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Basé sur un cours de Victor Monnier<ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/collaborateur/profshonoraires/victor-monnier/ Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE]</ref><ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/collaborateur/profshonoraires/victor-monnier/publications/ Publications du professeur Victor Monnier]</ref><ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/actus/archives/2019/hommage-victor-monnier/ Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE]</ref>
Based on a course by Victor Monnier<ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/collaborateur/profshonoraires/victor-monnier/ Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE]</ref><ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/collaborateur/profshonoraires/victor-monnier/publications/ Publications du professeur Victor Monnier]</ref><ref>[https://www.unige.ch/droit/actus/archives/2019/hommage-victor-monnier/ Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE]</ref>


{{Translations
{{Translations
| en = Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century
| fr = Les déclarations des droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle
| es = Las declaraciones de derechos a finales del siglo XVIII
| es = Las declaraciones de derechos a finales del siglo XVIII
| it = Dichiarazioni dei diritti alla fine del Settecento
| it = Dichiarazioni dei diritti alla fine del Settecento
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|[[Introduction au droit]]
|[[Introduction to law]]
|[[Introduction au Droit : Concepts et Définitions Clés]] ● [[L’État : Fonctions, Structures et Régimes Politiques]] ● [[Les différentes branches du droit]] ● [[Les sources du droit]] ● [[Les grandes traditions formatrices du droit]] ● [[Les éléments de la relation juridique]] ● [[L’application du droit]] ● [[La mise en œuvre d’une loi]] ● [[L’évolution de la Suisse des origines au XXème siècle]] ● [[Le cadre juridique interne de la Suisse]] ● [[La structure d’État, le régime politique et la neutralité  de la Suisse]] ● [[L’évolution des relations internationales de la fin du XIXe au milieu du XXe siècle]] ● [[Les organisations universelles]] ● [[Les organisations européennes et leurs relations avec la Suisse]] ● [[Les catégories et les générations de droits fondamentaux]] ● [[Les origines des droits fondamentaux]] ● [[Les déclarations des droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle]] ● [[Vers l’édification d’une conception universelle des droits fondamentaux au XXe siècle]]
|[[Introduction to the Law : Key Concepts and Definitions]] ● [[The State: Functions, Structures and Political Regimes]] ● [[The different branches of law]] ● [[The sources of law]] ● [[The great formative traditions of law]] ● [[The elements of the legal relationship]] ● [[The application of law]] ● [[The implementation of a law]] ● [[The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century]] ● [[Switzerland's domestic legal framework]] ● [[Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality]] ● [[The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century]] ● [[The universal organizations]] ● [[European organisations and their relations with Switzerland]] ● [[Categories and generations of fundamental rights]] ● [[The origins of fundamental rights]] ● [[Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century]] ● [[Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century]]
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Les déclarations des droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle, comme la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen en France (1789) et la Bill of Rights aux États-Unis (1791), marquent des points culminants dans l'histoire des droits fondamentaux. Cependant, les origines de ces droits remontent bien avant le XVIIIème siècle.
The declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France (1789) and the Bill of Rights in the United States (1791), mark high points in the history of fundamental rights. However, the origins of these rights go back well before the 18th century.


Les droits fondamentaux, souvent considérés comme des principes inhérents à la dignité humaine, ont évolué au fil de l'histoire. Des documents antérieurs au XVIIIe siècle, comme la Magna Carta en Angleterre (1215), ont jeté les bases de ces droits en limitant le pouvoir des monarques et en reconnaissant certains droits pour les nobles et, par extension, pour le peuple. Au Moyen Âge et à la Renaissance, des philosophes et juristes ont commencé à conceptualiser des idées qui influenceraient plus tard les déclarations des droits. Par exemple, les concepts de libertés individuelles et de justice équitable étaient déjà discutés et intégrés dans diverses législations et pratiques politiques. Les Lumières, un mouvement intellectuel du XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, ont joué un rôle crucial dans le développement des droits fondamentaux. Des philosophes comme John Locke, Montesquieu et Jean-Jacques Rousseau ont développé des théories sur les droits naturels, le contrat social et la séparation des pouvoirs, qui ont grandement influencé les rédacteurs des déclarations des droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle. Bien que les déclarations de droits de la fin du XVIIIe siècle soient des jalons importants, elles sont l'aboutissement d'un long processus historique et intellectuel qui a commencé bien avant le XVIIIème siècle.
Fundamental rights, often regarded as principles inherent in human dignity, have evolved over the course of history. Documents predating the 18th century, such as England's Magna Carta (1215), laid the foundations for these rights by limiting the power of monarchs and recognising certain rights for nobles and, by extension, for the people. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, philosophers and jurists began to conceptualise ideas that would later influence the declarations of rights. For example, the concepts of individual liberties and equitable justice were already being discussed and incorporated into various laws and political practices. The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries, played a crucial role in the development of fundamental rights. Philosophers such as John Locke, Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau developed theories on natural rights, the social contract and the separation of powers, which greatly influenced the drafters of the declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century. Although the declarations of rights of the late eighteenth century are important milestones, they are the culmination of a long historical and intellectual process that began long before the eighteenth century.


= Les déclarations américaines des droits : 1776 – 1783 =
= The American Bill of Rights: 1776 - 1783 =


Lorsque les Treize colonies américaines ont déclaré leur indépendance du Royaume de Grande-Bretagne le 4 juillet 1776, elles ont effectivement rompu leurs liens avec le roi George III et ont établi une nouvelle nation : les États-Unis d'Amérique. Cette déclaration d'indépendance marquait un tournant historique, non seulement dans l'histoire des colonies, mais aussi dans le développement des idées de souveraineté et de gouvernance démocratique dans le monde.   
When the Thirteen American Colonies declared their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain on 4 July 1776, they effectively severed their ties with King George III and established a new nation: the United States of America. This declaration of independence marked a historic turning point, not only in the history of the colonies, but also in the development of ideas of sovereignty and democratic governance around the world.   


Avant la déclaration, ces colonies étaient sous la souveraineté britannique, gouvernées par des lois et des politiques édictées par le parlement britannique et le roi. La rupture avec la Grande-Bretagne a été motivée par diverses raisons, notamment des griefs économiques, comme les taxes imposées sans représentation parlementaire (« No taxation without representation »), et un désir croissant d'autonomie et de gouvernance auto-déterminée. Après la déclaration d'indépendance, les Treize colonies, maintenant des États, ont formé une structure confédérale comme mode initial de gouvernement. Cette structure était caractérisée par une alliance souple entre les États, chacun conservant une grande partie de sa souveraineté et de son indépendance. La confédération était régie par les Articles de la Confédération, un document qui établissait une union permanente des États mais qui accordait peu de pouvoirs centraux à un gouvernement fédéral. Cette période de confédération a révélé plusieurs faiblesses dans la structure gouvernementale, notamment en termes de capacité à lever des impôts, à réguler le commerce et à maintenir l'ordre. Ces problèmes ont finalement conduit à l'élaboration et à la ratification de la Constitution des États-Unis en 1787, qui a établi un système fédéral plus fort avec un équilibre entre les pouvoirs du gouvernement central et ceux des États.  
Prior to the Declaration, these colonies were under British sovereignty, governed by laws and policies enacted by the British Parliament and the King. The break with Britain was motivated by a variety of reasons, including economic grievances, such as taxes imposed without parliamentary representation ("No taxation without representation"), and a growing desire for autonomy and self-determined governance. After the declaration of independence, the Thirteen Colonies, now States, formed a confederal structure as their initial form of government. This structure was characterised by a loose alliance between the States, each retaining a large measure of sovereignty and independence. Confederation was governed by the Articles of Confederation, a document that established a permanent union of the states but granted few central powers to a federal government. This period of confederation revealed several weaknesses in the governmental structure, particularly in terms of its ability to levy taxes, regulate trade and maintain order. These problems eventually led to the drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution in 1787, which established a stronger federal system with a balance between the powers of the central government and those of the states.


À la suite de la Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis en 1776, les Treize colonies, désormais transformées en États souverains, entreprirent la rédaction de leurs propres constitutions. Ce mouvement marquait une rupture radicale avec les systèmes monarchiques européens, en s'appuyant sur le principe de la souveraineté populaire. Cette approche était révolutionnaire, plaçant le pouvoir et la légitimité du gouvernement directement entre les mains du peuple, et non plus dans celles d'un monarque.
Following the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, now transformed into sovereign states, began drafting their own constitutions. This movement marked a radical break with European monarchical systems, based on the principle of popular sovereignty. This approach was revolutionary, placing the power and legitimacy of government directly in the hands of the people, rather than in those of a monarch.


Les constitutions de ces nouveaux États américains étaient diverses dans leur contenu, mais partageaient un engagement commun envers les droits naturels et inaliénables de l'homme. Huit de ces États, notamment la Virginie avec sa Déclaration des droits de 1776 rédigée par George Mason, ont franchi une étape supplémentaire en incorporant une déclaration des droits au début de leurs constitutions. Ces déclarations étaient profondément influencées par les idées des Lumières et par des philosophes comme John Locke, qui avait mis en avant les concepts de droit à la vie, à la liberté et à la propriété. Ces déclarations de droits avaient plusieurs fonctions essentielles. Premièrement, elles reconnaissaient explicitement l'existence des droits naturels essentiels, tels que la liberté d'expression et de religion, et le droit à un procès équitable. Par exemple, la Déclaration des droits de la Virginie affirmait ces droits en détaillant explicitement les libertés que le gouvernement ne pouvait pas enfreindre. Deuxièmement, en énumérant ces droits, elles visaient à limiter le pouvoir du gouvernement, assurant ainsi une protection contre les abus de pouvoir et l'autoritarisme. Enfin, elles affirmaient le principe démocratique selon lequel le gouvernement est créé pour servir le peuple et tire sa légitimité de la volonté populaire. Ces déclarations ont eu un impact considérable sur l'histoire des droits de l'homme. Elles ont non seulement façonné la gouvernance et les politiques des nouveaux États américains, mais ont également influencé la rédaction du Bill of Rights, les dix premiers amendements à la Constitution des États-Unis, ratifiés en 1791. Ces documents historiques ont jeté les bases des droits civiques et continuent d'influencer les débats contemporains sur la liberté et la justice dans le monde.
The constitutions of these new American states were diverse in content, but shared a common commitment to the natural and inalienable rights of man. Eight of these states, including Virginia with its 1776 Bill of Rights drafted by George Mason, went a step further by incorporating a Bill of Rights at the beginning of their constitutions. These declarations were deeply influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and philosophers such as John Locke, who had put forward the concepts of the right to life, liberty and property. These declarations of rights had several essential functions. Firstly, they explicitly recognised the existence of essential natural rights, such as freedom of speech and religion, and the right to a fair trial. For example, the Virginia Bill of Rights affirmed these rights by explicitly detailing the freedoms that the government could not infringe. Second, by enumerating these rights, they sought to limit the power of government, thereby providing protection against abuses of power and authoritarianism. Finally, they affirmed the democratic principle that government is created to serve the people and derives its legitimacy from the will of the people. These declarations have had a considerable impact on the history of human rights. They not only shaped the governance and policies of the new American states, but also influenced the drafting of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution, ratified in 1791. These historic documents laid the foundations for civil rights and continue to influence contemporary debates about freedom and justice around the world.


