« 中东地区的语言、宗教和文化 » : différence entre les versions

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=Languages=
=语言=


[[Fichier:A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png|vignette]]
[[Fichier:A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png|vignette]]
   
   
The region is characterized by its diversity, especially in terms of languages. There are three main families:
该地区的特点是多样性,特别是在语言方面。有三个主要的语系:


*Ural-Altaic: Russian region, Azerbaijani, Turkish,...
*乌拉尔-阿尔泰语:俄罗斯地区,阿塞拜疆语,土耳其语,.....
*Indo-European: Persian, Kurdish, Armenian,...
*印欧语:波斯语,库尔德语,亚美尼亚语,.....
*Semitic or Semitic: Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Assyrian,...
*闪米特语或闪米特语。阿拉伯语、希伯来语、阿拉木图语、亚述语、.....
   
   
As everywhere else, many dialects are present. Approximately 20 minority languages are also spoken in the Middle East. For example, within Turkey, Turkish changes a lot. The same goes for Arabic, Kurdish, Armenian. Population movements as well as religion have strongly propagated the different languages. Since then, nation states have established one or more official languages on their territory and for their population. The effects of the imposition of a state language pushes both nationalism and the disappearance of other dialects, but at the same time it is in the interest of these "forbidden" languages.
与其他地方一样,有许多方言。在中东地区也有大约20种少数民族语言。例如,在土耳其国内,土耳其语变化很大。阿拉伯语、库尔德语、亚美尼亚语也是如此。人口运动以及宗教的影响,有力地传播了不同的语言。此后,民族国家在其领土上和人口中建立了一种或多种官方语言。强加一种国家语言的影响既推动了民族主义,也推动了其他方言的消失,但同时也有利于这些 "被禁止的 "语言。


=Religion=
=宗教信仰=
   
   
In a broad sense, the Middle East includes Anatolia, Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is also the birthplace of the three monotheistic or revealed religions: Christianity, Islam and Judaism. This region also saw the birth of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism], which sums up life in the perpetual struggle between Good and Evil.
从广义上讲,中东包括安纳托利亚、埃及和美索不达米亚。它也是三大一神教或启示宗教的发源地。基督教、伊斯兰教和犹太教。这个地区还诞生了拜火教,它将人生的意义概括为善与恶的永恒斗争。


==Judaism==
==犹太教==
In the story, Abraham makes a covenant with Jahweh that promises him a promised land. He has a wife, Sarah, and a slave, Hagar. He has two children: Isaac, son of Sarah, ancestor of the Jews, and Ishmael, son of Hagar, ancestor of the Muslims. Isaac's son, Jacob, will create the 12 tribes of Israel and make up the Hebrews. They will settle in Egypt, but will be enslaved. That's when Moses enters the scene, wanting to bring them back to Canaan, the promised land. On Sinai, God gives him the Torah, the law...
在故事中,亚伯拉罕与耶和华立约,应许他有应许之地。他有一个妻子撒拉和一个奴隶哈加。他有两个孩子。撒拉的儿子以撒,犹太人的祖先;哈加的儿子以实玛利,穆斯林的祖先。以撒的儿子雅各,将创造以色列的十二支派,组成希伯来人。他们将在埃及定居,但会被奴役。这时,摩西进入了,想把他们带回应许之地迦南,也就是应许之地。在西奈,上帝给了他托拉书,律法.....


In the 13th century B.C., the Hebrews return to Palestine. The king, Solomon, was to build the Temple there, where the law handed down to Moses would be deposited. It is also the period of the prophets. The first catastrophe, in 722BC, was the destruction of Israel by the Assyrians and the deportation of the Hebrews to Mesopotamia. The rabbis will elaborate the commentary of the Torah, the Mishnah, which they will improve, which will become with the Torah, the Talmud.
在公元前13世纪,希伯来人回到巴勒斯坦。国王所罗门要在那里建造圣殿,将传给摩西的律法存放在那里。这也是先知们的时期。公元前722年,第一次灾难是以色列被亚述人毁灭,希伯来人被驱逐到美索不达米亚。拉比们将《托拉书》的注释,即《米示拿书》,他们将对《托拉书》的注释进行完善,这将与《托拉书》、《塔木德》一起成为《塔木德》。


