The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940

Données clés
Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]^[7]
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that took place between 1910 and 1940, characterized by social, economic, and political upheaval. It began with a rebellion led by Francisco Madero against the long-standing dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz. The revolution eventually led to the formation of a constitutional republic in Mexico, and brought about significant changes to the country's social structure and economy. During the revolution, various factions and leaders, including Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, and Venustiano Carranza, fought for control of the government. The revolution resulted in the deaths of an estimated 1.5 million people and brought about significant changes to Mexican society and politics.

The Mexican Revolution was a significant turning point in the history of Mexico and the Americas. The long dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, known as the Porfiriato, brought about economic development but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality. The regime's focus on modernization and economic growth left many segments of the population, such as indigenous communities and rural farmers, marginalized and disadvantaged.

The revolution was a response to these failures and aimed to bring about a more inclusive and equitable society. Many of the revolutionary leaders, such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa, represented the interests of rural and indigenous communities and sought to redistribute land and power. The revolution led to significant changes in the country's social and economic structure, such as the nationalization of natural resources and the implementation of agrarian reform.

The revolution was also characterized by the struggle for national identity and the integration of diverse groups into the nation. This included the rights of indigenous peoples, Afro-Mexicans and the descendants of slaves, and the rights of women and workers.

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The Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz: 1876 - 1910

the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz was a major factor that led to the Mexican Revolution. Díaz came to power in 1876 and ruled Mexico for over 30 years through a series of fraudulent elections. He implemented policies of modernization and economic growth, which brought about significant economic development but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality.

The dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz was marked by the suppression of political opposition, censorship of the press and the persecution of labor and indigenous movements. Díaz also used repression to maintain his power. He had a strong-arm police force, the rurales, who enforced his will and eliminated any opposition.

The fraudulent re-election of Díaz in 1910 was a catalyst for the revolution. Francisco Madero, a wealthy landowner and political reformer, ran against Díaz in the election and was arrested after alleging fraud. Madero's arrest sparked widespread protests and rebellions against the dictatorship. This marked the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which eventually led to the formation of a constitutional republic in Mexico, and brought about significant changes to the country's social structure and economy.

During the Porfiriato, there were a number of factors that contributed to the eventual overthrow of Porfirio Díaz and the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution. Some of the key factors include:

Increase in poverty of the vast majority: As previously discussed, the policies of modernization and economic growth implemented during the Porfiriato led to significant economic development, but also resulted in widespread poverty and inequality. The concentration of land in the hands of a few wealthy landowners led to an increase in the number of landless small farmers and worsening living conditions for many rural communities
Insufficient food production for a growing population: The focus on export-oriented agriculture during the Porfiriato meant that food production was primarily aimed at the export market, rather than meeting the needs of the domestic population. This led to food shortages and a lack of access to sufficient food for the growing population.
Staggering increase in the number of landless small farmers: The concentration of land in the hands of a few wealthy landowners led to an increase in the number of landless small farmers. These farmers were often displaced from their land and had no means of earning a living, leading to worsening living conditions and poverty.
Worsening of working conditions: The dictatorship's suppression of labor unions and worker strikes led to worsening working conditions for many urban workers. This included low wages, long working hours, and poor working conditions.
Beginning of trade unionism despite repression: Despite the dictatorship's repression of labor unions, trade unionism began to gain momentum, particularly among urban workers. This was a sign of growing discontent and frustration among the working class.
Control of industries by foreign monopolies: Foreign monopolies controlled key industries in Mexico, such as oil and mining, which further exacerbated economic inequality and increased frustration among the emerging middle classes.
Inflation generated by the whole cycle: The policies of modernization and economic growth led to an increase in inflation, which further impacted the standard of living for the majority of the population.
Rise of nationalism: The rise of nationalist sentiment, particularly among the emerging middle classes, was a key factor in the revolution as people became increasingly frustrated with foreign control over the country. This frustration was further fueled by the control of key industries by foreign monopolies, which were seen as a threat to national sovereignty.