La Déclaration des droits de Virginie, adoptée en juin 1776, est effectivement la première déclaration formelle des droits dans le Nouveau Monde. Cependant, il est important de clarifier le rôle de Thomas Jefferson dans ce contexte. Bien que Jefferson soit largement reconnu pour avoir rédigé la Déclaration d'indépendance des États-Unis, adoptée le 4 juillet 1776, c'est en fait George Mason qui a été le principal auteur de la Déclaration des droits de Virginie. La Déclaration des droits de Virginie a eu une influence significative sur la Déclaration d'indépendance et d'autres documents fondamentaux. Le texte de Mason énonçait des principes de libertés individuelles et de droits de l'homme, tels que la liberté de parole, de presse, de religion, et le droit à un procès équitable. Ces idées ont résonné avec les principes énoncés dans la Déclaration d'indépendance, qui articulait les idéaux de liberté et d'autonomie contre l'oppression britannique.
The Virginia Declaration of Rights, adopted in June 1776, is effectively the first formal bill of rights in the New World. However, it is important to clarify the role of Thomas Jefferson in this context. Although Jefferson is widely credited with drafting the United States Declaration of Independence, adopted on 4 July 1776, it was in fact George Mason who was the principal author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. The Virginia Declaration of Rights had a significant influence on the Declaration of Independence and other fundamental documents. Mason's text set out principles of individual liberties and human rights, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and the right to a fair trial. These ideas resonated with the principles set out in the Declaration of Independence, which articulated the ideals of liberty and self-government against British oppression.


Jefferson, lors de la rédaction de la Déclaration d'indépendance, s'est inspiré de ces concepts, ainsi que des idées des philosophes des Lumières, pour justifier la séparation des colonies d'avec la Grande-Bretagne. Le lien entre ces deux documents est un témoignage de l'atmosphère intellectuelle et politique de l'époque, où les idées de droits naturels et de gouvernement démocratique étaient de plus en plus acceptées. La Déclaration des droits de Virginie a également servi de modèle pour les futures déclarations des droits au sein des États-Unis, et a influencé le développement du Bill of Rights, les dix premiers amendements à la Constitution des États-Unis. Son impact sur la fondation des États-Unis et sur l'évolution des droits de l'homme dans le monde occidental est donc indéniable.
Jefferson, in drafting the Declaration of Independence, drew on these concepts, as well as the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophers, to justify the separation of the colonies from Britain. The link between these two documents is a testament to the intellectual and political atmosphere of the time, when the ideas of natural rights and democratic government were becoming increasingly accepted. The Virginia Declaration of Rights also served as a model for future bills of rights within the United States, and influenced the development of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution. Its impact on the founding of the United States and on the development of human rights in the Western world is therefore undeniable.


En 1787, les États-Unis d'Amérique adoptèrent la Constitution des États-Unis, un document fondateur qui établissait le cadre du gouvernement fédéral du pays. Cette Constitution, rédigée lors de la Convention de Philadelphie, marquait une transition significative de la structure confédérale précédente, sous les Articles de la Confédération, vers un système fédéral plus fort et plus centralisé. L'influence de la Déclaration des droits de Virginie sur la Constitution des États-Unis, en particulier sur les premiers amendements, est une facette importante de l'histoire constitutionnelle américaine. Bien que la Constitution originale de 1787 ne contienne pas de déclaration des droits, l'exigence de protections explicites des droits individuels était un sujet de préoccupation majeur pour de nombreux délégués et citoyens.
In 1787, the United States of America adopted the Constitution of the United States, a founding document that established the framework for the country's federal government. The Constitution, drafted at the Philadelphia Convention, marked a significant transition from the previous confederal structure under the Articles of Confederation to a stronger, more centralised federal system. The influence of the Virginia Bill of Rights on the US Constitution, particularly the First Amendments, is an important facet of American constitutional history. Although the original Constitution of 1787 did not contain a Bill of Rights, the requirement for explicit protections of individual rights was a major concern for many delegates and citizens.


Cette préoccupation découlait en partie de l'influence de documents tels que la Déclaration des droits de Virginie. Les principes énoncés dans la déclaration de Virginie, tels que la liberté d'expression, la liberté de religion, et le droit à un procès équitable, étaient considérés comme essentiels à la protection des citoyens contre un gouvernement central trop puissant. C'est pourquoi, après la ratification de la Constitution, un des premiers actes du premier Congrès des États-Unis fut de proposer une série d'amendements qui garantiraient ces droits. Ces amendements, connus collectivement sous le nom de Bill of Rights, ont été fortement influencés par la Déclaration des droits de Virginie et par les idées de George Mason. Ils ont été proposés par James Madison en 1789 et ratifiés en 1791, devenant ainsi les dix premiers amendements à la Constitution. Le Bill of Rights garantit de nombreuses libertés civiles et limite les pouvoirs du gouvernement fédéral, reflétant ainsi les préoccupations et les idéaux qui avaient été exprimés dans la Déclaration des droits de Virginie quelques années plus tôt.
This concern stemmed in part from the influence of documents such as the Virginia Declaration of Rights. The principles set out in the Virginia Declaration, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial, were seen as essential to protecting citizens from an overly powerful central government. This is why, after the ratification of the Constitution, one of the first acts of the first United States Congress was to propose a series of amendments that would guarantee these rights. These amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were heavily influenced by the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the ideas of George Mason. They were proposed by James Madison in 1789 and ratified in 1791, becoming the first ten amendments to the Constitution. The Bill of Rights guaranteed many civil liberties and limited the powers of the federal government, reflecting the concerns and ideals that had been expressed in the Virginia Bill of Rights a few years earlier.


= Les déclarations françaises des droits : 1789 – 1795 =
= French declarations of rights: 1789 - 1795 =
[[Fichier:Le_Barbier_Dichiarazione_dei_diritti_dell'uomo.jpg|thumb|200px|Le Barbier Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo]]
[[Fichier:Le_Barbier_Dichiarazione_dei_diritti_dell'uomo.jpg|thumb|200px|Le Barbier Declaration of Human Rights]]
Entre 1789 et 1804, une période marquée par la Révolution française et ses conséquences, la France a connu une succession rapide de constitutions, chacune incorporant une déclaration des droits. Cette époque de transformation politique intense reflétait les idéaux révolutionnaires de liberté, d'égalité et de fraternité, et la volonté de rompre avec l'ancien régime monarchique.
Between 1789 and 1804, a period marked by the French Revolution and its aftermath, France experienced a rapid succession of constitutions, each incorporating a declaration of rights. This period of intense political transformation reflected the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity, and the desire to break with the old monarchical regime.


La première de ces constitutions, adoptée en 1791, s'appuyait fortement sur la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, proclamée en 1789. Cette déclaration, influente et révolutionnaire, énonçait des principes universels de droits individuels et de souveraineté populaire. Elle a été fortement influencée non seulement par les philosophes des Lumières comme Jean-Jacques Rousseau et Montesquieu, mais aussi par les exemples des déclarations de droits américaines. En effet, les constituants français étaient bien conscients des développements constitutionnels aux États-Unis. Les déclarations des droits des différentes constitutions des États américains, ainsi que la Déclaration d'indépendance de 1776, étaient des références importantes. Elles ont servi de modèles pour l'élaboration des principes de droits et de gouvernance dans les documents constitutionnels français.
The first of these constitutions, adopted in 1791, drew heavily on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed in 1789. This influential and revolutionary declaration set out universal principles of individual rights and popular sovereignty. It was strongly influenced not only by Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu, but also by the examples of American bills of rights. Indeed, the French constitution-makers were well aware of constitutional developments in the United States. The declarations of rights in the various constitutions of the American states, as well as the Declaration of Independence of 1776, were important references. They served as models for the development of principles of rights and governance in French constitutional documents.


Pendant cette période, chaque nouvelle constitution française tentait de répondre aux défis politiques et sociaux changeants. Par exemple, la Constitution de l'an III (1795), adoptée pendant la période du Directoire, et celle de l'an VIII (1799), qui a marqué le début du Consulat sous Napoléon Bonaparte, ont toutes deux inclus des déclarations de droits, bien que leurs applications pratiques aient varié en fonction des réalités politiques de l'époque. Cette série de constitutions en France, avec leurs déclarations de droits, démontre comment les idéaux de la Révolution française ont évolué et ont été mis en pratique de différentes manières. En même temps, l'influence transatlantique des développements constitutionnels américains sur la France de cette époque est un exemple précoce de l'interconnexion des idées révolutionnaires et des droits de l'homme à travers le monde.
During this period, each new French constitution attempted to respond to changing political and social challenges. For example, the Constitution of Year III (1795), adopted during the Directoire period, and that of Year VIII (1799), which marked the beginning of the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte, both included declarations of rights, although their practical application varied according to the political realities of the time. This series of constitutions in France, with their declarations of rights, demonstrates how the ideals of the French Revolution evolved and were put into practice in different ways. At the same time, the transatlantic influence of American constitutional developments on France at the time is an early example of the interconnectedness of revolutionary ideas and human rights across the world.