The second catastrophe occurred in 586 B.C. when the Mesopotamians destroyed the southern kingdom and the Temple. From -332 BC, the territory is under Roman domination, Romans who will destroy the rebuilt Temple and deport the Jews. From then on, the Jews will disperse in the world (etymology of the word " diaspora "). It should be noted that the Hebrews rather represent the people while the Jews could be considered mainly according to their religion.
第二次灾难发生在公元前586年,美索不达米亚人摧毁了南方王国和圣殿。从公元前-332年开始,这块领土被罗马人统治,罗马人将摧毁重建的圣殿,驱逐犹太人。从此以后,犹太人将分散在世界各地("散居 "一词的词源)。需要注意的是,希伯来人代表的是人民,而犹太人主要是根据他们的宗教来考虑。


Ashkenazi Jews settled in Europe and gave birth to a hybrid language between Hebrew and German (Yiddish), while Jews in Spain created Ladino. To this, we must add the character of the religion (orthodox, moderate...).
阿什肯纳西族犹太人在欧洲定居,产生了希伯来语和德语(意第绪语)的混合语言,而西班牙的犹太人创造了拉迪诺语。对此,我们必须加上宗教的特点(正统、温和...........)。


==Christianity==
==基督教==
For Christianity, the prophet is Jesus, born in Bethlehem and crucified in Jerusalem. In the 4th century, the religion becomes that of the Roman Empire. In order not to be linked to the Romans for political reasons, some Christians detached themselves from the empire and the religion that accompanied it. The biggest debate rests on the nature of Jesus: is he a man? Son of God?
对于基督教来说,先知是耶稣,他出生在伯利恒,在耶路撒冷被钉在十字架上。到了4世纪,宗教成为罗马帝国的宗教。为了不因政治原因而与罗马人联系在一起,一些基督徒脱离了帝国和与之相伴的宗教。最大的争论集中在耶稣的性质上:他是人吗?是神的儿子吗?


The [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea Council of Nicea] decides in 325 on the fact that Jesus is consubstantial with the Father generated and not created. This will proceed to the creation of several churches, in the East and in the West (two natures in one person: divine and human). These churches will also either accept the Emperor's version or reject it (Jacobites).<gallery mode="packed" widths="300" heights="300">
尼西亚大公会议在325年决定,耶稣是与天父同体的事实产生而不是被创造的。这将导致东方和西方的几个教会的建立(一个人的两个性质:神性和人的两个性质)。这些教会也将接受皇帝的版本,或者拒绝(雅各派)。<gallery mode="packed" widths="300" heights="300">
Fichier:Nicaea icon.jpg|Emperor Constantine (centre), with the bishops of the Council of Nicaea (325), anachronistically holding the text of the "symbol of Nicaea-Constantinople" in its Greek liturgical form, based on the text adopted at the first Council of Constantinople (381).
Fichier:Nicaea icon.jpg|君士坦丁皇帝(中),与尼卡亚大公会议(325年)的主教们一起,以君士坦丁堡第一次大公会议(381年)通过的文本为基础,以希腊文礼仪形式的 "尼卡亚-康斯坦丁堡的象征 "的文本为基础,不合时宜地拿着。
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png|The separation of the Eastern (blue) and Western (orange) Churches from 1054 onwards.
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png|从1054年起,东(蓝色)教会和西(橙色)教会的分离。
</gallery>  
</gallery>  


In 1054, Rome and Constantinople suffered the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism Great Schism], the Great Schism of the Eastern and Western Churches. In the 16th century, Protestantism made its appearance. In the meantime, some churches of the East will lend allegiance to Rome. While the religious diversity is surprising, Christians are, over the centuries, less and less numerous.
1054年,罗马和君士坦丁堡发生了东西方教会的大分裂,即东西方教会的大分裂。在16世纪,新教出现了。在此期间,东方的一些教会将效忠于罗马。虽然宗教的多样性令人惊讶,但几个世纪以来,基督徒的人数越来越少。