Causes of the revolution

The Mexican Revolution has been characterized by different authors and historians in various ways. Some Marxist authors argue that the revolution was not a "real" revolution because it did not result in the establishment of a socialist system in Mexico. They argue that the revolution was primarily a struggle for political power and did not fundamentally change the country's economic and social structure.

Instead, they argue that the revolution resulted in the formation of a constitutional republic, which did not fundamentally change the country's capitalist economic system or the concentration of land and wealth in the hands of a few. They also argue that the revolution was led by a coalition of middle-class and elite leaders who did not represent the interests of the working class and peasants, who were the main force behind the revolution.

On the other hand, some historians and authors argue that the Mexican Revolution was a social revolution. They point to the significant changes in the country's social and economic structure that resulted from the revolution, such as the nationalization of natural resources and the implementation of agrarian reform. The revolution also led to the redistribution of land and power, which benefited rural communities and indigenous peoples. Additionally, the revolution also brought about significant changes in the country's political structure, such as the formation of a constitutional republic and the establishment of greater political freedom and democracy.

the Mexican Revolution is considered a revolution by many historians and authors because it meets the definition of a revolution as a massive, popular struggle for political and social change that results in a significant alteration of the existing power structure.

Massive participation of the population: The revolution was characterized by the participation of a large segment of the Mexican population, particularly in the North and Centre of the country, where a majority of the population were peasants.
Different views on the future: The population had different views on their future, with those in the North seeking an end to political and economic hindrances, and those in the Centre seeking the return of land taken under Díaz.
Struggle for power: The revolution represented a real struggle for power that led to civil war and the destruction of the existing regime's pillars.
Replacement of the system of control: The revolutionary leaders replaced Porfirio Díaz's system of control with another system of control that also put new elites in place as well as a new dominant ideology that is nationalist. At the same time, the revolution also brought about the construction of the state, national integration and the formation of a national capitalism.

The Mexican revolution is considered as a revolution due to the massive participation of the population, the different views on their future, the struggle for power, the replacement of the system of control and the emergence of new dominant ideology and new elite.

The Mexican Revolution is considered a pioneering revolution for its time, as it was one of the first major revolutionary movements in the early 20th century. It occurred before the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the Chinese Revolution, and the Cuban Revolution, which also brought about significant changes to the social, economic, and cultural structures of their respective countries.

The Mexican Revolution was also unique in that it was one of the first major revolutions in the Americas, and it set a precedent for other revolutionary movements in the region. It was a movement that aimed to bring about political, social, and economic change, and it was characterized by the participation of a large segment of the population, particularly rural and indigenous communities.

The Mexican Revolution also had a significant impact on the rest of Latin America. It served as an inspiration for other revolutionary movements in the region and helped to promote the idea of social and political change throughout the continent. Its impact can be seen in the various social and political movements that emerged in the following years in other Latin American countries, particularly in the Andean region.

The Mexican Revolution

The Mexican Revolution is often divided into three phases:

1910-1920: This phase is characterized by a decade of struggle and civil war, which saw the overthrow of the Porfirio Díaz dictatorship and the rise of various revolutionary leaders and factions fighting for control of the government. During this phase, a new constitution was adopted in 1917, which included important reforms such as land redistribution, labor rights, and education.
1920-1934: The years of Sonora. This phase is characterized by the rise of Alvaro Obregon and Plutarco Elías Calles, who were leaders of the revolutionary government in the state of Sonora. This period was marked by political stability and a focus on economic development, but also by increased state control and repression of political opposition.
1934-1940: The government of Lazaro Cardenas. This phase is characterized by the rise of Lazaro Cardenas as President of Mexico, who implemented a number of important reforms, including the nationalization of key industries such as oil and electricity, agrarian reform and the promotion of nationalism ideals. This period is considered a continuation of the revolution, as it brought about significant changes in the country's social, economic and political structures.

1910 - 1920: A decade of struggles. Adoption of the 1917 Constitution

The main protagonists

The first phase of the Mexican Revolution, from 1910 to 1920, was a very violent and chaotic period marked by struggles and civil war. Many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated, including Francisco Madero, the leader who initially sparked the revolution, and Emiliano Zapata, the leader of the Zapatista movement who advocated for land reform.