En 1789, la France était en effet plongée dans une période de crise profonde, marquée par des troubles politiques, économiques et sociaux. Cette année est cruciale dans l'histoire de la France et représente le début de la Révolution française, un mouvement qui allait radicalement transformer la société française et influencer le monde entier. La crise était alimentée par divers facteurs, dont les difficultés économiques exacerbées par la participation de la France à la guerre d'indépendance américaine, la mauvaise gestion financière de la monarchie, les récoltes médiocres entraînant une augmentation du prix du pain, et le mécontentement général envers un système féodal rigide et inégalitaire. Dans ce contexte, le 17 juin 1789, les députés du Tiers-État, rejoints par certains membres du clergé et de la noblesse, se sont proclamés Assemblée nationale constituante, affirmant leur intention de rédiger une nouvelle constitution pour la France. Cette action était en soi révolutionnaire, car elle défiait l'autorité absolue du roi Louis XVI et revendiquait le pouvoir de gouverner au nom du peuple.
In 1789, France was plunged into a period of deep crisis, marked by political, economic and social turmoil. It was a pivotal year in French history, marking the beginning of the French Revolution, a movement that would radically transform French society and influence the whole world. The crisis was fuelled by a variety of factors, including economic difficulties exacerbated by France's involvement in the American War of Independence, financial mismanagement by the monarchy, poor harvests leading to higher bread prices, and general dissatisfaction with a rigid and unequal feudal system. Against this backdrop, on 17 June 1789, deputies from the Third Estate, joined by some members of the clergy and nobility, proclaimed themselves the National Constituent Assembly, stating their intention to draft a new constitution for France. This action was revolutionary in itself, as it challenged the absolute authority of King Louis XVI and claimed the power to govern in the name of the people.


L'un des premiers et des plus importants actes de cette Assemblée constituante fut la rédaction de la Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen, adoptée le 26 août 1789. Cette déclaration établissait des principes fondamentaux qui allaient devenir les pierres angulaires de la Révolution française et des démocraties modernes. Elle proclamait des droits tels que la liberté, la propriété, la sécurité, la résistance à l'oppression, l'égalité devant la loi, et la liberté d'expression et de religion. La Déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen était fortement influencée par les idéaux des Lumières et par des documents tels que la Déclaration d'indépendance américaine et les déclarations des droits des États américains. Elle représentait une rupture radicale avec l'ordre ancien et établissait les principes d'un nouveau régime basé sur les droits et la souveraineté du peuple. Cette déclaration est devenue un document emblématique de la Révolution française et a eu un impact durable sur le développement des droits de l'homme et des démocraties libérales à travers le monde.
One of the first and most important acts of this Constituent Assembly was the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted on 26 August 1789. This declaration established the fundamental principles that were to become the cornerstones of the French Revolution and modern democracies. It proclaimed rights such as liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, equality before the law, and freedom of speech and religion. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was strongly influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment and by documents such as the American Declaration of Independence and the Declarations of Rights of the American States. It represented a radical break with the old order and established the principles of a new regime based on the rights and sovereignty of the people. The Declaration became an emblematic document of the French Revolution and had a lasting impact on the development of human rights and liberal democracies around the world.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789, adoptée dans le contexte révolutionnaire français, représente un moment charnière dans l'histoire des droits humains et de la pensée politique. Cette déclaration, fortement influencée par les idées des Lumières ainsi que par des documents tels que la Déclaration de Virginie, a cherché à codifier les principes universels de liberté, d'égalité et de droits inaliénables de l'individu.  
The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the context of the French Revolution, represents a pivotal moment in the history of human rights and political thought. Strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and documents such as the Virginia Declaration, the Declaration sought to codify the universal principles of liberty, equality and the inalienable rights of the individual.


Les articles de la Déclaration, reflétant ces idées, sont profondément ancrés dans le contexte de l'époque. Par exemple, l'Article 1 stipule : « Les hommes naissent et demeurent libres et égaux en droits. Les distinctions sociales ne peuvent être fondées que sur l'utilité commune. » Cette affirmation d'égalité fondamentale et de liberté innée s'inscrit dans une réaction contre les structures féodales et les privilèges aristocratiques de l'Ancien Régime. L'Article 2, qui déclare : « Le but de toute association politique est la conservation des droits naturels et imprescriptibles de l'homme. Ces droits sont la liberté, la propriété, la sûreté et la résistance à l’oppression », échoit la philosophie de John Locke et d'autres penseurs des Lumières, soulignant le rôle du gouvernement comme protecteur des droits fondamentaux de l'individu. Quant à la liberté individuelle, l'Article 4 définit son étendue : « La liberté consiste à pouvoir faire tout ce qui ne nuit pas à autrui : ainsi l’exercice des droits naturels de chaque homme n’a de bornes que celles qui assurent aux autres membres de la société, la jouissance de ces mêmes droits. Ces bornes ne peuvent être déterminées que par la loi. » Ce concept de liberté, limitée par les droits d'autrui et encadrée par la loi, est un pilier de la théorie libérale moderne. L'Article 6, qui s'attaque à la notion de la loi et de la démocratie, stipule : « La loi est l’expression de la volonté générale. Tous les citoyens ont droit de concourir personnellement, ou par leurs représentants, à sa formation. Elle doit être la même pour tous, soit qu’elle protège, soit qu’elle punisse. Tous les citoyens étant égaux à ses yeux, sont également admissibles à toutes dignités, places et emplois publics, selon leur capacité, et sans autre distinction que celle de leurs vertus et de leurs talents. » Cet article met en lumière l'idée d'une société fondée sur l'égalité devant la loi et le droit de participation politique. L'Article 7 aborde le thème de la justice légale : « Nul homme ne peut être accusé, arrêté, ni détenu que dans les cas déterminés par la loi, et selon les formes qu’elle a prescrites. Ceux qui sollicitent, expédient, exécutent ou font exécuter des ordres arbitraires, doivent être punis ; mais tout citoyen appelé ou saisi en vertu de la loi doit obéir à l’instant : il se rend coupable par la résistance. » Cette protection contre les arrestations et détentions arbitraires était une réponse directe aux abus de l'Ancien Régime. Enfin, l'Article 11, qui déclare : « La libre communication des pensées et des opinions est un des droits les plus précieux de l’Homme : tout citoyen peut donc parler, écrire, imprimer librement, sauf à répondre de l’abus de cette liberté, dans les cas déterminés par la loi », et l'Article 17, qui affirme : « La propriété étant un droit inviolable et sacré, nul ne peut en être privé, si ce n’est lorsque la nécessité publique, légalement constatée, l’exige évidemment, et sous la condition d’une juste et préalable indemnité », illustrent l'importance accordée aux libertés civiles de parole, de presse et de propriété. Ces articles, intégrés dans la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, ont posé les fondements théoriques des régimes démocratiques modernes, influençant profond
The articles of the Declaration, reflecting these ideas, are deeply rooted in the context of the times. For example, Article 1 states: "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can only be based on the common good". This affirmation of fundamental equality and innate freedom was part of a reaction against the feudal structures and aristocratic privileges of the Ancien Régime. Article 2, which states: "The aim of every political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression", echoing the philosophy of John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers, emphasising the role of government as protector of the fundamental rights of the individual. As for individual freedom, Article 4 defines its scope: "Freedom consists in being able to do whatever does not harm others: thus the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits other than those which ensure the enjoyment of these same rights by the other members of society. These limits can only be determined by law". This concept of freedom, limited by the rights of others and governed by law, is a pillar of modern liberal theory. Article 6, which addresses the notion of law and democracy, states: "The law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to contribute personally, or through their representatives, to its formation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. As all citizens are equal in its eyes, they are equally eligible for all public dignities, positions and jobs, according to their ability, and without any distinction other than that of their virtues and talents". This article highlights the idea of a society based on equality before the law and the right to political participation. Article 7 addresses the issue of legal justice: "No one may be accused, arrested or detained except in the cases determined by law and according to the forms it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders must be punished; but any citizen summoned or seized by virtue of the law must obey immediately: he renders himself guilty by resisting". This protection against arbitrary arrest and detention was a direct response to the abuses of the Ancien Régime. Finally, Article 11, which states: "The free communication of thoughts and opinions is one of the most precious rights of Man: every citizen may therefore speak, write and print freely, without being held accountable for the abuse of this freedom, in the cases determined by the law", and Article 17, which states: "As property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one may be deprived of it, except when legally established public necessity obviously requires it, and subject to fair and prior compensation", illustrate the importance attached to the civil liberties of speech, press and property. These articles, which were incorporated into the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, laid the theoretical foundations of modern democratic regimes, having a profound influence on the development of democracy.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, proclamée en 1789 en pleine Réolution française, se présente comme un document historique fondamental, établissant des principes qui allaient redéfinir les notions de droits fondamentaux dans la société moderne. Réfléchissant l'esprit de l'époque et influencée par des philosophes des Lumières tels que Jean-Jacques Rousseau et John Locke, cette Déclaration a formulé des droits qui incarnent les aspirations profondes du peuple français face à l'oppression et à l'injustice.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed in 1789 at the height of the French Revolution, is a fundamental historical document, establishing principles that would redefine the notions of fundamental rights in modern society. Reflecting the spirit of the times and influenced by Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, this Declaration formulated rights that embodied the deep aspirations of the French people in the face of oppression and injustice.