==Islam==
==伊斯兰教==
Islam knows a central person: Mohammed (570-632). He trades, knows the world and other religions. Aware of injustices, this explains the fundamental importance of justice in religion. As he receives God's guidance, it creates tensions with those close to him.
伊斯兰教知道一个中心人物。穆罕默德(570-632)。他的交易,了解世界和其他宗教。意识到不公正,这说明了正义在宗教中的根本重要性。当他接受上帝的指导时,这使他与亲近的人产生了矛盾。


In June 622, he left Mecca to go to Medina. While he succeeded in his journey and gathered the world around him, he died in 632, leaving no successor. At this point the question arises as to who will guide the Ummah. From this division emerge the Sunnites (Sunna = tradition) and the Shiites (Bei "t" = from home). The successor is the Caliph, who will give birth to the Caliphate (the Muslim empire). This debate was agreed upon and the period of the elected caliphs began in 632-661.
622年6月,他离开麦加,前往麦地那。虽然他成功地完成了他的旅程,并聚集了周围的世界,但他于632年去世,没有留下后人。在这一点上,出现的问题是谁将指导乌玛的问题。从这个划分出现了Sunnites(Sunna =传统)和什叶派(Bei "t"=从家里)。继任者是哈里发,他将诞生哈里发(穆斯林帝国)。这一争论达成一致,从632-661年开始,开始了当选哈里发的时期。


In 641-42 the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Nahavand Battle of Nehavend] (Ouradisia) between the Muslim Arabs and the Sassanid Empire took place. The Arabs were victorious and were able to conquer the Medie (north-western Iran) and spread Islam in Persia, while King Yazdgard III fled to the south of his empire. This battle is known by Muslims as "the victory of victories".
641-642年,穆斯林阿拉伯人与萨珊帝国之间发生了尼哈文德(乌拉迪西亚)之战。阿拉伯人取得了胜利,征服了麦地(伊朗西北部),并在波斯传播伊斯兰教,而国王亚兹加德三世则逃往帝国南部。这场战役被穆斯林称为 "胜利的胜利"


The Shiites are supporters of Ali (~600-661), cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, while the Sunnis favour a suitably appointed successor, Muawiya (602-680). The Battle of Siffin in 657 pitted the two sides against each other, without naming victors. Ali accepts arbitration, which creates a new branch: some of his supporters criticize him for his decision and thus form the Kharijites. Ali is killed, the Kharijites are accused and disperse. Muawiya argues that the succession to the Caliph will be hereditary after him and will repress Ali's family. His son, Yazid, always comes back as the villain in the Shiite world. Yazid goes after Ali's son, Husayn.[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Omeyyade.png|vignette|centré]]
什叶派支持阿里(约600-661),他是先知的堂弟和女婿,逊尼派则拥护穆阿维耶(602-680)的合适继任者。657年的西芬之战使双方对峙,没有指定胜利者。阿里接受仲裁,产生了一个新的分支:他的一些支持者批评他的决定,从而形成了哈里发派。阿里被杀,哈里发派被指责,四散而去。穆阿维雅认为哈里发的继承权在他之后将是世袭的,要镇压阿里的家族。他的儿子亚齐德总是以什叶派世界的小人的身份回来。亚齐德去追杀阿里的儿子侯赛因。[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Omeyyade.png|vignette|centré]]


In Kerbala (Iraq), in 680, a battle between the two branches takes place, Husayn and his relatives are going to be decimated. The dynasty founded by Muawiya lasts until 750, a caliphate called Umayyad, settled in Damascus.
680年,在Kerbala(伊拉克),两个分支之间发生了一场战役,胡赛因和他的亲属将被灭亡。穆阿维耶建立的王朝一直持续到750年,一个叫乌玛雅德的哈里发王朝,定居在大马士革。


[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Abbasside.png|vignette|centré]]
[[Fichier:MOMCENC - Califat Abbasside.png|vignette|centré]]