During this phase, various revolutionary factions fought for control of the government, and there was a high level of instability and violence. The country was in a state of constant civil war, which resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of property. The main leaders were Pancho Villa, Emiliano Zapata and Alvaro Obregon.

Despite the violence and instability, this phase also saw the adoption of the 1917 Constitution, which was a significant achievement of the revolution. This constitution included important reforms such as land redistribution, labor rights, and education, which aimed to address some of the social and economic issues that had led to the revolution in the first place.

Victoriano Huerta was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz and he came to power after the murder of Francisco Madero. Huerta was not able to control the revolution and he was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes in Texas.

This phase was marked by a high level of violence and political instability, and many of the leaders who emerged during this period were assassinated.

Francisco Madero, who came from Coahuila and was a great landowner from the North, was assassinated in 1913. He was the leader who initially sparked the revolution and advocated for political and social reforms.
Pancho Villa, a half-breed bandit from Chihuahua, was assassinated in 1923. He was one of the leaders of the revolution and led a powerful revolutionary army, Villa's Division of the North.
Pascual Orozco, a transport entrepreneur from Chihuahua, was first allied with Villa and then with Huerta, but he ended up being murdered by the police in Texas in 1916.
Emiliano Zapata, a leader of the Zapatista movement which advocated for land reform, was murdered in 1919.
Alvaro Obregón, a farmer, landowner, and important politician of Sonora, was murdered in 1928.
Venustiano Carranza, one of the main leaders of the revolution and president of Mexico, was murdered in 1920.

These leaders were key figures of the Mexican Revolution, and their deaths had a significant impact on the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government.

Victoriano Huerta
Francisco Madero
Pancho Villa
Pascual Orozco
Eufemio et Emiliano Zapata
Obregón Salido, Álvaro
Venustiano Carranza à La Cañada

The Mexican Revolution was a period marked by a real war for power and the struggle for control of the government. Out of the seven main leaders of the revolution that you have mentioned, Francisco Madero, Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, Alvaro Obregón, Venustiano Carranza, only Victoriano Huerta, who was a general linked to Porfirio Díaz, did not die from violence. He was forced to flee to the United States and died of natural causes from cancer in Texas.

The deaths of these leaders had a significant impact on the course of the revolution and the formation of the new government, as new leaders and factions emerged to take their place and continue the struggle for power. The high level of violence and political instability during this period was a characteristic of the Mexican revolution and it is also one of the reasons for the difficulty to establish a stable government and a new social, economic and political order.

The 1910 re-election of Diaz

The Mexican Revolution began in the North of the country in 1910, with the opposition to the re-election of Porfirio Díaz, who was then 80 years old. The North of Mexico was a more industrialized and mining region, and it was here that the initial revolt broke out, following the launch of the Plan of San Luis Potosí by the liberal leader Francisco Madero. The Plan called for free elections and had the support of the large peasantry of the North, as well as industrialists.

Madero formed an army of 25,000 men under the leadership of Pascual Orozco and Pancho Villa, which managed to defeat the forces of Díaz and negotiate his departure from power. Díaz went into exile and died in France of old age in 1915.

This phase of the revolution was characterized by the emergence of different revolutionary leaders and factions, each with their own agendas and ideologies, which led to a period of political instability and civil war in the country. The adoption of the 1917 Constitution was a significant achievement of this phase and it represented an effort to establish a new social, economic and political order.

In 1911, Francisco Madero was elected president of Mexico in free and fair elections, following the departure of Porfirio Díaz. However, Madero's presidency was marked by challenges and difficulties, as many of the revolutionary leaders and factions who had fought to overthrow Díaz were not satisfied with Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place.

In particular, the northern revolutionary leaders, such as Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and Emiliano Zapata, were dissatisfied with Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. They had expected Madero to bring about more radical change, but they were disappointed by his more moderate approach.

