The era of the superpowers: 1918 - 1989

Données clés
Faculté	Lettres
Département	Département d’histoire générale
Professeur(s)	Ludovic Tournès^[1]^[2]^[3]
Cours	Introduction to the history of international relations

Lectures

It is quite possible to consider that the era of the superpowers began in 1918 with the end of the First World War, which created an international context conducive to the emergence of two great powers: the United States and the Soviet Union. The period following the end of the First World War was marked by geopolitical and economic tensions that led to the rise of these two countries. However, it is true that the period from 1945 to 1989 is generally regarded as the height of the superpower era, due to the intense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and the arms race that marked this period. This period is also characterised by important events such as the Korean War, the Cuban crisis, the Vietnam War and the space race, which helped shape the global geopolitics of the time.

The period following the end of the First World War was marked by the gradual decline of Europe as a global power centre and the emergence of new powers such as the United States and the Soviet Union. The First World War considerably weakened European countries, which suffered enormous human and material losses. The war debts also had a negative impact on the European economy, which had difficulty in recovering after the conflict. In addition, the rise of nationalist movements and authoritarian regimes in Europe led to political and social tensions that also contributed to the region's decline.

At the same time, the United States became a major economic power thanks to its flourishing industry and its role in the First World War. The Soviet Union also became a major power after the 1917 revolution, which led to the formation of a socialist state. Over the decades, the United States and the Soviet Union have consolidated their economic, political and military power at the expense of Europe and other parts of the world. The rivalry between these two superpowers has influenced global geopolitics and shaped the history of the 20th century.

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The war record of the First World War

The First World War had a huge impact on the history of the 20th century. It caused enormous human and material losses, destroying large parts of Europe and other parts of the world. Some 8.5 million soldiers and 13 million civilians lost their lives during the war. Millions more were injured or suffered from disease, starvation and deprivation. The war also resulted in massive population displacement, forced displacement and refugees. Economically, the war had a devastating impact on Europe, which suffered considerable losses in terms of production and labour. European countries accumulated huge war debts that weighed on their economies for decades. The war also had profound political and social consequences. It led to the fall of several empires, including the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. It also contributed to the rise of communism and fascism in Europe, which influenced the history of the 20th century.

Great powers after the war

France

France suffered considerable human, economic and material losses during the First World War. The country lost about 1.5 million soldiers, a very high percentage of its total population. The north-eastern regions of France were particularly hard hit, with entire towns and villages destroyed.

In addition to the loss of life, the war also caused significant economic damage. Mining and industrial facilities were devastated, resulting in loss of production and increased unemployment. In addition, the cost of the war left the country with huge debts that weighed on the French economy for decades.

The consequences of the war also had an important social and cultural impact in France. The war led to profound changes in French society, including an increase in the participation of women in economic and political life and a questioning of traditional values.

Despite these challenges, France managed to rebuild itself after the war and to become an important economic and cultural power in Europe again.

Germany

Germany suffered considerable loss of life during the First World War, with between 1.7 and 2 million dead. The country also suffered significant economic damage as a result of the war and the reparations that were imposed by the Treaty of Versailles.

The treaty required Germany to pay heavy financial reparations, reduce its army and fleet, and cede territory to its neighbours. This humiliation was felt by many German citizens, who regarded the treaty as unfair and humiliating.

In addition, Germany was hit by a Bolshevik revolutionary wave, which was inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917. German socialists took power in November 1918, but their government soon faced political and social unrest.

However, unlike France, the fighting of the war was mainly outside Germany's borders, allowing the country to emerge relatively unscathed. This also allowed Germany to rebuild more quickly than some other European countries after the war, although this was interrupted by the Great Depression of the 1930s and the rise of Nazism.

Austria-Hungary

The First World War had a major impact on the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed at the end of the war. The empire was a multinational state that had been established in 1867 and had played a key role in Central Europe for most of the 19th century.