A revolt overthrew him to establish the Abbasid dynasty, representing the golden age of Islam (culture, law, science,...). The decline begins at the beginning of the Crusades, around 1090 until 1291. From 1250 onwards, in parallel, the Mongol invasions begin which weaken it on the other side. In 1258, the Abbasid Caliphate collapses, caught between two fronts: the Crusades in the west and the Mongol invasions in the east.
起义推翻了他,建立了阿巴斯王朝,代表着伊斯兰教的黄金时代(文化、法律、科学......)。衰落始于十字军东征之初,大约在1090年左右,直到1291年。从1250年起,蒙古人的入侵开始削弱了伊斯兰教的力量。1258年,阿巴斯哈里发王朝崩溃,陷入两条战线之间:西边的十字军东征和东边的蒙古入侵。


Between 1258 and 1500, the Muslim world remains very fragile between the Crusades and the Mongols. The creation of the Ottoman Empire and the Sefevid Empire (1501-1736) were to stabilize it.[[Fichier:MOMCENC - the gunpowder empires.png|vignette|centré]]
从1258年到1500年,穆斯林世界在十字军东征和蒙古人的夹击中依然十分脆弱。奥斯曼帝国的建立和塞菲维德帝国(1501-1736年)的建立是为了稳定它。[[Fichier:MOMCENC - the gunpowder empires.png|vignette|centré]]
   
   
1517 marks the capture of Cairo by the Ottomans, claiming the title of Caliphate, which they will transfer to Istanbul. But at the end of the 19th century, although the empire was in decline, it retained the lexicon of the caliphate, devoid of any political connotation, but retaining its religious value. In 1924, Mustafa Kemal repealed the caliphate. Between 2014 and 2019, Abu Bakhr Al-Bagdadi proclaimed himself Caliph (Daesh).
1517年,奥斯曼人攻占开罗,宣称哈里发国的头衔,他们将把哈里发传给伊斯坦布尔。但到了19世纪末,帝国虽然衰落,但仍保留了哈里发的词条,没有任何政治内涵,但保留了其宗教价值。1924年,穆斯塔法-凯末尔废除了哈里发王朝。2014年至2019年,阿布-巴克尔-巴格达迪自称哈里发(Daesh)。


Muslims make a separation both temporal and spatial. On the one hand, Jahiliya, a period of ignorance of Muslim customs - which characterized Arabia before the 7th century - and today. On the spatial level, Dar al Islam (country of Islam) and Dar al Harb (country of war). There is also a difference between people: those of the book (Al-Kithab), adhering to monotheistic religions and invited to adhere to Islam, and others (who disappear). The Muslim ruler undertakes to protect the adherents - Dhimmis, non-Muslim citizens - while believers of other religions will be subject to a tax.
穆斯林在时间上和空间上做了分离。一方面,Jahiliya,一个对穆斯林风俗的无知时期--7世纪以前的阿拉伯的特点--和今天的阿拉伯。在空间层面上,是伊斯兰国(Dar al Islam)和战争国(Dar al Harb)。人与人之间也有区别:信奉一神教的人(Al-Kithab),信奉一神教并被邀请信奉伊斯兰教的人,和其他的人(消失的人)。穆斯林统治者承诺保护信奉者--达米斯人,即非穆斯林公民,而信奉其他宗教的人则要交税。


The status of the people of the book does not aim at equality, but at tolerance.
书中人的地位不是以平等为目的,而是以宽容为目的。


==Sunnism and Shiism==
==Sunnism and Shiism==

Version du 11 mai 2020 à 22:47


语言

A language map of the Middle East (Izady).png

该地区的特点是多样性,特别是在语言方面。有三个主要的语系:

  • 乌拉尔-阿尔泰语:俄罗斯地区,阿塞拜疆语,土耳其语,.....
  • 印欧语:波斯语,库尔德语,亚美尼亚语,.....
  • 闪米特语或闪米特语。阿拉伯语、希伯来语、阿拉木图语、亚述语、.....