This dissatisfaction led to a split within the revolutionary movement and to a new round of civil war and political instability. Pancho Villa, Pascual Orozco, and other leaders formed a coalition against Madero, which contributed to his downfall and his assassination in 1913.

In the center of Mexico, particularly in the state of Morelos, the peasants under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes. Madero's decision to leave much of the Díaz system in place and to not attack the large sugar plantations in the region was particularly disappointing to the Zapatistas.

In response, Zapata and the Zapatistas took up arms again and declared the Plan of Ayala, also known as the Second Plan of the Mexican Revolution. This plan denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.

The Zapatistas and their demands for land reform became one of the most important parts of the Mexican revolution, and Zapata became a powerful leader and symbol of the revolution, especially in the center and south of the country.

The Zapatistas, under the leadership of Emiliano Zapata, also revolted against Madero's failure to implement significant land reform and other social and economic changes, and declared the Plan of Ayala which denounced Madero's betrayal of the revolutionary ideals and announced a peasant revolt if he did not give back the forests, waters, and lands to the indigenous peasant communities that had been taken since the middle of the 19th century.

Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913 and established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, with the support of the big landowners, the church, and foreign investors. Huerta's regime was characterized by a return to authoritarian rule, repression of political opposition, and a focus on maintaining the status quo rather than implementing significant social and economic reforms.

However, Huerta's days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza, while in the center, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilized. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionized and calling for reforms.

A new intelligentsia emerged, linked to socialist nationalist, indigenous, and somewhat romantic ideas, which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change. Huerta's regime was widely unpopular and had to face multiple factions fighting for power, which eventually led to his downfall.

Victoriano Huerta overthrew Francisco Madero in 1913, established a regime similar to that of Porfirio Díaz, but his days were numbered as there was a large number of troops against him in the north under the leadership of Alvaro Obregón and Venustiano Carranza, and in the center, troops under Emiliano Zapata were mobilized. In the cities, there were also protests and uprisings, with workers and artisans taking to the streets, often unionized, and calling for reforms. A new intelligentsia emerged which rejected the positivist ideas of the Porfiriato and called for a more radical change.

Guadalupe Plan

At this point the third plan is launched, called the Guadalupe Plan, which calls for the establishment of a constitutional government without mentioning social or agrarian reforms.

Among Carranza's supporters were Villa and Obregón launching a kind of assault on Mexico City, while in the south the Zapatistas mobilized and advanced on Mexico City. The government of Huerta was caught in a pincer movement; in 1914 Obregón entered the capital, forced Huerta to flee and installed Carranza in power.

Between 1914 and 1915, Carranza's "interregnum" was installed in power, but once he was in power the differences between all these groups would come to light since Carranzas did not achieve anything.

The Zapatistas are mobilizing behind the slogan "tierra y libertad. This movement is democratic and communitarian against the great land property, but not against the Catholic Church.

In the north, Pancho Villa looks more like a caudillo, his movement takes the haciendas, confiscating them, not giving them back to the peasants, but to his lieutenants to administer them for the benefit of the revolution.

Carranza and Obregón are men from Sonora who have little interest in agrarian issues, but rather are driven by urban, democratic, but also anticlerical forces against the Catholic Church.

Carranza's supporters are about 80,000 men, Villa's 500,000 men, and Zapata's 20,000 men less.

Zapata's body was exhibited in Cuautla (Morelos) on April 10, 1919.

Après 1914, les luttes entre ces différentes forces sont très intenses avec une alliance entre Villa et Zapata afin de prendre d’assaut la ville de Mexico. Ils seront chassés par les constitutionnalistes permettant à Carranza de reprendre le pouvoir très peu de temps après.

In 1919, Carranza lures Zapata into an ambush that leads to his murder; he has a little more distance to go against Villa, who can retreat to a hacienda; in 1923 it is Carranza's turn to be murdered. What must be seen is that Carranza is assassinated in 1923 just like Villa.

The main result of this first phase of the Mexican revolution was the adoption by an elected constituent assembly of a constitution in 1917 at the same time as the Bolshevik revolution broke out in Russia.

General Lázaro Cárdenas.