However, the war highlighted the internal divisions of the empire, particularly between the different nationalities that made up the empire. In addition, the war drained the empire's resources and resulted in considerable loss of life.

In October 1918, the empire collapsed and split into several independent states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. This fragmentation had important consequences for the region, as it created new states with often disputed borders and mixed populations.

The break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire also had international repercussions, as it contributed to the rise of German power in Central Europe. In addition, the political and economic consequences of the fragmentation of the empire had an impact on the stability of the region in the years following the end of the war.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire also suffered the consequences of the First World War, with a collapse that was precipitated by the war.

The Ottoman Empire was a multinational empire that had been established in the early 14th century and reached its peak in the 16th century. However, by the 19th century, the empire had begun to lose influence, due to the rise of Europe and the disintegration of the empire's internal political unity.

The war further aggravated the situation of the Ottoman Empire. The empire initially joined the central powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary) but suffered several major defeats against British, French and Australian forces in the Middle East region. These defeats resulted in significant territorial losses for the Ottoman Empire.

After the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire disintegrated and split into several independent states, including Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Palestine and Jordan. This fragmentation had important implications for the region, as it created new states with often contested borders and mixed populations.

In addition, the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire had important geopolitical implications for Europe and the Middle East in the years following the end of the war. Regional conflicts and political tensions persisted in the region, largely due to the complexity of territorial and ethnic issues that emerged after the collapse of the empire.

Russia

Russia suffered heavy losses in the First World War and was plagued by major economic, political and social problems. In 1917, a revolution broke out in Russia, led by the Bolsheviks led by Lenin. The Russian government was overthrown and replaced by a communist regime.

The new government quickly took the decision to withdraw Russia from the war, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany and its allies in 1918. This treaty allowed Russia to withdraw from the war, but at the cost of losing large areas of territory, notably in Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic States.

Russia's exit from the war had important consequences for the other powers involved in the conflict. The Allies lost an important ally on the Eastern Front and faced additional pressures on the Western Fronts. However, the entry of the United States into the war also provided additional support to the Allies, in terms of troops, equipment and funding.

Domestically, the revolution in Russia brought about a profound change in Russia's political, social and economic landscape. The new communist government nationalised land and industries, and launched radical reforms in all areas of life. This led to a period of chaos and violence, as well as significant economic losses for Russia.

Britain

Great Britain emerged from the First World War seemingly a little better off than France and Germany, as its territory was not directly affected by the fighting. However, it suffered heavy human and economic losses during the war.

By contrast, Great Britain managed to expand its colonial empire during the war. It conquered the German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and also obtained new territories in the Arabian Peninsula at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. This territorial expansion strengthened the British Empire and consolidated its status as a major world power.

However, Britain also faced significant challenges in the post-war period, including a weakened economy, high debt and social and political unrest, particularly with the rise of the labour and independence movements in Ireland.

Europe

The First World War caused immense loss of life in Europe, with around 10 million deaths, mostly men. This figure does not take into account indirect deaths, such as those caused by famine and disease, as well as civilian deaths caused by conflict.

These casualties had a dramatic impact on the demography of Europe, resulting in a significant population decline in some regions. Losses were particularly high in countries such as France, Germany, Russia and the UK.

The phenomenon of the 'hollow classes' describes a demographic consequence of the war, which saw the disappearance of a large part of the male generation of childbearing age. This led to a decline in the birth rate in the years following the war, with significant economic and social consequences.

In geopolitical terms, the First World War caused major upheavals in Europe. The peace treaties that ended the war redrawn the borders of many countries, creating new states or modifying existing ones. This period also saw the emergence of new powers, notably the United States and the Soviet Union, which began to play a greater role on the world stage.

The First World War had a profound effect on European societies, leading to an unprecedented moral and cultural crisis. The horrors of war led to a questioning of the idea of progress and faith in reason and science, as well as a questioning of the authority of traditional elites and institutions.