La liberté, un pilier central de la Déclaration, est abordée dans plusieurs de ses articles. Elle est définie non seulement comme un droit intrinsèque de l'homme, mais aussi comme un principe qui doit être exercé dans le respect des droits d'autrui, marquant ainsi une transition des notions absolues de liberté vers une compréhension plus sociale et interdépendante de ce concept. En outre, la Déclaration reconnaît la sécurité comme un droit essentiel, garantissant la protection des individus contre les abus et les traitements arbitraires. Dans le contexte de l'époque, où les arrestations et emprisonnements sans motif légitime étaient monnaie courante, ce droit prenait une signification particulière, symbolisant un rejet des pratiques abusives de l'Ancien Régime. Le droit à la résistance à l'oppression est également affirmé, reflétant directement les circonstances révolutionnaires de 1789. Cette inclusion était révolutionnaire, car elle légitimait la révolte contre un gouvernement injuste, un concept qui était en contradiction directe avec les principes monarchiques de droit divin et d'obéissance absolue au souverain. La propriété, déclarée comme un droit inviolable et sacré, témoigne de l'importance accordée à la protection des biens personnels. Dans une société en pleine mutation où les droits féodaux étaient remis en question, la reconnaissance de la propriété comme un droit fondamental était un pas vers une organisation sociale et économique moderne. Enfin, la sûreté, entendue comme la protection contre des traitements injustes et arbitraires, est un droit fondamental énoncé dans la Déclaration. Il assure une protection juridique aux citoyens, garantissant que les actions gouvernementales soient basées sur des principes légaux et justes.
Liberty, a central pillar of the Declaration, is addressed in several of its articles. It is defined not only as an intrinsic human right, but also as a principle that must be exercised with respect for the rights of others, marking a transition from absolute notions of freedom to a more social and interdependent understanding of the concept. In addition, the Declaration recognises security as an essential right, guaranteeing the protection of individuals against abuse and arbitrary treatment. In the context of the time, when arrests and imprisonment without just cause were commonplace, this right took on particular significance, symbolising a rejection of the abusive practices of the Ancien Régime. The right to resist oppression is also affirmed, directly reflecting the revolutionary circumstances of 1789. This inclusion was revolutionary because it legitimised revolt against an unjust government, a concept that was in direct contradiction with the monarchical principles of divine right and absolute obedience to the sovereign. Property, declared to be an inviolable and sacred right, testifies to the importance attached to the protection of personal assets. In a society in the throes of change, where feudal rights were being called into question, the recognition of property as a fundamental right was a step towards modern social and economic organisation. Finally, security, understood as protection against unjust and arbitrary treatment, is a fundamental right set out in the Declaration. It provides legal protection for citizens, ensuring that government actions are based on legal and just principles.


Ces droits, articulés dans la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, ne sont pas seulement des idéaux abstraits ; ils reflètent les luttes et les aspirations d'une nation en pleine transformation. Ils ont été conçus en réponse directe aux défis et aux abus de l'époque, et leur influence a largement dépassé les frontières de la France. Ce document est devenu un modèle pour les futures déclarations des droits de l'homme et a exercé une influence profonde sur le développement des constitutions démocratiques et des systèmes juridiques dans le monde entier.
These rights, articulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, are not just abstract ideals; they reflect the struggles and aspirations of a nation in the throes of transformation. They were conceived in direct response to the challenges and abuses of the time, and their influence extended far beyond the borders of France. This document became a model for future declarations of human rights and has had a profound influence on the development of democratic constitutions and legal systems throughout the world.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 en France et la Déclaration des droits de Virginie de 1776 aux États-Unis sont deux documents historiques cruciaux qui ont établi les bases des droits fondamentaux de première génération. Ces droits de première génération se concentrent principalement sur les libertés civiles et politiques, mettant en avant les principes de liberté individuelle, de participation politique, de justice et de protection contre l'arbitraire gouvernemental. Dans ces deux déclarations, nous observons une forte emphase sur les droits tels que la liberté d'expression, la liberté de religion, le droit à un procès équitable, la protection contre les arrestations et détentions arbitraires, et le droit à la propriété. Ces droits sont considérés comme fondamentaux car ils sont essentiels à la dignité individuelle et à la participation effective dans une société démocratique.  
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 in France and the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 in the United States are two crucial historical documents that laid the foundations for first-generation fundamental rights. These first-generation rights focus primarily on civil and political liberties, emphasising the principles of individual freedom, political participation, justice and protection against arbitrary government. In both declarations, there is a strong emphasis on rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion, the right to a fair trial, protection against arbitrary arrest and detention, and the right to property. These rights are considered fundamental because they are essential to individual dignity and effective participation in a democratic society.


La Déclaration de Virginie, rédigée principalement par George Mason, a été une des premières à codifier ces droits dans un document gouvernemental. Elle a influencé non seulement la Constitution des États-Unis et son Bill of Rights, mais aussi d'autres déclarations des droits à travers le monde, y compris la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen en France. De son côté, la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, adoptée dans le contexte tumultueux de la Révolution française, a marqué une étape importante dans la reconnaissance des droits individuels contre l'oppression d'un régime monarchique. Elle reflétait et amplifiait les idées de la philosophie des Lumières, notamment en ce qui concerne la souveraineté populaire et les droits inaliénables de l'individu. Ces documents ont posé les fondations pour les développements ultérieurs en matière de droits de l'homme. Les droits de première génération, tels qu'énoncés dans ces déclarations, continuent de former le noyau des constitutions démocratiques modernes et des déclarations internationales des droits de l'homme, soulignant leur importance et leur pertinence durables dans les luttes pour la liberté et la justice.
The Virginia Declaration, drafted principally by George Mason, was one of the first to codify these rights in a government document. It influenced not only the US Constitution and its Bill of Rights, but also other bills of rights around the world, including France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. For its part, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the tumultuous context of the French Revolution, marked an important step in the recognition of individual rights against the oppression of a monarchical regime. It reflected and amplified the ideas of Enlightenment philosophy, particularly with regard to popular sovereignty and the inalienable rights of the individual. These documents laid the foundations for subsequent developments in human rights. The first-generation rights, as set out in these declarations, continue to form the core of modern democratic constitutions and international declarations of human rights, underlining their enduring importance and relevance in the struggles for freedom and justice.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 en France, tout en établissant les fondements des droits civiques et politiques, ne contenait effectivement pas de dispositions relatives aux droits sociaux. Cette absence reflète le contexte historique et les priorités idéologiques de l'époque, qui se concentraient principalement sur la liberté individuelle, la protection contre l'oppression gouvernementale, et l'établissement de principes démocratiques. À cette période, l'accent était mis sur la construction d'une démocratie parlementaire, et dans certains cas, de démocratie directe, où la souveraineté résidait dans le peuple. Les droits énoncés dans la Déclaration de 1789 étaient principalement conçus pour limiter le pouvoir du gouvernement et garantir des libertés individuelles, telles que la liberté d'expression, la liberté de religion, et le droit à la propriété.
France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, while laying the foundations for civic and political rights, did not actually contain any provisions relating to social rights. This absence reflects the historical context and ideological priorities of the time, which focused primarily on individual liberty, protection from government oppression, and the establishment of democratic principles. The emphasis at the time was on building a parliamentary democracy, and in some cases a direct democracy, where sovereignty resided with the people. The rights set out in the Declaration of 1789 were primarily designed to limit the power of government and guarantee individual freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to property.


Les droits sociaux, tels que le droit au travail, à l'éducation, à la santé, et à la sécurité sociale, n'ont commencé à être largement reconnus qu'à la fin du XIXe siècle et au début du XXe siècle. Cette évolution était due en grande partie aux changements sociaux et économiques, notamment à l'industrialisation et à l'émergence des mouvements ouvriers, qui ont mis en évidence les inégalités et les difficultés sociales engendrées par le capitalisme industriel. Ces droits sociaux ont été progressivement intégrés dans les constitutions nationales et les instruments internationaux sur les droits de l'homme au cours du XXe siècle, notamment avec l'adoption de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme en 1948, qui comprenait à la fois des droits civils et politiques, et des droits économiques, sociaux et culturels. Ainsi, la Déclaration de 1789, tout en étant un document fondamental dans l'histoire des droits de l'homme, représentait une étape initiale dans l'évolution des droits de l'homme, avec un focus sur les droits civils et politiques. L'inclusion des droits sociaux dans les discours sur les droits de l'homme est venue plus tard, en réponse aux besoins et aux défis d'une ère industrielle et post-industrielle.
Social rights, such as the right to work, education, health and social security, only began to be widely recognised in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This development was largely due to social and economic changes, in particular industrialisation and the emergence of workers' movements, which highlighted the social inequalities and difficulties caused by industrial capitalism. These social rights were gradually incorporated into national constitutions and international human rights instruments over the course of the twentieth century, notably with the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which included both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights. The Declaration of 1789, while a fundamental document in the history of human rights, represented an initial stage in the evolution of human rights, with a focus on civil and political rights. The inclusion of social rights in human rights discourse came later, in response to the needs and challenges of an industrial and post-industrial age.


La popularité et l'influence durables de la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 résident effectivement dans sa portée universelle et son caractère novateur. Rédigée en août 1789, en pleine Révolution française, cette déclaration était révolutionnaire non seulement pour la France, mais aussi pour le monde entier, établissant des principes qui transcendaient les frontières nationales et les particularités culturelles. L'objectif principal de la Déclaration était de définir clairement les droits fondamentaux, posant ainsi les bases pour la rédaction de la future constitution de la France. Les constituants souhaitaient établir un ensemble de principes qui guideraient la transformation de la société française, passant d'un régime monarchique absolu à une société basée sur la souveraineté populaire et les droits individuels. La rapidité de sa rédaction, en seulement une semaine, témoigne de l'urgence et de l'intensité des débats politiques et sociaux de l'époque. Malgré cela, la Déclaration a réussi à capturer l'esprit de l'époque et à articuler des idées qui résonnaient profondément avec les aspirations du peuple. Elle a traité de concepts tels que la liberté, l'égalité, la propriété, et la résistance à l'oppression, des thèmes qui étaient au cœur des préoccupations révolutionnaires.  
The enduring popularity and influence of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen lies in its universal scope and innovative character. Drafted in August 1789, at the height of the French Revolution, the Declaration was revolutionary not just for France, but for the whole world, establishing principles that transcended national borders and cultural particularities. The main aim of the Declaration was to clearly define fundamental rights, laying the foundations for the drafting of France's future constitution. The Constituents wanted to establish a set of principles that would guide the transformation of French society from an absolute monarchy to a society based on popular sovereignty and individual rights. The speed with which it was drafted, in just one week, testifies to the urgency and intensity of the political and social debates of the time. Despite this, the Declaration managed to capture the spirit of the times and articulate ideas that resonated deeply with the aspirations of the people. It dealt with concepts such as freedom, equality, property, and resistance to oppression, themes that were at the heart of revolutionary concerns.