The constitution is largely written by Francisco Mujica, socialisant proche de Lazaro Cárdenas, he's a nationalist and progressive man. It is a liberal constitution that establishes a presidential system, while at the same time being the most social constitution of the time because it establishes the principle of agrarian reform, but also guarantees for workers and especially social protection.

It was also a nationalist constitution because it defined that the subsoil resources, including the oil exploited at the time by the British and Americans, belonged to the nation, while limiting the property of foreigners.

The other important dimension of this constitution is that it is secular and even anticlerical, suppressing the privileges of the Catholic Church.

Carranza then in power, during the rest of his reign did very little to enforce this constitution, in addition he tried to maintain himself illegally in power leading to his assassination in 1920 when he tried to flee taking part of the national treasure with him.

At that time, Obregón was the only living and powerful man who became president almost instantly. However, the country was ravaged by civil war, with estimates ranging from 1 to 1.5 million dead, or 10-15% of the total population; everyone suffered from the war and many were displaced.

The railways will play a predominant role in this revolution as they allow the transport of combatants. Women are also going to be involved in the struggle, some of whom will take part in the fighting; it is a revolution that is costing many lives.

1920 - 1934 : The years of the Sonorians

Project

It is a bloody revolution that will be followed between 1920 and 1934 by the years of the sonorians. These were fifteen years during which Sonora men governed the country, it was a region undergoing modernization and they wanted to transform Mexico into another California.

Modernization is a Mexico with a prosperous agriculture and irrigation, roads, technology, and bank credits. They are not looking at industrialization of Mexico except for a few agricultural products, their program is somehow not very different from the porfiriato program. Still, it's a national program that's run by Mexicans, not by foreign investors.

Following the 1921 and 1929 crises, there will be the forced return of Mexican workers from the United States; they are more or less succeeding in carrying out some of their reforms, per capita production is multiplied by five years in the north, in the centre this is more problematic, because there is in fact a regression in food production and all this for years where the Mexican population doubles from 20 million in 1920 to 40 million in 1940.

Socially, the sonorians seek to control the working classes through integration rather than repression as under Porifirio Diaz. The number of peasants affected by the reform is large, as is the extent of the land, which is relatively sparsely populated; however, 10% of the peasantry, 40% of the village community benefits from the agrarian reform, being particularly in the centre of the country where Zapatism has been strong.

Towards the workers, the government uses a mixture of control, co-optation and repression, the main trade union is gradually coming under the control of the Minister of Industry, while the socialist, anarchist and communist unions are harshly repressed and the right to strike is restricted.

Independent political parties are neutralised by the formation of the National Revolutionary Party, the institutional National Revolutionary Party's forerunner, which will dominate until the 2000s.

On the army side, the rural guard at Diaz is replaced by a new national army.

Building Mexican nationalism

It was during these years that revolutionary Mexico built a nationalism based on its mixed race and Indian roots. This is something very original that is happening in the Americas, we are in an era where every country, every ethnic group is trying to show that it is a nation with its race, culture, language, art and territory.

Fresque by Diego Rivera.

It is also the same period when in the United States racism and the Ku Klux Klan are being revived, and when Mexico glorifies interbreeding and revalorizes, among others, the Maya and the Aztecs and their great urban civilizations as the foundations of the country's history.

What is interesting to see is that in 1917, when the constitution was formed, the government opened an anthropology office that also dealt with archaeology and studied the various indigenous communities that enriched Mexican culture.

This celebration of crossbreeding was carried out under the aegis of Vasconcelos, who was Minister of Education between 1921 and 1924. He is best known for his work La Raza Comisca^[8] which he published in 1925 imagining the cosmic race made up of mixed race, Europeans, Indians and Africans.

That was the time when intellectuals in Europe and the United States were declaring that whites should dominate the world; it was a bold thing for the time, but that doesn't mean that Vasconcelos is not racist, because he thought that in the long term the Indians and Africans will disappear because they will be absorbed by the mixed race and the whites in order to re-found the Mexicans in a cosmic race.

Diego Rivera with Frida Kahlo, his third wife.