This crisis of civilisation also gave rise to new artistic and intellectual currents, such as Dadaism, Surrealism and Existentialism, which sought to express the anguish and disillusionment of the post-war period. It also helped to fuel far-right political movements, which sought to propose authoritarian solutions to the crisis of civilisation

The First World War led to profound geopolitical upheavals in Europe and around the world. The central empires were dismantled, the map of Europe was redrawn, new states emerged and new alliances were formed. The former European powers lost their global dominance to the USA and the USSR, which became the two post-war superpowers.

Economically, the war led to rampant inflation, massive public debt, falling output and rising unemployment. European states faced major financial difficulties in rebuilding their economies and infrastructures devastated by the war.

Finally, in human terms, the war left deep scars on society. Millions of people were killed or wounded, and many families were destroyed by the loss of loved ones. Survivors have had to cope with psychological and physical trauma, and have struggled to find their place in a rapidly changing society.

The Peace Conference

The Council of Four at the peace conference: Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson.

The Paris Peace Conference took place after the end of the First World War, in January 1919. It was convened to settle peace issues between the victors and the defeated of the war. The main players at the conference were the Allied countries that had won the war, namely the United States, France, Britain, Italy and Japan. However, it is important to note that the conference was also open to the participation of defeated countries, such as Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. These countries were excluded from certain discussions and did not have the same decision-making power as the victorious powers.

During the conference, the main decisions were taken by the 'Big Four', namely the United States, France, Great Britain and Italy. Japan, although considered a great power, did not play as important a role as the other four.

The United States played an important role in the Paris Peace Conference and President Woodrow Wilson played a key role in formulating the agenda of the conference.

Wilson's Fourteen Points

Wilson presented his 'Fourteen Points' to the US Congress in January 1918, in which he proposed a programme for securing international peace and stability after the end of World War I.^[4] The points included proposals for a reduction in armaments, self-determination of peoples, free movement of ships in peacetime, the creation of an international organisation to prevent future conflicts, and other measures to strengthen international cooperation.

These points were widely regarded as ambitious and innovative, and helped to make Wilson a leading figure in the peace conference discussions. However, not all of the points were adopted in the final conference agreements and some of Wilson's proposals were rejected by other conference participants. Despite this, the presentation of the Fourteen Points had a significant impact on international diplomacy and strengthened the position of the United States as a leader in international affairs. It also contributed to the emergence of a new world order after the end of the First World War.

Wilson's Fourteen Points addressed both the immediate issues associated with the end of the First World War and the wider problems that contributed to the war. The points sought to establish a fairer and more stable international order, and stressed the importance of international cooperation in achieving this. The United States sought to establish itself as a major player in the Peace Conference and in international diplomacy more broadly. This position was largely due to the United States' relative isolation from the European conflicts, which left the country relatively unscathed by the destruction and loss of life of the war. This allowed the US to adopt a position of power and morality, which was reinforced by the presentation of Wilson's Fourteen Points. However, this position was not widely accepted by the other participants in the conference, particularly France and the United Kingdom, who had suffered considerable human and material losses during the war and were primarily seeking to protect their national interests. Despite this, the United States played an important role in the Paris Peace Conference and contributed to the establishment of a new world order after the end of the First World War.

The Fourteen Points fell into three main categories:

1) Points aimed at establishing transparency and justice in international relations, including:

The abolition of secret diplomacy: the end of secret diplomacy was one of the main points of Wilson's Fourteen Points. The European system of states was based on a balance of power, with each state seeking to maintain its influence and position by concluding secret alliances and agreements with other states. This often resulted in opacity in international relations and a lack of trust between states. Wilson therefore advocated an end to secret diplomacy in order to clarify international relations and make them more fluid. Instead, he proposed that states should conduct open and transparent negotiations, in order to build relationships based on trust and avoid misunderstandings and future conflicts. This proposal was part of an in-depth reform of the international system of the time, which had shown its limitations during the First World War.
Freedom of the seas: Freedom of navigation on the seas was also one of the key points of Wilson's Fourteen Points. He advocated absolute freedom of navigation on the seas, both in time of war and peace, for all states without exception. This meant that all ships should be allowed to sail the oceans freely without being attacked or held back by blockades or restrictions imposed by other states. This freedom of navigation was seen as a universal and inalienable right, which should be protected by international law. Freedom of navigation went hand in hand with the removal of economic barriers between nations, another point in Wilson's Fourteen Points. Indeed, without barriers to the movement of goods and services, international trade could have developed more freely and fairly, thus contributing to wider and more sustainable economic prosperity.
The removal of economic barriers between nations: The lowering of tariff barriers was also an important point in Wilson's Fourteen Points, which aimed to promote trade between nations and facilitate international economic cooperation. However, this proposal was debated and controversial, as some states feared losing their economic independence and their ability to protect their own national industry. In addition, the implementation of the lowering of customs barriers could favour the economic interests of the more powerful countries, to the detriment of the weaker ones.
The assurance of national sovereignty and political independence was one of the key points of Wilson's Fourteen Points. It was about guaranteeing each state its full sovereignty and political independence, free from foreign interference or domination. Within this framework, Wilson advocated the abolition of annexations of territory and forced transfers of sovereignty, and respect for the rights of national minorities. He also called for the establishment of mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of international conflicts in order to prevent wars and infringements of national sovereignty. The aim of this proposal was to create a fairer and more equitable international order, based on respect for the sovereign rights of each state, and to put an end to the imperialist and colonialist practices that had prevailed in international relations until then. This point has since been widely taken up and defended by the international community, notably in the United Nations Charter.

2) The points aimed at reorganising Europe after the war, notably :

Withdrawal of German military forces from occupied territories: The withdrawal of German military forces from occupied territories was also an important point in Wilson's Fourteen Points. The aim was to end the German occupation of many territories in Europe, including Belgium, France and other countries, and to restore the independence of these states. The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France was one of the key points of Wilson's Fourteen Points. Alsace-Lorraine was a region of France that had been annexed by Germany in 1871, following the Franco-German War. During the First World War, the region became a point of contention between France and Germany, with violent clashes taking place in the area. As part of the Fourteen Points, Wilson sought to resolve this issue by calling for the return of Alsace-Lorraine to France. This decision was welcomed by the French and helped to strengthen Wilson's position as an international leader. Wilson also called for the return of annexed or illegally occupied territories, as well as the evacuation of German military forces from all German-controlled areas. He thus sought to restore an international order based on respect for state sovereignty and territorial integrity. This proposal was widely supported by the Allies during the First World War, and was incorporated into the peace agreements that followed the war, notably the Treaty of Versailles. However, the implementation of these provisions has been difficult and controversial, particularly with regard to the war reparations demanded from Germany and the consequences of the war on national borders and minorities in Europe.
The reduction of national frontiers in Europe: The reduction of national frontiers in Europe was not a specific point in Wilson's Fourteen Points, but rather an indirect consequence of his proposal to ensure national sovereignty and political independence of each state. Indeed, Wilson advocated the recognition of the full sovereignty of each state, as well as respect for the rights of national minorities, in order to prevent conflicts and tensions between states. This proposal therefore implied some form of recognition of existing national borders and a guarantee of their inviolability. However, the question of the reduction of national borders in Europe arose several times during the 20th century, notably after the First World War, with the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, and after the Second World War, with the creation of new states and the redefinition of borders. The reduction of national borders is therefore a complex issue, which can be a source of conflict and tension between states and national communities, and which often requires a careful and balanced approach, taking into account the aspirations and interests of the different parties involved.
Ensuring the sovereignty and autonomy of oppressed peoples: The assurance of the sovereignty and autonomy of oppressed peoples was an important point in Wilson's Fourteen Points. Wilson considered that lasting peace could only be achieved if the rights of oppressed peoples were respected, and that these peoples should be allowed to decide their own fate. This proposal therefore implied the recognition of the autonomy and sovereignty of many peoples who were then under foreign domination, such as the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe under Austro-Hungarian rule, the peoples of the Balkans under Ottoman domination, and the African and Asian colonies under European rule. Wilson also called for the creation of an international organisation to protect the rights of oppressed peoples and to settle international disputes, the League of Nations, which was established in 1920. Although the ideals of Wilson's Fourteen Points were widely welcomed, their implementation was difficult and often limited by the interests of the great powers, as well as by divisions and rivalries among the oppressed peoples themselves. However, the recognition of the importance of the sovereignty and autonomy of oppressed peoples was an important element in the decolonisation movement and the struggle for minority rights that followed the First World War.

