The Americas on the eve of independence

The Americas on the eve of independence

Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750.

Données clés

Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Aline Helg
Cours	The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries

Lectures

• The Americas on the eve of independence
• The independence of the United States
• The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society
• The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas
• The independence of Latin American nations
• Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies
• The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery
• The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877
• The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900
• Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910
• The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940
• American society in the 1920s
• The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940
• From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy
• Coups d'état and Latin American populisms
• The United States and World War II
• Latin America during the Second World War
• US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty
• The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution
• The Civil Rights Movement in the United States

On the eve of independence, the Americas were primarily colonies of European powers, with Spain, Portugal, England, France, Holland, and Denmark being the dominant colonizers. The majority of these territories were border areas or uncolonized territories, occupied by Indigenous nations and tribes. These areas were sparsely populated, and the colonial powers had limited control over them. These territories served as a refuge for people who had fled from slavery, oppression, and persecution, including enslaved people, peasants, and criminals. The population of the colonies was diverse, with European settlers, enslaved Africans, and Indigenous peoples all living together. The economies of these colonies were largely based on agriculture and the export of raw materials to Europe. The social structure was heavily influenced by the system of slavery and the rigid class divisions that existed between the European settlers and the enslaved and Indigenous populations. The colonies were also politically controlled by the European powers, with little autonomy or representation for the colonized peoples.

The population distribution of the Americas during the colonial period and the displacement of Indigenous people significantly impacted the region's social, economic, and political development after independence. The legacy of colonization continues to shape the demographic landscape of the Americas today, with many Indigenous communities still facing discrimination and marginalization. Additionally, the forced displacement and enslavement of millions of Africans brought over as part of the transatlantic slave trade also had a lasting impact on the region's demographics and social structures. These historical injustices continue to shape the social, economic, and political landscape of the Americas today.

Languages

Español Français

Distribution of populations by origin

On the eve of independence, the distribution of populations in the Americas was concentrated in certain regions. The most densely populated areas were the east coast of what would become the United States, the Atlantic coast of South America, the Pacific coast of South America, the Caribbean, Central America, and present-day Mexico. A mix of different ethnic and racial groups, including indigenous peoples, Europeans, Africans, and people of mixed heritage, characterized these regions.

In contrast, there were relatively few people living in areas that were not easily accessible, such as the interior of the continent and along the banks of navigable rivers. The main cities were also densely populated areas, and in 1770, there were an estimated 15 million inhabitants in the Americas. This population was made up of diverse groups, each with their own history, culture, and experiences. The distribution of population by origin would significantly impact the continent's social, economic and political development after the independence.

New France, which included present-day Louisiana and Canada, had a population of around 70,000 inhabitants. The 13 colonies that would constitute the first United States had a population of approximately 3 million people. The Kingdom of the Viceroyalty of Spain, which included Mexico, California, Texas, and Central America, also had a population of around 3 million. The rest of Spain's colonies, including Colombia, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the current Republic of Santo Domingo, had a population of around 4 million. Brazil had a population of 1.5 million people.

The French and British West Indies had a large population of enslaved people. The French West Indies had 600,000 inhabitants, 500,000 of whom were in Haiti, and 80% were slaves. The British West Indies had around 300,000 inhabitants, and there were still 1.5-2 million uncolonized indigenous people living in the Americas. This population distribution would significantly impact the region's social, economic, and political development after the independence and continues to shape the demographic landscape of the Americas today.

The Importance of "Racial" Belonging

The history of colonization and slavery in the Americas has significantly impacted the current racial and ethnic dynamics in the region. The treatment of indigenous peoples and the forced migration of enslaved Africans have led to ongoing issues such as discrimination and inequality. These issues are still present in contemporary society and continue to affect communities of color.

Amerindian-majority regions

Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala: he rebuilt the entire Amerindian imagination after the conquest. It is an extraordinary source for historians to reconstruct what was happening at the time. The Indians were forced to provide forced labour in the mines and on the looms.