At the same time, we are still in the ideology where we think that education can improve the race and especially the Indians, it was at that time that Vasconcelos among others had pushed the education of the country a lot.

All this was first done at school, just as after the French Revolution, the Mexican revolution was convinced that the school teacher would replace the priest, becoming the link between the citizens and the State.

Under Vasconcelos, education accounted for up to 14% of the national budget, schools were opened in villages, itinerant teachers were sent out to remote areas, evening schools were opened to teach adults to read and write, and libraries were opened with works by Mexican authors. Between 1921 and 1934, the illiteracy rate fell from 72% to 62% and almost half of the children went to school.

The other major axis in order to develop the national culture is the arts, the government mobilizes artists, musicians, singers, sculptors to promote the national consciousness paying them materials and providing them with buildings on which the artists will illustrate the epic of the Mexican people, it is a revised epic where the Maya and Aztec past will be glorified and the colonial past will be condemned; some artists will become artists of international audience such as Diego Rivera, Orozco or Frida Kahlho.

All this unique national art movement in Latin America is fundamental in the formation of "mexicanidad", the national pride and independence of the country and in the beginning of the acceptance of the elites in popular culture; it is a movement that continues until 1940 having repercussions throughout Latin America with the populisms.

The government of Lázaro Cárdenas, 1934 - 1940

Lázaro Cárdenas.

It is a government by a man who comes from Michoacán, who came to power after the crisis of 1929, who was military during the revolution, but who knows well the needs of the small peasantry of the South, a man who remains modest, at least in appearance, and who does not seek to get rich.

Unlike the sonorians, Cárdenas believes in dialogue and the power of conviction travelling throughout the country. Under Cárdenas, the great spike of the agrarian revolution took place, redistributing 18 million hectares in six years, almost double what was distributed between 1915 and 1934; in 1940, 47% of the country's cultivated land belonged to village and indigenous communities.

This policy allowed the regime to ally itself with the small peasantry; Cárdenas also unified the trade unions and integrated socialists and communists into a pro-government workers' centre.

In the field of education, he continued the policies begun under the ministry of Vasconcelos; compared to the Catholic Church, he was much more conciliatory than the anticlerical sonorians who let the churches function almost autonomously.

Cárdenas was most innovative in relation to the United States, because after a series of strikes in which the big American and English companies refused government arbitration, in 1938 Cárdenas nationalized the oil industry.

In response, the United States and France boycotted Mexican oil while England broke off diplomatic relations. It is felt that war will break out, but the great powers will go further not wanting to alienate Mexico at this key moment in history; the nationalization of oil produces a national union that unites everyone behind Cárdenas, from bishops to socialist university students.

Cárdenas also reformed the governing party, making this revolutionary party the precursor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party to which he attached the peasants and the workers' unions.

In 1938, a good part of the Mexican revolutionary project of state building, national integration and national capitalism was achieved. The revolution changed the country profoundly, moreover the Mexican revolution shows the importance of Mexico for all the Americas and many Latin American countries are trying to imitate some of these policies.

The year 1938 was the apogee of the Mexican revolution, but the governments that followed the government of Cárdenas would quickly destroy the achievements of the revolution, especially its agrarian revolution.

Annexes

Posada, et al. “La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso El Ascenso De Francisco Madero.” El Ascenso De Francisco Madero - La Revolución Mexicana y Los Estados Unidos En Las Colecciones De La Biblioteca Del Congreso | Exposiciones - La Biblioteca Del Congreso, www.loc.gov/exhibits/mexican-revolution-and-the-united-states/rise-madero-sp.html.

References

[1] Aline Helg - UNIGE

[2] Aline Helg - Academia.edu

[3] Aline Helg - Wikipedia

[4] Aline Helg - Afrocubaweb.com

[5] Aline Helg - Researchgate.net

[6] Aline Helg - Cairn.info

[7] Aline Helg - Google Scholar

[8] La Raza Cósmica Misión de la raza iberoamericana Notas de viajes a la América del SurAgencia Mundial de Librería, Madrid 1925 (Spanish)

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