与其他地方一样,有许多方言。在中东地区也有大约20种少数民族语言。例如,在土耳其国内,土耳其语变化很大。阿拉伯语、库尔德语、亚美尼亚语也是如此。人口运动以及宗教的影响,有力地传播了不同的语言。此后,民族国家在其领土上和人口中建立了一种或多种官方语言。强加一种国家语言的影响既推动了民族主义,也推动了其他方言的消失,但同时也有利于这些 "被禁止的 "语言。

宗教信仰

从广义上讲,中东包括安纳托利亚、埃及和美索不达米亚。它也是三大一神教或启示宗教的发源地。基督教、伊斯兰教和犹太教。这个地区还诞生了拜火教,它将人生的意义概括为善与恶的永恒斗争。

犹太教

在故事中,亚伯拉罕与耶和华立约,应许他有应许之地。他有一个妻子撒拉和一个奴隶哈加。他有两个孩子。撒拉的儿子以撒,犹太人的祖先;哈加的儿子以实玛利,穆斯林的祖先。以撒的儿子雅各,将创造以色列的十二支派,组成希伯来人。他们将在埃及定居,但会被奴役。这时,摩西进入了,想把他们带回应许之地迦南,也就是应许之地。在西奈,上帝给了他托拉书,律法.....

在公元前13世纪,希伯来人回到巴勒斯坦。国王所罗门要在那里建造圣殿,将传给摩西的律法存放在那里。这也是先知们的时期。公元前722年,第一次灾难是以色列被亚述人毁灭,希伯来人被驱逐到美索不达米亚。拉比们将《托拉书》的注释,即《米示拿书》,他们将对《托拉书》的注释进行完善,这将与《托拉书》、《塔木德》一起成为《塔木德》。

第二次灾难发生在公元前586年,美索不达米亚人摧毁了南方王国和圣殿。从公元前-332年开始,这块领土被罗马人统治,罗马人将摧毁重建的圣殿,驱逐犹太人。从此以后,犹太人将分散在世界各地("散居 "一词的词源)。需要注意的是,希伯来人代表的是人民,而犹太人主要是根据他们的宗教来考虑。

阿什肯纳西族犹太人在欧洲定居,产生了希伯来语和德语(意第绪语)的混合语言,而西班牙的犹太人创造了拉迪诺语。对此,我们必须加上宗教的特点(正统、温和...........)。

基督教

对于基督教来说,先知是耶稣,他出生在伯利恒,在耶路撒冷被钉在十字架上。到了4世纪,宗教成为罗马帝国的宗教。为了不因政治原因而与罗马人联系在一起,一些基督徒脱离了帝国和与之相伴的宗教。最大的争论集中在耶稣的性质上:他是人吗?是神的儿子吗?

尼西亚大公会议在325年决定,耶稣是与天父同体的事实产生而不是被创造的。这将导致东方和西方的几个教会的建立(一个人的两个性质:神性和人的两个性质)。这些教会也将接受皇帝的版本,或者拒绝(雅各派)。

1054年,罗马和君士坦丁堡发生了东西方教会的大分裂,即东西方教会的大分裂。在16世纪,新教出现了。在此期间,东方的一些教会将效忠于罗马。虽然宗教的多样性令人惊讶,但几个世纪以来,基督徒的人数越来越少。

伊斯兰教

伊斯兰教知道一个中心人物。穆罕默德(570-632)。他的交易,了解世界和其他宗教。意识到不公正,这说明了正义在宗教中的根本重要性。当他接受上帝的指导时,这使他与亲近的人产生了矛盾。

622年6月,他离开麦加,前往麦地那。虽然他成功地完成了他的旅程,并聚集了周围的世界,但他于632年去世,没有留下后人。在这一点上,出现的问题是谁将指导乌玛的问题。从这个划分出现了Sunnites(Sunna =传统)和什叶派(Bei "t"=从家里)。继任者是哈里发,他将诞生哈里发(穆斯林帝国)。这一争论达成一致,从632-661年开始,开始了当选哈里发的时期。

641-642年,穆斯林阿拉伯人与萨珊帝国之间发生了尼哈文德(乌拉迪西亚)之战。阿拉伯人取得了胜利,征服了麦地(伊朗西北部),并在波斯传播伊斯兰教,而国王亚兹加德三世则逃往帝国南部。这场战役被穆斯林称为 "胜利的胜利"。