3) Points aimed at establishing an international organisation for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, including :

The establishment of an international organisation to secure peace: The establishment of an international organisation to secure peace was one of the most important points in Wilson's Fourteen Points. Wilson considered that war was often caused by the lack of mechanisms for settling disputes between nations, and that the creation of an international organisation capable of settling international disputes was essential to prevent further wars. This proposal led to the creation of the League of Nations (League) in 1920, which aimed to promote international cooperation and prevent conflict between nations. The League was composed of members representing all the major powers of the day and had a mandate to monitor international relations, settle disputes between member states and impose sanctions against states that did not abide by international rules. Although the League failed to prevent the rise of nationalism and tensions that led to World War II, it laid the foundation for the United Nations (UN), which was created in 1945 to replace the League after the war ended.
The promotion of international cooperation in economic, social and cultural affairs: The promotion of international cooperation in economic, social and cultural affairs is indeed one of the key points of the Wilson Fourteen Points. Specifically, the fourteenth point stresses the importance of creating an international organisation to regulate world trade and promote economic cooperation between nations. Wilson believed that international economic cooperation was essential to ensure lasting peace and global prosperity. Wilson's fourteenth point stated, "A general association of nations should be formed under specific engagements to secure reciprocity of commercial privileges and reduction of national armaments." This point called for the creation of an international organisation to regulate world trade and to encourage economic cooperation between nations. This organisation should ensure that nations were treated fairly and that there were no unfair trade barriers.
The resolution of international disputes by peaceful rather than military means: The resolution of international disputes by peaceful rather than military means is another key point in Wilson's Fourteen Points. This meant that nations should work together to find peaceful solutions to conflicts and avoid the use of military force. As part of the Fourteen Points, Wilson also called for the creation of an international organisation to guarantee world peace and security, as well as the reduction of national military armaments. The overall aim of these points was to end international war and conflict, and to build a lasting peace between nations.

The Fourteen Points had an important influence on the end of the First World War and the subsequent Treaty of Versailles negotiations. Although some of the points were included in the Treaty of Versailles, most were not implemented, leading to future tensions and conflicts.

After the end of the First World War, US President Woodrow Wilson was a strong supporter of the creation of an international organisation to maintain peace and security in the world. This organisation, called the League of Nations, was founded in 1919 as part of the Treaty of Versailles. Although the creation of the League of Nations was considered an important historical moment in the history of international relations, it was eventually criticised for being ineffective in preventing the Second World War. Wilson was criticised for being naïve and idealistic in his vision of the League of Nations and for overestimating the willingness and ability of nations to cooperate to keep the peace. In particular, Wilson was criticised for being overly optimistic about the League of Nations' ability to resolve international conflicts and for not including binding clauses in the Treaty of Versailles to ensure the implementation of its principles. Ultimately, the League of Nations was dissolved in 1946 and replaced by the United Nations, which was created with stronger structures to ensure more effective international cooperation. However, some historians argue that Wilson was a visionary who laid the foundations for international cooperation and global governance, although he has been criticised for being naive in implementing his ideas.