La Déclaration a acquis une telle popularité et un tel respect qu'elle n'a pas été substantiellement modifiée par la suite, acquérant un statut quasi sacré dans l'histoire constitutionnelle française. Sa réputation et son influence ont rapidement dépassé les frontières de la France, inspirant des mouvements démocratiques et des luttes pour les droits de l'homme à travers le monde. Son universalisme et son originalité ont fait de la Déclaration un texte fondamental dans l'histoire des droits de l'homme, un document qui continue d'être cité et référencé dans les discussions sur les droits civiques et politiques à travers le monde. Sa rédaction rapide, loin de diminuer sa portée, semble avoir capturé l'essence des idéaux révolutionnaires de manière succincte et puissante, ce qui explique en partie sa popularité et sa longévité.
The Declaration gained such popularity and respect that it has not been substantially altered since, acquiring an almost sacred status in French constitutional history. Its reputation and influence quickly spread beyond France, inspiring democratic movements and human rights struggles around the world. Its universalism and originality made the Declaration a fundamental text in the history of human rights, a document that continues to be cited and referenced in discussions on civil and political rights around the world. Its rapid drafting, far from diminishing its significance, seems to have captured the essence of revolutionary ideals in a succinct and powerful way, which partly explains its popularity and longevity.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789, révolutionnaire par son contenu et sa portée, se distingue par son universalisme, visant à s'appliquer non seulement aux citoyens français mais à toute l'humanité. Cette approche marque une rupture significative avec les documents de droits antérieurs, qui étaient souvent limités par des contextes nationaux ou des statuts spécifiques. L'intention des rédacteurs de la Déclaration était de créer un document qui transcenderait les frontières nationales et parlerait à un ensemble universel de principes et de droits humains. Cela reflète l'influence des philosophes des Lumières, tels que Jean-Jacques Rousseau et John Locke, dont les idées sur les droits naturels et la souveraineté populaire étaient fondées sur des concepts d'humanité universelle et de droits inaliénables. L'accent mis sur "l'homme" et "le citoyen" dans la Déclaration souligne cette ambition universelle. Le terme "homme" fait référence à l'humanité dans son ensemble, affirmant des droits et des libertés qui sont intrinsèques à tous les êtres humains, indépendamment de leur nationalité ou de leur statut social. En parallèle, l'usage du terme "citoyen" insiste sur le rôle actif des individus dans la gouvernance et la société politique, reflétant les idéaux de participation démocratique et de souveraineté populaire. La Déclaration a donc établi un cadre dans lequel les droits et les libertés individuelles ne sont pas seulement la prérogative des citoyens français, mais des principes applicables à tous les peuples. Son influence a été mondiale, inspirant des mouvements pour les droits de l'homme et des réformes démocratiques bien au-delà de la France. Les principes énoncés dans la Déclaration ont été intégrés dans de nombreuses constitutions nationales et dans des instruments internationaux de droits de l'homme, affirmant ainsi son rôle central dans l'histoire des droits humains.
The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, revolutionary in its content and scope, is distinguished by its universalism, intended to apply not just to French citizens but to all mankind. This approach marks a significant break with previous rights documents, which were often limited by national contexts or specific statuses. The intention of the drafters of the Declaration was to create a document that would transcend national boundaries and speak to a universal set of human rights and principles. This reflects the influence of Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, whose ideas on natural rights and popular sovereignty were based on concepts of universal humanity and inalienable rights. The emphasis placed on "man" and "the citizen" in the Declaration underlines this universal ambition. The term "man" refers to humanity as a whole, affirming rights and freedoms that are intrinsic to all human beings, regardless of their nationality or social status. At the same time, the use of the term "citizen" emphasises the active role of individuals in governance and political society, reflecting the ideals of democratic participation and popular sovereignty. The Declaration thus established a framework in which individual rights and freedoms were not just the prerogative of French citizens, but principles applicable to all peoples. Its influence has been global, inspiring human rights movements and democratic reforms far beyond France. The principles set out in the Declaration have been incorporated into numerous national constitutions and international human rights instruments, affirming its central role in the history of human rights.
La brièveté de la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 est effectivement liée à son objectif d'universalisme. En se concentrant sur l'expression de grands principes fondamentaux, la Déclaration visait à énoncer des idées claires, puissantes et largement acceptables qui pourraient être comprises et embrassées par tous, indépendamment de leur contexte national ou culturel. Cette approche reflète la volonté des rédacteurs de créer un document qui transcenderait les spécificités locales et parlerait aux aspirations universelles de justice, de liberté et d'égalité. En s'abstenant de s'encombrer de détails ou de dispositions trop spécifiques, la Déclaration a pu articuler des principes qui sont à la fois profonds et suffisamment généraux pour être applicables dans divers contextes.  


Ces principes, tels que la liberté, l'égalité devant la loi, la souveraineté populaire, et les droits à la propriété et à la sûreté, étaient conçus pour résister aux épreuves du temps et aux changements de circonstances politiques ou sociales. Leur formulation concise et leur caractère universel ont facilité leur adoption et leur intégration dans la législation et les constitutions à travers le monde, ainsi que dans les déclarations internationales ultérieures sur les droits de l'homme. La brièveté de la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen n'est pas une limitation, mais plutôt une force. Elle a permis au document de capturer l'essence des idéaux révolutionnaires de manière claire et mémorable, contribuant à son statut emblématique et à son influence durable dans l'histoire des droits humains.
The brevity of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is in fact linked to its objective of universalism. By focusing on the expression of major fundamental principles, the Declaration aimed to set out clear, powerful and widely acceptable ideas that could be understood and embraced by everyone, regardless of their national or cultural context. This approach reflects the desire of the drafters to create a document that would transcend local specificities and speak to universal aspirations for justice, freedom and equality. By refraining from getting bogged down in details or overly specific provisions, the Declaration has been able to articulate principles that are both profound and general enough to be applicable in a variety of contexts.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 met effectivement un accent particulier sur l'individu, affirmant des droits qui relèvent de la sphère personnelle et requièrent de l'État une attitude de non-ingérence dans certaines affaires privées. Cette approche est fondamentalement ancrée dans l'individualisme, une caractéristique clé de la pensée libérale qui émergeait à l'époque. L'un des principes centraux de la Déclaration est la liberté de l'individu, comprise comme le droit d'être et d'agir sans ingérence injustifiée de l'État. Ce principe implique une obligation pour l'État de limiter son action dans la vie des citoyens, sauf lorsque cela est nécessaire pour protéger les droits d'autrui ou pour le bien commun. Cette notion de liberté individuelle est une réaction contre les abus de pouvoir et l'ingérence arbitraire de l'État, typiques de l'Ancien Régime. En outre, l'importance accordée au droit de propriété dans la Déclaration reflète également cette tendance à l'individualisme. La propriété est considérée comme un droit inviolable et sacré, soulignant la valeur que la société libérale accorde à la possession individuelle et à l'autonomie économique. Le droit de propriété est vu non seulement comme un pilier de la liberté personnelle, mais aussi comme un élément essentiel de l'ordre social et économique.  
These principles, such as liberty, equality before the law, popular sovereignty, and the rights to property and security, were designed to withstand the tests of time and changes in political or social circumstances. Their concise wording and universal character facilitated their adoption and incorporation into legislation and constitutions throughout the world, as well as in subsequent international declarations on human rights. The brevity of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is not a limitation, but rather a strength. It allowed the document to capture the essence of revolutionary ideals in a clear and memorable way, contributing to its iconic status and lasting influence in the history of human rights.


Il est intéressant de noter que, dans cette perspective, le droit de propriété n'impose pas d'obligations explicites à la charge de la société ou de l'État, au-delà de la reconnaissance et de la protection de ce droit. Cette vision reflète l'idée que la protection des droits individuels, y compris le droit de propriété, est en elle-même suffisante pour garantir une société juste et équilibrée. La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen est profondément ancrée dans un cadre individualiste, où la liberté personnelle et la propriété sont considérées comme des éléments fondamentaux pour l'épanouissement de l'individu et le fonctionnement de l'État. Cette orientation a eu une influence considérable sur le développement ultérieur des théories politiques et juridiques, en particulier dans les pays occidentaux.
The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen does indeed place particular emphasis on the individual, asserting rights that fall within the personal sphere and requiring the State to adopt an attitude of non-interference in certain private affairs. This approach is fundamentally rooted in individualism, a key feature of the liberal thinking that was emerging at the time. One of the central principles of the Declaration is the freedom of the individual, understood as the right to be and act without unwarranted interference by the state. This principle implies an obligation on the part of the State to limit its action in the lives of its citizens, except where necessary to protect the rights of others or for the common good. This notion of individual liberty is a reaction against the abuse of power and arbitrary interference by the State that were typical of the Ancien Régime. The importance attached to the right to property in the Declaration also reflects this trend towards individualism. Property is considered an inviolable and sacred right, underlining the value that liberal society places on individual possession and economic autonomy. The right to property is seen not only as a pillar of personal freedom, but also as an essential element of the social and economic order.


La Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789, adoptée dans le sillage tumultueux de la Révolution française, a rapidement acquis une grande popularité, en France et au-delà, en raison de son approche novatrice et de son universalisme. Son succès peut être attribué à plusieurs facteurs contextuels et historiques qui ont interagi pour faire de ce document un symbole puissant de liberté et de droits humains. Au cœur de la Révolution française, la société traversait une période de profondes transformations politiques et sociales. Les idées des philosophes des Lumières, telles que celles de Jean-Jacques Rousseau avec son "Contrat Social" et de John Locke sur les droits naturels, avaient déjà préparé le terrain pour une remise en question de l'ordre établi. Ces philosophes défendaient des principes de liberté individuelle, d'égalité et de gouvernance démocratique, qui se retrouvent dans la Déclaration. La Déclaration, dans sa concision, a brillamment encapsulé ces idéaux. En mettant l'accent sur l'individualisme et le droit de propriété, elle a répondu à un désir profond de protection contre les abus de pouvoir de l'État et de reconnaissance des libertés individuelles. L'individualisme, en particulier, résonnait avec les aspirations d'une population désireuse de se libérer des chaînes de la structure féodale et monarchique. En outre, le droit de propriété était vu comme un pilier fondamental de l'indépendance économique et personnelle, contrastant fortement avec les inégalités de richesse et de statut de l'Ancien Régime.  
It is interesting to note that, from this perspective, the right to property does not impose any explicit obligations on society or the state beyond the recognition and protection of this right. This vision reflects the idea that the protection of individual rights, including the right to property, is in itself sufficient to guarantee a fair and balanced society. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is deeply rooted in an individualist framework, in which personal freedom and property are seen as fundamental to the development of the individual and the functioning of the State. This orientation had a considerable influence on the subsequent development of political and legal theories, particularly in Western countries.


L'impact de la Déclaration s'est étendu bien au-delà des frontières de la France. Son universalisme a inspiré des mouvements pour les droits de l'homme et des réformes démocratiques dans d'autres régions du monde. Par exemple, les idéaux de la Déclaration ont influencé les mouvements révolutionnaires en Europe au XIXe siècle et ont également joué un rôle dans le développement de la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme en 1948, soulignant ainsi son influence durable et mondiale. La popularité de la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 n'était pas un accident de l'histoire, mais le résultat d'un alignement parfait entre les aspirations du moment, les influences philosophiques de l'époque et la présentation claire et puissante de principes universels qui continuaient de résonner avec les valeurs émergentes de l'époque moderne. Son héritage perdure, symbolisant toujours la lutte pour la liberté et la justice dans le monde entier.
The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the tumultuous aftermath of the French Revolution, quickly gained widespread popularity in France and beyond for its innovative approach and universalism. Its success can be attributed to a number of contextual and historical factors that interacted to make this document a powerful symbol of freedom and human rights. At the heart of the French Revolution, society was going through a period of profound political and social change. The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "Social Contract" and John Locke's "Natural Rights" had already paved the way for a challenge to the established order. These philosophers defended the principles of individual liberty, equality and democratic governance, which are reflected in the Declaration. The Declaration, in its conciseness, brilliantly encapsulated these ideals. By emphasising individualism and property rights, it responded to a deep-seated desire for protection against abuses of state power and for recognition of individual freedoms. Individualism, in particular, resonated with the aspirations of a population eager to free itself from the shackles of the feudal and monarchical structure. In addition, the right to property was seen as a fundamental pillar of economic and personal independence, in stark contrast to the inequalities of wealth and status of the Ancien Régime.


L'influence des déclarations des droits issues de la Révolution française, notamment la Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789 et la version révisée de 1795, s'est étendue bien au-delà des frontières de la France, touchant de nombreux pays en Europe, y compris la Suisse. Cette période a été marquée par l'expansion des idéaux révolutionnaires français à travers le continent, souvent accompagnée de changements politiques et constitutionnels dans les territoires conquis ou influencés par la France. La Suisse, avec sa première constitution en 1798, en est un exemple notable. La République helvétique, établie sous l'influence française, a adopté une constitution qui reflétait les principes de la Révolution française. Bien que cette constitution ait été inspirée par les idées françaises, notamment en ce qui concerne la centralisation du pouvoir et les droits individuels, elle a également dû prendre en compte les spécificités et traditions suisses.
The Declaration's impact extended far beyond France's borders. Its universalism inspired human rights movements and democratic reforms in other parts of the world. For example, the Declaration's ideals influenced revolutionary movements in nineteenth-century Europe and also played a role in the development of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, underlining its enduring and global influence. The popularity of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was no accident of history, but the result of a perfect alignment between the aspirations of the moment, the philosophical influences of the time and the clear and powerful presentation of universal principles that continued to resonate with the emerging values of the modern age. Its legacy lives on, still symbolising the struggle for freedom and justice throughout the world.


La Révolution française a eu un impact considérable sur l'Europe, non seulement en termes de conquêtes territoriales mais aussi d'exportation de ses idéaux politiques et juridiques. Les déclarations des droits françaises ont servi de modèle pour les réformateurs et les révolutionnaires dans d'autres pays, inspirant des changements constitutionnels et des réformes législatives. Elles ont introduit des concepts tels que la souveraineté populaire, l'égalité devant la loi, et les libertés individuelles, qui étaient nouveaux et révolutionnaires pour de nombreuses sociétés européennes de l'époque. Cependant, l'adoption de ces idéaux n'était pas toujours simple ni directe. Dans de nombreux cas, les efforts pour implanter les principes révolutionnaires français se heurtaient à des résistances locales, à des traditions bien établies et à des contextes politiques complexes. Par exemple, bien que la constitution de 1798 ait marqué une étape importante dans l'histoire constitutionnelle suisse, elle a également suscité des controverses et des conflits internes, reflétant les défis de l'adaptation des idées révolutionnaires françaises à d'autres contextes nationaux. L'influence des déclarations des droits de la Révolution française s'est étendue à travers l'Europe, marquant profondément l'évolution politique et juridique du continent. La Suisse, avec sa constitution de 1798, est un exemple de la manière dont ces idées ont été adaptées et intégrées dans d'autres systèmes politiques, illustrant l'impact durable et étendu des principes révolutionnaires français.
The influence of the declarations of rights that emerged from the French Revolution, notably the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 and the revised version of 1795, extended far beyond the borders of France, touching many countries in Europe, including Switzerland. This period was marked by the spread of French revolutionary ideals across the continent, often accompanied by political and constitutional changes in territories conquered or influenced by France. Switzerland, with its first constitution in 1798, is a notable example. The Helvetic Republic, established under French influence, adopted a constitution that reflected the principles of the French Revolution. Although this constitution was inspired by French ideas, particularly with regard to the centralisation of power and individual rights, it also had to take account of Swiss specificities and traditions.
 
The French Revolution had a considerable impact on Europe, not only in terms of territorial conquests but also in exporting its political and legal ideals. French declarations of rights served as a model for reformers and revolutionaries in other countries, inspiring constitutional changes and legislative reforms. They introduced concepts such as popular sovereignty, equality before the law, and individual liberties, which were new and revolutionary for many European societies at the time. However, the adoption of these ideals was not always simple or straightforward. In many cases, efforts to implement French revolutionary principles met with local resistance, entrenched traditions and complex political contexts. For example, although the Constitution of 1798 marked a milestone in Swiss constitutional history, it also gave rise to controversy and internal conflict, reflecting the challenges of adapting French revolutionary ideas to other national contexts. The influence of the French Revolution's declarations of rights spread across Europe, having a profound effect on the continent's political and legal development. Switzerland, with its constitution of 1798, is an example of how these ideas were adapted and integrated into other political systems, illustrating the lasting and widespread impact of French revolutionary principles.


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Version actuelle datée du 19 décembre 2023 à 11:11

Based on a course by Victor Monnier[1][2][3]

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Introduction to the Law : Key Concepts and Definitions ● The State: Functions, Structures and Political Regimes ● The different branches of law ● The sources of law ● The great formative traditions of law ● The elements of the legal relationship ● The application of law ● The implementation of a law ● The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century ● Switzerland's domestic legal framework ● Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality ● The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century ● The universal organizations ● European organisations and their relations with Switzerland ● Categories and generations of fundamental rights ● The origins of fundamental rights ● Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century ● Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century

The declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in France (1789) and the Bill of Rights in the United States (1791), mark high points in the history of fundamental rights. However, the origins of these rights go back well before the 18th century.

Fundamental rights, often regarded as principles inherent in human dignity, have evolved over the course of history. Documents predating the 18th century, such as England's Magna Carta (1215), laid the foundations for these rights by limiting the power of monarchs and recognising certain rights for nobles and, by extension, for the people. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, philosophers and jurists began to conceptualise ideas that would later influence the declarations of rights. For example, the concepts of individual liberties and equitable justice were already being discussed and incorporated into various laws and political practices. The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries, played a crucial role in the development of fundamental rights. Philosophers such as John Locke, Montesquieu and Jean-Jacques Rousseau developed theories on natural rights, the social contract and the separation of powers, which greatly influenced the drafters of the declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century. Although the declarations of rights of the late eighteenth century are important milestones, they are the culmination of a long historical and intellectual process that began long before the eighteenth century.

The American Bill of Rights: 1776 - 1783[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

When the Thirteen American Colonies declared their independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain on 4 July 1776, they effectively severed their ties with King George III and established a new nation: the United States of America. This declaration of independence marked a historic turning point, not only in the history of the colonies, but also in the development of ideas of sovereignty and democratic governance around the world.

Prior to the Declaration, these colonies were under British sovereignty, governed by laws and policies enacted by the British Parliament and the King. The break with Britain was motivated by a variety of reasons, including economic grievances, such as taxes imposed without parliamentary representation ("No taxation without representation"), and a growing desire for autonomy and self-determined governance. After the declaration of independence, the Thirteen Colonies, now States, formed a confederal structure as their initial form of government. This structure was characterised by a loose alliance between the States, each retaining a large measure of sovereignty and independence. Confederation was governed by the Articles of Confederation, a document that established a permanent union of the states but granted few central powers to a federal government. This period of confederation revealed several weaknesses in the governmental structure, particularly in terms of its ability to levy taxes, regulate trade and maintain order. These problems eventually led to the drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution in 1787, which established a stronger federal system with a balance between the powers of the central government and those of the states.

Following the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, now transformed into sovereign states, began drafting their own constitutions. This movement marked a radical break with European monarchical systems, based on the principle of popular sovereignty. This approach was revolutionary, placing the power and legitimacy of government directly in the hands of the people, rather than in those of a monarch.