Amerindian-majority regions refer to areas in the Americas where Indigenous people make up the majority of the population. These regions experienced a significant demographic decline due to colonization by European powers, primarily due to the introduction of diseases for which the Indigenous population had no immunity, as well as enslavement, repression and massacres. Estimates suggest that the population of Indigenous people in the Americas fell from between 50 and 60 million in 1500 to less than 4 million by 1600.

The Caribbean region is particularly notable for its Indigenous population's rapid and complete extinction. Before European colonization, it is estimated that around 5 million Indigenous people were living in the Caribbean. However, by 1770, the population had been almost entirely wiped out, and by 1800, virtually no Indigenous people were left in the Caribbean.

There was a period of population recovery for Indigenous people in the territories of Mesoamerica and the Andes, particularly among the Inca and Mayan civilizations, from around 1650 to 1680. This is thought to be due to several factors, including:

• The presence of urban civilizations and advanced agriculture in these regions allowed for a more efficient distribution of resources and a higher carrying capacity, which in turn facilitated population growth.
• The Inca and Mayan empires were well-established at the time of the Spanish conquest. They had systems of government, religion, and social organization that helped them resist and adapt to the new conditions imposed by the colonizers.
• The dense population in these territories made it difficult for the colonizers to eliminate the Indigenous population through violence and forced labor completely.
• There were also instances of resistance and rebellion by Indigenous people against the colonizers, which helped to protect their populations and communities.

In some regions of the Americas, particularly in remote and less-settled areas, Indigenous populations maintained a higher proportion of their population during the colonial period by taking refuge in these areas. This allowed them to continue to live traditionally and to rebuild their population. By 1770, it is estimated that around 2/3 of the population in some regions of the Americas were Indigenous people who had taken refuge in these non-settled territories. However, it should be noted that the overall population of Indigenous people in the Americas by that time was still significantly lower than before the arrival of Europeans.

Regions with a majority of European origin

In regions with a majority of European origin, such as the 13 colonies that would become the United States, and particularly the Northern United States, the concept of "racial" belonging played an important role in shaping the social and political landscape. Although the number of Europeans in these colonies rose dramatically, from 30,000 in 1700 to 2.5 million in 1770, they were still a minority in relation to the indigenous populations and enslaved Africans. This demographic reality had a significant impact on the way society was organized and how power was distributed.

The presence of a large number of European immigrants led to the development of a social hierarchy based on race and ethnicity, with white Europeans at the top and other racial and ethnic groups at the bottom. This hierarchy was reinforced by laws and policies that institutionalized discrimination and inequality. It had a lasting impact on the region and continues to shape the social and political landscape to this day.

Regions with a majority of African origin

In regions with a majority of African origin, such as the Caribbean and certain regions of Brazil, the concept of "racial" belonging played a significant role in shaping the social and political landscape. The colonization of the Americas was largely carried out through the forced migration of enslaved Africans. As a result, these regions had a large population of enslaved people and their descendants. The number of Africans deported to the Americas was four times higher than that of Europeans who emigrated voluntarily between 1500 and 1780.

These regions were mainly agricultural and were characterized by large-scale tropical plantations where enslaved Africans were forced to work, producing crops such as sugar, cocoa, and tobacco. These regions also had a significant population of Afro-descendants, such as the region of Lima and the Pacific coast where there were mines, the region of Guyana where there were sugar plantations, and the Maryland region in the United States where there was a large slave population and many agricultural products.

At that time, virtually all domestic service was in the hands of enslaved people. In many cities in the Iberian Americas, such as Buenos Aires, Afro-descendants made up a significant proportion of the population. This history of slavery and forced migration has had a lasting impact on the region, shaping the social and political landscape and contributing to ongoing issues of racial and ethnic inequality.

Majority Métis, Mulatto or Zambo regions

The arrival of slaves and Europeans in the Americas led to a significant amount of intermarriage and crossbreeding, particularly in Latin America. This intermarriage occurred between the surviving Indigenous populations, enslaved people, and Europeans, with men often bonding with Indigenous and enslaved women. This accelerated crossbreeding led to a great deal of concern among European settlers about their own racial origins. An art form known as "crossbreeding paintings" was developed to depict these mixed-race individuals and in the imagination of settlers, there was a desire to "whiten" the population.