The Fourteen Points, presented by President Wilson in January 1918, represented a radical new vision of international relations. They were designed to promote peace and stability in Europe after the First World War by offering an alternative to the traditional balance of power that had prevailed before the war. The Fourteen Points included ideas such as the reduction of armaments, the opening up of international markets, the right of self-determination for peoples, the creation of an international organisation to settle conflicts and the guarantee of the security of national borders. This approach represented a significant shift from the traditional balance of power, which advocated alliances between the great powers to maintain peace. Although the Fourteen Points were presented as an idealistic and humanitarian vision, some argued that their real purpose was to serve the economic and political interests of the United States by promoting an international order based on democracy and free trade. Indeed, the opening of international markets was particularly important to US economic interests, which sought to increase their influence and dominance over world trade.

The Treaties

A series of treaties were signed from June 1919 to end the First World War and establish a new world order. The most important treaties are the following:

The Treaty of Versailles: signed on 28 June 1919 between Germany and the Allies, this treaty established the conditions for peace after the First World War. It imposed economic and territorial sanctions on Germany, which had to cede territory, pay reparations and acknowledge its responsibility for the outbreak of the war.
The Treaty of St. Germain: signed on 10 September 1919 between the Allies and Austria-Hungary, this treaty ended the Austro-Hungarian Empire and established new independent states in Central Europe.
The Treaty of Trianon: signed on 4 June 1920 between the Allies and Hungary, this treaty redrawn the map of Central and Eastern Europe by recognising the independence of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania.
The Treaty of Neuilly: signed on 27 November 1919 between the Allies and Bulgaria, this treaty ended Bulgaria's participation in the First World War and established economic and territorial sanctions.
The Treaty of Sèvres: signed on 10 August 1920 between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire, this treaty ended the Ottoman Empire's participation in the First World War and established the conditions for the creation of new independent states in Asia and Africa.

These treaties redrawn the political map of Europe and created a new world order that was largely influenced by the ideals of Wilson's Fourteen Points. However, they also generated criticism and tensions that contributed to the rise of nationalism and the build-up to the Second World War.

The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was an international agreement signed on 28 June 1919, at the end of the First World War, between the Allies and Germany. It is considered one of the most important treaties of the 20th century and had a lasting impact on world history. The treaty established the conditions for peace after the war and imposed heavy economic and territorial reparations on Germany, which was considered responsible for the conflict. Germany had to accept the loss of its colonies, some of its regions, its war fleet and its sovereignty over the Rhineland. The country also had to pay substantial reparations to the countries that had suffered from the war, which led to a major economic and political crisis in Germany in the 1920s. The Treaty of Versailles also established the League of Nations, an international organisation aimed at maintaining peace and security in the world. However, the United States did not ratify the treaty and therefore did not join the League of Nations, limiting its effectiveness. The Treaty of Versailles has been criticised for its harshness towards Germany, which was widely seen as unfair and humiliating. Some historians have also argued that the terms of the treaty created the conditions for the rise of Nazism in Germany and the Second World War. Ultimately, the Treaty of Versailles remains an important subject of debate and reflection in the history of international diplomacy.

The German question and territorial issues were fundamental points in the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War. The German question refers to Germany's responsibility for the outbreak of the war. The Treaty of Versailles declared Germany guilty of the war and imposed heavy economic and territorial sanctions on the country. Germany had to acknowledge the guilt of the war, pay reparations and cede territory to France, Belgium, Poland, Denmark and Czechoslovakia. The treaty also limited the size of the German army and prohibited the manufacture of weapons. Territorial issues arose after the First World War due to the disintegration of several European empires. New states were created in Central and Eastern Europe, including Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland, to which Germany had to cede territory. The Treaty of Versailles also created the British Mandate over Palestine and the French Mandate over Syria and Lebanon, laying the foundations for the current tensions in the Middle East. Both of these had important consequences for the history of the 20th century, including contributing to the rise of nationalism and fascism in Germany and the build-up to the Second World War. The conditions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles also influenced the international diplomacy of the interwar period, which sought to avoid further conflict while maintaining political stability in Europe.

