States Army in the Spanish-American War. Columbia: U of Missouri, 1971. Print.
• Wealth, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.148, Issue 391 pp. 653–665, June 1889. (Later published as Part I of The Gospel of Wealth)
• The Best Fields for Philanthropy, by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review Vol.149, Issue 397 pp. 682–699, December 1889. (Later published as Part II of The Gospel of Wealth)
• Excerpts from "Wealth" by Andrew Carnegie, North American Review, 148, no. 391 (June 1889)*Carnegie, South American View, 223 no. 876 (October 1982)