In the Iberian Americas, there was a strong obsession with "purity of blood" that went back to the colonization of the Christians in the Iberian Peninsula and continued until the middle of the 19th century. In order to study, exercise higher professions, or hold royal or ecclesiastical positions, individuals had to prove their purity of blood. This requirement was enforced by the Spanish monarchy, who considered people of African descent and their descendants to be disqualified for the "impurity of their blood". However, Indigenous people were not subject to this criteria as it would have contradicted the principle of settlement in America.

The Amerindians

Iberian America

In the Iberian Americas, there was a complex system of racial and societal stratification that was based on ideas of purity and illegitimacy of birth. This system, which had roots in the Iberian Peninsula, was exported to the Americas and significantly impacted the lives of Indigenous people.

People of European descent were considered part of the highest caste and formed a small elite with most power and wealth. However, not all people of European descent were considered pure, as the concept of "purity of blood" was often linked to religious marriage and the practice of certain manual trades.

Enslaved people of African descent and mixed-race individuals, considered illegitimate, formed the majority of the population. They were often relegated to lower-status jobs and were not considered for important positions unless they met the "purity of blood" standard.

In the Andean region, Indigenous people were forced to work in mines and textile mills, and were considered "minors" who needed protection by the King of Spain. Indigenous people were also subject to a system of forced labour and tribute and were forced to work to pay taxes to the king. This system of forced labor and tribute was often opposed by Indigenous people, who saw it as a violation of their land rights.

It is important to note that in many places, Indigenous people were against the process of independence, as it often went hand in hand with liberalism, which threatened their lands directly.

In the Iberian Americas, most of the population lived in rural areas, and cities were relatively small. The largest city, Mexico, had a population of around 100,000. The cities were where most of the power was concentrated, but their control over the territory was limited, with the majority of the power.

Anglo-Saxon America

In Anglo-Saxon America, there was a sociospatial stratification of Indigenous people as subhuman and savage, despite the fact that some Indigenous groups, like the Cherokees, had converted to Christianity. The English colonizers were primarily interested in acquiring Indian lands, and this is reflected in the phrase "A good Indian is a dead Indian" which was often used during this time period. The 19th century saw a continued push by the United States to acquire more land, often through forced displacement and violence against Indigenous people.

As slavery developed in the Americas, racism also increased. It is important to note that the colonization of British America was also done by poor white servants and criminals who were offered the opportunity to work for a certain number of years in exchange for land and freedom.

Slavery spread gradually in Anglo-Saxon America, although it did not exist in Great Britain. The rules regarding slavery were often invented as the practice developed, and all enslaved people were considered black, regardless of their origins, reinforcing racism.

Immigration to Anglo-Saxon America was primarily done by families, often religious refugees, who were willing to work in manual labor on the land.

Slavery

Slavery in the Americas was a widespread practice that affected all aspects of society, with enslaved people working on plantations, in domestic service, in shops, in transportation, in ports, in crafts, and even in creative fields such as poetry and music. As a result, the living conditions for enslaved people were highly varied and greatly depended on the location and type of work they were forced to do.

In the Iberian Peninsula, a code of law dating back to the 13th century was exported to the Americas, which was similar to the slavery of the Roman Empire. This code allowed enslaved people to buy their freedom, a right that was not present in the Anglo-Saxon Americas. This led to the formation of a class of "coloured freedmen" who were descendants of formerly enslaved people who had bought their freedom. However, the possibility of manumission would gradually become more difficult over time.

In the Spanish Americas, there were soon more freedmen of colour than slaves, but this possibility did not exist in Anglo-Saxon America. The one common denominator between all the Americas was that the mother determined the status of the individual.