German responsibility

The Treaty of Versailles officially recognised Germany as being responsible for the outbreak of the First World War. Article 231 of the treaty, also known as the guilt clause, stated that Germany and its allies had caused all the damage and losses suffered by the Allies during the war. This clause had major consequences for Germany, including the need to pay massive war reparations to the victim countries, as well as the loss of territories and colonies. However, this attribution of responsibility is still the subject of debate among historians. Some argue that responsibility for the war should be shared more widely between the various European powers, while others believe that Germany was primarily responsible because of its expansionist ambitions and aggressive diplomacy.

The Treaty of Versailles imposed several sanctions on Germany in response to its alleged responsibility for the outbreak of the First World War. Some of these sanctions include:

Disarmament: Germany was forced to drastically reduce the size of its army and limit the number of its warships. It was also forbidden to possess an air force and to produce weapons of war.
Restitution of Alsace-Lorraine: Germany was forced to give up Alsace-Lorraine, a resource-rich and populous region that it had annexed following the Franco-Prussian War of 1870.
Financial reparations: Germany was forced to pay massive war reparations to the victim countries, mainly France and the UK. The initial amount of reparations was 132 billion gold marks, a very high figure which was considered by many to be excessive. The payments were to be spread over several decades, but Germany soon ran into economic difficulties and stopped paying the reparations in the 1930s.

These sanctions were highly controversial and contributed to economic and political instability in Germany in the years following World War I. War reparations were also a source of tension between Germany and the Allied powers, particularly France, which insisted that Germany continue to pay reparations even after it stopped paying them in the 1930s.

The sanctions imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles were very harsh and had disastrous consequences for the country economically and politically. The perception that Germany was responsible for the war also led to great national humiliation, which fuelled resentment towards the Allied powers. In the 1920s, Germany experienced a severe economic crisis, marked by hyperinflation and mass unemployment. This economic crisis, combined with the perceived injustice of the sanctions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles, created a climate of discontent and political instability in Germany. These conditions contributed to the rise of Nazism, a political movement that exploited nationalist and anti-foreign sentiments in Germany. The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, won the 1933 elections and quickly established an authoritarian regime in Germany, ending the Weimar Republic.

Two divergent positions existed regarding the reparations imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles.

On the one hand, there were the countries that had suffered great destruction during the war, such as France, Belgium and Serbia, which wanted a strict application of the treaty and financial compensation for their losses. These countries were particularly affected by the consequences of the war and sought fair financial compensation for the damage they had suffered.

On the other hand, the United States and Great Britain had underlying economic interests. They were aware that Germany was an important trading partner and that its economic strangulation could have negative consequences for the world economy as a whole. They therefore advocated a more flexible application of the treaty and a reduction of the reparations imposed on Germany.

This difference in position created tensions between the Allied countries and contributed to the questioning of the Treaty of Versailles in the years following its signing. Eventually, the economic crisis of the 1920s and the rise of Nazism in Germany undermined the implementation of reparations and led the Allies to revise the terms of the treaty.

This opposition was not, however, clear-cut at Versailles. It was clear-cut in the sense that Germany was held responsible; between the letter of the treaty and its implementation there was a great difference, which throughout the 1920s was to oppose antagonistic visions.

In addition to the obligation to pay financial compensation, Germany also had to provide reparations in kind to compensate for the losses suffered by the Allied countries during the war.

Germany had to cede coal mines and steelworks in the east of the country, the most industrialised region, to the Allied countries, in particular France. The Saar mines thus became the property of France for 15 years.

In addition, Germany was forced to reduce its customs duties and open its domestic market to foreign products, in particular French products. This was to enable the Allied countries to export more to Germany, to compensate for the losses suffered during the war and to revive the economies of the Allied countries.

These measures had significant economic consequences for Germany, reducing its ability to produce and market its own products. They also fuelled resentment among the German population towards the Allied countries and contributed to the rise of Nazism in the 1920s and 1930s.