什叶派支持阿里(约600-661),他是先知的堂弟和女婿,逊尼派则拥护穆阿维耶(602-680)的合适继任者。657年的西芬之战使双方对峙,没有指定胜利者。阿里接受仲裁,产生了一个新的分支:他的一些支持者批评他的决定,从而形成了哈里发派。阿里被杀,哈里发派被指责,四散而去。穆阿维雅认为哈里发的继承权在他之后将是世袭的,要镇压阿里的家族。他的儿子亚齐德总是以什叶派世界的小人的身份回来。亚齐德去追杀阿里的儿子侯赛因。

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680年,在Kerbala(伊拉克),两个分支之间发生了一场战役,胡赛因和他的亲属将被灭亡。穆阿维耶建立的王朝一直持续到750年,一个叫乌玛雅德的哈里发王朝,定居在大马士革。

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起义推翻了他,建立了阿巴斯王朝,代表着伊斯兰教的黄金时代(文化、法律、科学......)。衰落始于十字军东征之初,大约在1090年左右,直到1291年。从1250年起,蒙古人的入侵开始削弱了伊斯兰教的力量。1258年,阿巴斯哈里发王朝崩溃,陷入两条战线之间:西边的十字军东征和东边的蒙古入侵。

从1258年到1500年,穆斯林世界在十字军东征和蒙古人的夹击中依然十分脆弱。奥斯曼帝国的建立和塞菲维德帝国(1501-1736年)的建立是为了稳定它。

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1517年,奥斯曼人攻占开罗,宣称哈里发国的头衔,他们将把哈里发传给伊斯坦布尔。但到了19世纪末,帝国虽然衰落,但仍保留了哈里发的词条,没有任何政治内涵,但保留了其宗教价值。1924年,穆斯塔法-凯末尔废除了哈里发王朝。2014年至2019年,阿布-巴克尔-巴格达迪自称哈里发(Daesh)。

穆斯林在时间上和空间上做了分离。一方面,Jahiliya,一个对穆斯林风俗的无知时期--7世纪以前的阿拉伯的特点--和今天的阿拉伯。在空间层面上,是伊斯兰国(Dar al Islam)和战争国(Dar al Harb)。人与人之间也有区别:信奉一神教的人(Al-Kithab),信奉一神教并被邀请信奉伊斯兰教的人,和其他的人(消失的人)。穆斯林统治者承诺保护信奉者--达米斯人,即非穆斯林公民,而信奉其他宗教的人则要交税。

书中人的地位不是以平等为目的,而是以宽容为目的。

Sunnism and Shiism

For the Shiites, the power was illegitimately appropriated. They will forge a culture of martyrdom. It is in this context that the Imams (descendants of the Prophet according to a bloodline), who are supposed to guide the Ummah, appear. The purpose of this hierarchy is to promote the Qur'an and its interpretations to the community. On the Sunni side, the idea that there is an intermediate authority between God and the believer is rejected.

Thus, for the Shiites, the religious is very important. The Zaydites (Yemenis) do not recognize the 6th Imam while the Ismailis reach the 7th Imam before considering the next one as illegitimate. The 12th Imam, after having disappeared (occulted in 941), reappeared in the Shiite world: this gave birth to a new ideology, duodecimal Shiism (90% of the current Shiites).

Sunni Islam also knows divisions, which are called Madhab (schools). There are 4 of them: Hanafite, Shafeite, Malekite, Hanbalite. Scholars had to provide an interpretation (jurisprudence) of the Koran, which led to these different branches. The practice of the Prophet influences the interpretation of the Qur'an.

There are other groups in the Middle East: Alawites in Syria, Qizilbash, Druze (Lebanon, Israel,...), Alevis (Turkey). They are syncretic, and therefore result from the fusion of different cults (or heterodox). They can be considered as the sub-branches of Shiism. In all cases, the dimension of the trinity between Muhammad, Allah and Ali is very present.

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