The Slave Trade

The transatlantic slave trade was a major part of the colonization process in the Americas, beginning in the 17th century and lasting until the 19th century. It is estimated that over 12 million Africans were forcibly brought to the Americas as slaves during this period. The majority of these slaves were sent to Brazil, followed by the English and French Caribbean. The future United States, however, had relatively few slaves in comparison during the early period of colonization. The number of slaves in the US increased significantly in the 19th century because of the improvement of living and working conditions, which allowed them to survive and reproduce more effectively.

The slave trade reached its peak in the 18th century, during the period of the Enlightenment. This is a significant contradiction as the ideals of the enlightenment movement such as freedom, equality, and human rights were not extended to the enslaved Africans. From 1815 onwards, the slave trade was gradually prohibited, and eventually abolished in most of the Americas, although slavery itself was not abolished in all countries until the 19th century.

Agricultural production

Iberian America

In the colonial period of Iberian America, the descendants of European settlers often acquired large landholdings, while indigenous communities and small farmers were forced to settle in less fertile areas. This pattern of unequal land distribution has persisted throughout history and continues to be a significant issue in many parts of the Americas. Moreover, the concentration of land in the hands of a few has contributed to ongoing issues of poverty and inequality for marginalized communities, particularly indigenous and Afro-descendent groups..

Anglo-Saxon America

During the early period of Anglo-Saxon settlement in America, there was a relatively equal distribution of land, with many family farms. Over time, however, the pattern of land ownership began to change and inequality increased, with a growing concentration of land in the hands of large plantations. In addition, the rise of plantation agriculture, especially in the South, was based on the labor of enslaved Africans, which further contributed to the racial and economic inequality in the region. The legacy of this history continues to shape the agricultural landscape of the United States today, with ongoing issues of land ownership and economic inequality affecting many rural communities.

Trade of port cities

The trade of port cities in the Americas was largely affected by poor communication routes, making trade more difficult and time-consuming than between port cities in Europe.

Mercantilism was the dominant economic doctrine during this period. It stated that the main wealth of states lay in their stock of gold and silver, and it was associated with protectionism and a monopoly of the metropolis on trade. The major metropolises needed large amounts of gold and silver to finance the constant wars. The Americas were seen as the main source of capital for these metropolises through imports and exports.

However, the implementation of mercantilism varied from colony to colony. Some colonies were more liberal in their trade, while others were more restrictive, with stricter rules and tariffs for imports and exports.

Anglo-Saxon America

During the colonial period, the trade of port cities in Anglo-Saxon America, particularly in the British colonies, was a major contributor to the region's economic prosperity. The production of tobacco, indigo, and sugar, which were in high demand in Europe, helped fuel the growth of these port cities and contributed to the development of the American economy. The British authorities largely ignored the smuggling of these goods, as the legitimate trade was sufficient to fill their coffers. This prosperity led to the rapid development of ports such as Boston and Philadelphia, which became major centers of trade and commerce. This economic prosperity also significantly impacted the Industrial Revolution in England, as the raw materials and markets provided by the American colonies played a key role in developing new technologies and manufacturing techniques.

Iberian America

In contrast to Anglo-Saxon America, the trade of port cities in Iberian America was heavily controlled and monopolized by the colonizing powers. The metropolis, usually Spain or Portugal, had strict regulations that forbade the colonies from trading with each other or with other countries. This led to a lack of economic development and prosperity in the colonies. This system also led to the growth of a class of extreme contrabandists who smuggled goods and traded illegally. This illicit trade was one of the few ways for the colonies to access goods or generate income. This system of control and trade restriction has had a lasting impact on the region's economic development and has contributed to ongoing issues of poverty and inequality.

Political Administration

Iberian America

In Iberian America, the colonizing powers maintained a strict and rigid system of political administration. The metropolis, usually Spain or Portugal, held great control over the colonies and had little regard for local autonomy. For the Spanish Americas, the Council of the Indies held significant power and made decisions for the colonies. The executive power was in the hands of a viceroy, who was always a Spaniard and had extensive control over the territory. There was little local power, even for the elites and wealthy members of society. The only kind of regime that existed were local councils that represented minorities. This centralization of power and lack of autonomy has had a lasting impact on the region and has contributed to ongoing political and economic inequality issues.