The constitutions of these new American states were diverse in content, but shared a common commitment to the natural and inalienable rights of man. Eight of these states, including Virginia with its 1776 Bill of Rights drafted by George Mason, went a step further by incorporating a Bill of Rights at the beginning of their constitutions. These declarations were deeply influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and philosophers such as John Locke, who had put forward the concepts of the right to life, liberty and property. These declarations of rights had several essential functions. Firstly, they explicitly recognised the existence of essential natural rights, such as freedom of speech and religion, and the right to a fair trial. For example, the Virginia Bill of Rights affirmed these rights by explicitly detailing the freedoms that the government could not infringe. Second, by enumerating these rights, they sought to limit the power of government, thereby providing protection against abuses of power and authoritarianism. Finally, they affirmed the democratic principle that government is created to serve the people and derives its legitimacy from the will of the people. These declarations have had a considerable impact on the history of human rights. They not only shaped the governance and policies of the new American states, but also influenced the drafting of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution, ratified in 1791. These historic documents laid the foundations for civil rights and continue to influence contemporary debates about freedom and justice around the world.

The Virginia Declaration of Rights, adopted in June 1776, is effectively the first formal bill of rights in the New World. However, it is important to clarify the role of Thomas Jefferson in this context. Although Jefferson is widely credited with drafting the United States Declaration of Independence, adopted on 4 July 1776, it was in fact George Mason who was the principal author of the Virginia Declaration of Rights. The Virginia Declaration of Rights had a significant influence on the Declaration of Independence and other fundamental documents. Mason's text set out principles of individual liberties and human rights, such as freedom of speech, press, religion, and the right to a fair trial. These ideas resonated with the principles set out in the Declaration of Independence, which articulated the ideals of liberty and self-government against British oppression.

Jefferson, in drafting the Declaration of Independence, drew on these concepts, as well as the ideas of the Enlightenment philosophers, to justify the separation of the colonies from Britain. The link between these two documents is a testament to the intellectual and political atmosphere of the time, when the ideas of natural rights and democratic government were becoming increasingly accepted. The Virginia Declaration of Rights also served as a model for future bills of rights within the United States, and influenced the development of the Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the US Constitution. Its impact on the founding of the United States and on the development of human rights in the Western world is therefore undeniable.

In 1787, the United States of America adopted the Constitution of the United States, a founding document that established the framework for the country's federal government. The Constitution, drafted at the Philadelphia Convention, marked a significant transition from the previous confederal structure under the Articles of Confederation to a stronger, more centralised federal system. The influence of the Virginia Bill of Rights on the US Constitution, particularly the First Amendments, is an important facet of American constitutional history. Although the original Constitution of 1787 did not contain a Bill of Rights, the requirement for explicit protections of individual rights was a major concern for many delegates and citizens.

This concern stemmed in part from the influence of documents such as the Virginia Declaration of Rights. The principles set out in the Virginia Declaration, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to a fair trial, were seen as essential to protecting citizens from an overly powerful central government. This is why, after the ratification of the Constitution, one of the first acts of the first United States Congress was to propose a series of amendments that would guarantee these rights. These amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, were heavily influenced by the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the ideas of George Mason. They were proposed by James Madison in 1789 and ratified in 1791, becoming the first ten amendments to the Constitution. The Bill of Rights guaranteed many civil liberties and limited the powers of the federal government, reflecting the concerns and ideals that had been expressed in the Virginia Bill of Rights a few years earlier.

French declarations of rights: 1789 - 1795[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Le Barbier Declaration of Human Rights

Between 1789 and 1804, a period marked by the French Revolution and its aftermath, France experienced a rapid succession of constitutions, each incorporating a declaration of rights. This period of intense political transformation reflected the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and fraternity, and the desire to break with the old monarchical regime.

The first of these constitutions, adopted in 1791, drew heavily on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed in 1789. This influential and revolutionary declaration set out universal principles of individual rights and popular sovereignty. It was strongly influenced not only by Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu, but also by the examples of American bills of rights. Indeed, the French constitution-makers were well aware of constitutional developments in the United States. The declarations of rights in the various constitutions of the American states, as well as the Declaration of Independence of 1776, were important references. They served as models for the development of principles of rights and governance in French constitutional documents.

During this period, each new French constitution attempted to respond to changing political and social challenges. For example, the Constitution of Year III (1795), adopted during the Directoire period, and that of Year VIII (1799), which marked the beginning of the Consulate under Napoleon Bonaparte, both included declarations of rights, although their practical application varied according to the political realities of the time. This series of constitutions in France, with their declarations of rights, demonstrates how the ideals of the French Revolution evolved and were put into practice in different ways. At the same time, the transatlantic influence of American constitutional developments on France at the time is an early example of the interconnectedness of revolutionary ideas and human rights across the world.

In 1789, France was plunged into a period of deep crisis, marked by political, economic and social turmoil. It was a pivotal year in French history, marking the beginning of the French Revolution, a movement that would radically transform French society and influence the whole world. The crisis was fuelled by a variety of factors, including economic difficulties exacerbated by France's involvement in the American War of Independence, financial mismanagement by the monarchy, poor harvests leading to higher bread prices, and general dissatisfaction with a rigid and unequal feudal system. Against this backdrop, on 17 June 1789, deputies from the Third Estate, joined by some members of the clergy and nobility, proclaimed themselves the National Constituent Assembly, stating their intention to draft a new constitution for France. This action was revolutionary in itself, as it challenged the absolute authority of King Louis XVI and claimed the power to govern in the name of the people.

One of the first and most important acts of this Constituent Assembly was the drafting of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted on 26 August 1789. This declaration established the fundamental principles that were to become the cornerstones of the French Revolution and modern democracies. It proclaimed rights such as liberty, property, security, resistance to oppression, equality before the law, and freedom of speech and religion. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was strongly influenced by the ideals of the Enlightenment and by documents such as the American Declaration of Independence and the Declarations of Rights of the American States. It represented a radical break with the old order and established the principles of a new regime based on the rights and sovereignty of the people. The Declaration became an emblematic document of the French Revolution and had a lasting impact on the development of human rights and liberal democracies around the world.

The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the context of the French Revolution, represents a pivotal moment in the history of human rights and political thought. Strongly influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and documents such as the Virginia Declaration, the Declaration sought to codify the universal principles of liberty, equality and the inalienable rights of the individual.

The articles of the Declaration, reflecting these ideas, are deeply rooted in the context of the times. For example, Article 1 states: "Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can only be based on the common good". This affirmation of fundamental equality and innate freedom was part of a reaction against the feudal structures and aristocratic privileges of the Ancien Régime. Article 2, which states: "The aim of every political association is the conservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression", echoing the philosophy of John Locke and other Enlightenment thinkers, emphasising the role of government as protector of the fundamental rights of the individual. As for individual freedom, Article 4 defines its scope: "Freedom consists in being able to do whatever does not harm others: thus the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits other than those which ensure the enjoyment of these same rights by the other members of society. These limits can only be determined by law". This concept of freedom, limited by the rights of others and governed by law, is a pillar of modern liberal theory. Article 6, which addresses the notion of law and democracy, states: "The law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to contribute personally, or through their representatives, to its formation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. As all citizens are equal in its eyes, they are equally eligible for all public dignities, positions and jobs, according to their ability, and without any distinction other than that of their virtues and talents". This article highlights the idea of a society based on equality before the law and the right to political participation. Article 7 addresses the issue of legal justice: "No one may be accused, arrested or detained except in the cases determined by law and according to the forms it has prescribed. Those who solicit, dispatch, carry out or cause to be carried out arbitrary orders must be punished; but any citizen summoned or seized by virtue of the law must obey immediately: he renders himself guilty by resisting". This protection against arbitrary arrest and detention was a direct response to the abuses of the Ancien Régime. Finally, Article 11, which states: "The free communication of thoughts and opinions is one of the most precious rights of Man: every citizen may therefore speak, write and print freely, without being held accountable for the abuse of this freedom, in the cases determined by the law", and Article 17, which states: "As property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one may be deprived of it, except when legally established public necessity obviously requires it, and subject to fair and prior compensation", illustrate the importance attached to the civil liberties of speech, press and property. These articles, which were incorporated into the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, laid the theoretical foundations of modern democratic regimes, having a profound influence on the development of democracy.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed in 1789 at the height of the French Revolution, is a fundamental historical document, establishing principles that would redefine the notions of fundamental rights in modern society. Reflecting the spirit of the times and influenced by Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, this Declaration formulated rights that embodied the deep aspirations of the French people in the face of oppression and injustice.

Liberty, a central pillar of the Declaration, is addressed in several of its articles. It is defined not only as an intrinsic human right, but also as a principle that must be exercised with respect for the rights of others, marking a transition from absolute notions of freedom to a more social and interdependent understanding of the concept. In addition, the Declaration recognises security as an essential right, guaranteeing the protection of individuals against abuse and arbitrary treatment. In the context of the time, when arrests and imprisonment without just cause were commonplace, this right took on particular significance, symbolising a rejection of the abusive practices of the Ancien Régime. The right to resist oppression is also affirmed, directly reflecting the revolutionary circumstances of 1789. This inclusion was revolutionary because it legitimised revolt against an unjust government, a concept that was in direct contradiction with the monarchical principles of divine right and absolute obedience to the sovereign. Property, declared to be an inviolable and sacred right, testifies to the importance attached to the protection of personal assets. In a society in the throes of change, where feudal rights were being called into question, the recognition of property as a fundamental right was a step towards modern social and economic organisation. Finally, security, understood as protection against unjust and arbitrary treatment, is a fundamental right set out in the Declaration. It provides legal protection for citizens, ensuring that government actions are based on legal and just principles.