Anglo-Saxon America

In contrast to Iberian America, the British colonies in Anglo-Saxon America had a decentralized system of political administration. Great Britain established local legislative assemblies in each colony, in which local elites sat and had a degree of autonomy in decision-making and managing the colony's taxes and finances. However, this system did not extend to the general population. It was not democratic, as it excluded a large proportion of the population, such as enslaved people, indigenous people, and women. Despite this, the experience of self-government and the participation of colonial elites in the legislative assemblies provided them with valuable experience and knowledge of governance, which would serve them well at the time of independence.

Religions and cultural diversity

Anglo-Saxon America

In Anglo-Saxon America, the dominant religion was Christianity, with most of the population being Protestant, particularly those of the Anglican, Presbyterian, and Congregational denominations. However, there was also a significant population of Catholics, particularly in Maryland and among the French in Louisiana. There were also smaller populations of Jews, Quakers, and other religious groups.

Cultural diversity in Anglo-Saxon America was shaped by the diverse backgrounds of European settlers, including those from England, Scotland, Ireland, Germany, and other countries. This diversity was also reflected in the different communities' customs, languages, and traditions. The enslaved Africans also brought their own cultural practices, such as music, dance, and religion, which blended with the dominant European culture to create unique cultural expressions.

However, despite the diversity, there was a strong emphasis on Anglo-Saxon culture and the suppression of the cultures of enslaved Africans and Indigenous peoples. The colonial powers imposed their own religion, language and culture on the colonized peoples.

In addition, the British colonies had a strong cultural and political connection to Britain, which influenced their political and social development. They shared a common language, legal system, and political ideals, which would eventually play a role in their decision to unite and declare independence from Britain.

The religious landscape of Anglo-Saxon America on the eve of independence was marked by a great diversity of Protestant denominations, each with its own unique ideologies and practices. This diversity was often referred to as a "Protestant Babylon" due to the conflicting beliefs and practices among the different denominations. Quakers were among the few groups that advocated for religious tolerance and pacifism.

In the early 18th century, religiosity in the colonies was in decline. To address this, some pastors launched a religious revival known as the "Great Awakening." This movement sought to revitalize religious fervour and emphasized the importance of personal faith and the threat of eternal damnation. The Great Awakening was a significant event that affected all thirteen colonies and contributed to the development of a common religious identity among the colonies, which was one of the first ideas of the United States.

One of the key elements of the Great Awakening was the idea of the superiority of divine law and the conviction that natural laws were given by God. This idea reinforced the belief in the importance of personal faith and the authority of religious leaders. It also reinforced the idea that the colonies were part of a divine plan and that they had a special destiny in the world. This idea would play an important role in developing a national identity and the eventual declaration of independence from Britain.

Iberian America

In Iberian America, the religious landscape was complex and varied. The Catholic Church was the dominant religion, but it was far from being universal. The greatest bastions of Catholicism were the big cities with large Spanish and Portuguese populations. However, in rural areas, local virgin venerations developed, which were created on the spot, mixing Amerindian elements with elements of the Catholic tradition that persist to this day.

Due to the immense territory and poor communication infrastructure, the Catholic Church had limited presence in the rural areas and in the tropical regions. As a result, there was a rapid syncretism between African religions and Catholicism, and many religions were created, hiding behind Catholicism.

Access to the ideas of the Enlightenment was limited to a small portion of the population. However, among the key ideas that did reach Iberian America was the concept of natural laws and the belief that we can try to understand and change things through them. In addition, the philosopher John Locke wrote that the state's role is to provide well-being and security to individuals with inalienable rights to life, liberty and property. This idea would significantly impact the political and social development of Iberian America after the wars of independence.

Annexes

• Cours :
  • Histoire économique et sociale du Tiers-Monde :
    • Les grandes étapes de l’expansion européenne XVIe-XXe siècles