These rights, articulated in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, are not just abstract ideals; they reflect the struggles and aspirations of a nation in the throes of transformation. They were conceived in direct response to the challenges and abuses of the time, and their influence extended far beyond the borders of France. This document became a model for future declarations of human rights and has had a profound influence on the development of democratic constitutions and legal systems throughout the world.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 in France and the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 in the United States are two crucial historical documents that laid the foundations for first-generation fundamental rights. These first-generation rights focus primarily on civil and political liberties, emphasising the principles of individual freedom, political participation, justice and protection against arbitrary government. In both declarations, there is a strong emphasis on rights such as freedom of expression, freedom of religion, the right to a fair trial, protection against arbitrary arrest and detention, and the right to property. These rights are considered fundamental because they are essential to individual dignity and effective participation in a democratic society.

The Virginia Declaration, drafted principally by George Mason, was one of the first to codify these rights in a government document. It influenced not only the US Constitution and its Bill of Rights, but also other bills of rights around the world, including France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. For its part, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the tumultuous context of the French Revolution, marked an important step in the recognition of individual rights against the oppression of a monarchical regime. It reflected and amplified the ideas of Enlightenment philosophy, particularly with regard to popular sovereignty and the inalienable rights of the individual. These documents laid the foundations for subsequent developments in human rights. The first-generation rights, as set out in these declarations, continue to form the core of modern democratic constitutions and international declarations of human rights, underlining their enduring importance and relevance in the struggles for freedom and justice.

France's 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, while laying the foundations for civic and political rights, did not actually contain any provisions relating to social rights. This absence reflects the historical context and ideological priorities of the time, which focused primarily on individual liberty, protection from government oppression, and the establishment of democratic principles. The emphasis at the time was on building a parliamentary democracy, and in some cases a direct democracy, where sovereignty resided with the people. The rights set out in the Declaration of 1789 were primarily designed to limit the power of government and guarantee individual freedoms, such as freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to property.

Social rights, such as the right to work, education, health and social security, only began to be widely recognised in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This development was largely due to social and economic changes, in particular industrialisation and the emergence of workers' movements, which highlighted the social inequalities and difficulties caused by industrial capitalism. These social rights were gradually incorporated into national constitutions and international human rights instruments over the course of the twentieth century, notably with the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, which included both civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights. The Declaration of 1789, while a fundamental document in the history of human rights, represented an initial stage in the evolution of human rights, with a focus on civil and political rights. The inclusion of social rights in human rights discourse came later, in response to the needs and challenges of an industrial and post-industrial age.

The enduring popularity and influence of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen lies in its universal scope and innovative character. Drafted in August 1789, at the height of the French Revolution, the Declaration was revolutionary not just for France, but for the whole world, establishing principles that transcended national borders and cultural particularities. The main aim of the Declaration was to clearly define fundamental rights, laying the foundations for the drafting of France's future constitution. The Constituents wanted to establish a set of principles that would guide the transformation of French society from an absolute monarchy to a society based on popular sovereignty and individual rights. The speed with which it was drafted, in just one week, testifies to the urgency and intensity of the political and social debates of the time. Despite this, the Declaration managed to capture the spirit of the times and articulate ideas that resonated deeply with the aspirations of the people. It dealt with concepts such as freedom, equality, property, and resistance to oppression, themes that were at the heart of revolutionary concerns.

The Declaration gained such popularity and respect that it has not been substantially altered since, acquiring an almost sacred status in French constitutional history. Its reputation and influence quickly spread beyond France, inspiring democratic movements and human rights struggles around the world. Its universalism and originality made the Declaration a fundamental text in the history of human rights, a document that continues to be cited and referenced in discussions on civil and political rights around the world. Its rapid drafting, far from diminishing its significance, seems to have captured the essence of revolutionary ideals in a succinct and powerful way, which partly explains its popularity and longevity.

The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, revolutionary in its content and scope, is distinguished by its universalism, intended to apply not just to French citizens but to all mankind. This approach marks a significant break with previous rights documents, which were often limited by national contexts or specific statuses. The intention of the drafters of the Declaration was to create a document that would transcend national boundaries and speak to a universal set of human rights and principles. This reflects the influence of Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, whose ideas on natural rights and popular sovereignty were based on concepts of universal humanity and inalienable rights. The emphasis placed on "man" and "the citizen" in the Declaration underlines this universal ambition. The term "man" refers to humanity as a whole, affirming rights and freedoms that are intrinsic to all human beings, regardless of their nationality or social status. At the same time, the use of the term "citizen" emphasises the active role of individuals in governance and political society, reflecting the ideals of democratic participation and popular sovereignty. The Declaration thus established a framework in which individual rights and freedoms were not just the prerogative of French citizens, but principles applicable to all peoples. Its influence has been global, inspiring human rights movements and democratic reforms far beyond France. The principles set out in the Declaration have been incorporated into numerous national constitutions and international human rights instruments, affirming its central role in the history of human rights.

The brevity of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is in fact linked to its objective of universalism. By focusing on the expression of major fundamental principles, the Declaration aimed to set out clear, powerful and widely acceptable ideas that could be understood and embraced by everyone, regardless of their national or cultural context. This approach reflects the desire of the drafters to create a document that would transcend local specificities and speak to universal aspirations for justice, freedom and equality. By refraining from getting bogged down in details or overly specific provisions, the Declaration has been able to articulate principles that are both profound and general enough to be applicable in a variety of contexts.

These principles, such as liberty, equality before the law, popular sovereignty, and the rights to property and security, were designed to withstand the tests of time and changes in political or social circumstances. Their concise wording and universal character facilitated their adoption and incorporation into legislation and constitutions throughout the world, as well as in subsequent international declarations on human rights. The brevity of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is not a limitation, but rather a strength. It allowed the document to capture the essence of revolutionary ideals in a clear and memorable way, contributing to its iconic status and lasting influence in the history of human rights.

The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen does indeed place particular emphasis on the individual, asserting rights that fall within the personal sphere and requiring the State to adopt an attitude of non-interference in certain private affairs. This approach is fundamentally rooted in individualism, a key feature of the liberal thinking that was emerging at the time. One of the central principles of the Declaration is the freedom of the individual, understood as the right to be and act without unwarranted interference by the state. This principle implies an obligation on the part of the State to limit its action in the lives of its citizens, except where necessary to protect the rights of others or for the common good. This notion of individual liberty is a reaction against the abuse of power and arbitrary interference by the State that were typical of the Ancien Régime. The importance attached to the right to property in the Declaration also reflects this trend towards individualism. Property is considered an inviolable and sacred right, underlining the value that liberal society places on individual possession and economic autonomy. The right to property is seen not only as a pillar of personal freedom, but also as an essential element of the social and economic order.

It is interesting to note that, from this perspective, the right to property does not impose any explicit obligations on society or the state beyond the recognition and protection of this right. This vision reflects the idea that the protection of individual rights, including the right to property, is in itself sufficient to guarantee a fair and balanced society. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is deeply rooted in an individualist framework, in which personal freedom and property are seen as fundamental to the development of the individual and the functioning of the State. This orientation had a considerable influence on the subsequent development of political and legal theories, particularly in Western countries.

The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted in the tumultuous aftermath of the French Revolution, quickly gained widespread popularity in France and beyond for its innovative approach and universalism. Its success can be attributed to a number of contextual and historical factors that interacted to make this document a powerful symbol of freedom and human rights. At the heart of the French Revolution, society was going through a period of profound political and social change. The ideas of Enlightenment philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "Social Contract" and John Locke's "Natural Rights" had already paved the way for a challenge to the established order. These philosophers defended the principles of individual liberty, equality and democratic governance, which are reflected in the Declaration. The Declaration, in its conciseness, brilliantly encapsulated these ideals. By emphasising individualism and property rights, it responded to a deep-seated desire for protection against abuses of state power and for recognition of individual freedoms. Individualism, in particular, resonated with the aspirations of a population eager to free itself from the shackles of the feudal and monarchical structure. In addition, the right to property was seen as a fundamental pillar of economic and personal independence, in stark contrast to the inequalities of wealth and status of the Ancien Régime.

The Declaration's impact extended far beyond France's borders. Its universalism inspired human rights movements and democratic reforms in other parts of the world. For example, the Declaration's ideals influenced revolutionary movements in nineteenth-century Europe and also played a role in the development of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, underlining its enduring and global influence. The popularity of the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was no accident of history, but the result of a perfect alignment between the aspirations of the moment, the philosophical influences of the time and the clear and powerful presentation of universal principles that continued to resonate with the emerging values of the modern age. Its legacy lives on, still symbolising the struggle for freedom and justice throughout the world.

The influence of the declarations of rights that emerged from the French Revolution, notably the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789 and the revised version of 1795, extended far beyond the borders of France, touching many countries in Europe, including Switzerland. This period was marked by the spread of French revolutionary ideals across the continent, often accompanied by political and constitutional changes in territories conquered or influenced by France. Switzerland, with its first constitution in 1798, is a notable example. The Helvetic Republic, established under French influence, adopted a constitution that reflected the principles of the French Revolution. Although this constitution was inspired by French ideas, particularly with regard to the centralisation of power and individual rights, it also had to take account of Swiss specificities and traditions.

The French Revolution had a considerable impact on Europe, not only in terms of territorial conquests but also in exporting its political and legal ideals. French declarations of rights served as a model for reformers and revolutionaries in other countries, inspiring constitutional changes and legislative reforms. They introduced concepts such as popular sovereignty, equality before the law, and individual liberties, which were new and revolutionary for many European societies at the time. However, the adoption of these ideals was not always simple or straightforward. In many cases, efforts to implement French revolutionary principles met with local resistance, entrenched traditions and complex political contexts. For example, although the Constitution of 1798 marked a milestone in Swiss constitutional history, it also gave rise to controversy and internal conflict, reflecting the challenges of adapting French revolutionary ideas to other national contexts. The influence of the French Revolution's declarations of rights spread across Europe, having a profound effect on the continent's political and legal development. Switzerland, with its constitution of 1798, is an example of how these ideas were adapted and integrated into other political systems, illustrating the lasting and widespread impact of French revolutionary principles.

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

  1. ↑ Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE
  2. ↑ Publications du professeur Victor Monnier
  3. ↑ Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE
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