The economic crisis that hit Germany from 1920-1921 made it difficult for the country to pay the reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. This difficulty led to a series of crises, including the Ruhr Crisis in 1923. The Ruhr Crisis erupted when Germany refused to pay the reparations imposed by the Allies and France sent troops to occupy the Ruhr region, an important industrial area that produced steel, coal and other essential materials. The occupation led to a general strike and passive resistance by German workers, which paralysed the region's economy. This crisis had a significant impact on the German economy as a whole, exacerbating the economic and political crisis that already existed in the country. It also increased resentment towards the Allied countries and contributed to the rise of Nazism in Germany.

France occupied the Ruhr region militarily in 1923, in response to Germany's refusal to pay the reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. However, this occupation was opposed by Britain and the United States, which pressured France to abandon the region. This crisis eventually led to a renegotiation of reparations, with the adoption of the Dawes Plan in 1924, which provided for a rescheduling of payments and foreign financial aid to Germany. This Ruhr crisis was important because it symbolised France's loss of power on the international stage. France was forced to submit to the demands of its allies and had to accept a downward renegotiation of reparations, which was seen as a political defeat. This crisis also contributed to the rise of the far right in Germany, which used the Ruhr crisis to criticise the German government and the Allied countries.

The Dawes Plan was an international economic plan proposed in 1924 by Charles Dawes, Vice President of the United States, to help Germany repay the war reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. The plan provided for a system of loans and repayments over several years, as well as guarantees from the British and French governments for German payments. The plan also allowed Germany to benefit from a deferral of reparations payments for the following years. The Dawes Plan was seen as a victory for the United States, as it allowed American banks to lend money to Germany and invest in its economy. Furthermore, it strengthened the position of the United States as the dominant economic power in the world, while Europe was recovering from the First World War.

The Dawes Plan of 1924 was put in place in response to the economic crisis that hit Germany after the First World War. The Treaty of Versailles had imposed large war reparations on Germany which it could not pay without financial help from abroad. The Dawes Plan allowed American banks to invest in Germany by providing low-interest loans to help finance reconstruction and pay off war debts. In exchange, Germany agreed to follow a schedule of reparations payments and to abide by the terms of the agreement.

US banks played a key role in implementing the Dawes Plan by providing low-interest loans to help finance the reconstruction and modernisation of the German economy. These loans were used to build new factories, modernise infrastructure and increase industrial production in Germany. In addition, US banks provided technical assistance to help German companies modernise their production methods and adopt advanced technologies. This assistance enabled Germany to produce high-quality goods and sell them abroad, which helped stimulate economic growth.

The Dawes Plan had different effects on European countries, depending on their position in the world economy and their geopolitical interests.

From Germany's point of view, the Dawes Plan was a boon, as it helped stabilise its economy after the economic crisis following the First World War. American investment modernised German industry, boosted production and exports, and reduced unemployment. In addition, the plan allowed Germany to pay off its war debts in instalments, which reduced the financial pressure on the country. From the French perspective, however, the Dawes Plan was seen as an economic imbalance and a threat to national security. France feared that Germany would not be able to repay its debts and that it would again become a threat to European security. In addition, France saw the Dawes Plan as a way for the United States to extend its economic influence in Europe, which strengthened the economic ties between Germany and the United States.

The Dawes Plan contributed to the economic prosperity of the United States in the 1920s. Loans to Germany allowed American banks to earn interest and make profits. In addition, American investment in Germany created new markets for American companies, which helped boost the export of American goods to Germany. Between 1924 and 1929, American banks received payments for the loans they had granted to Germany. These payments helped strengthen the US banking system and financed new investment in the US. However, it is important to stress that the economic prosperity of the United States in the 1920s was also fuelled by other factors, such as growth in industrial production, mass consumption, technological innovation and the expansion of domestic and foreign markets. The Dawes Plan therefore contributed to American economic prosperity, but it was not the only factor.

The Dawes Plan was replaced in 1929 by the Young Plan, which pursued the same objectives of repairing war debts and stabilising the German economy. The Young Plan was named after Owen D. Young, an American banker who headed the international commission that drafted the plan.

The Young Plan further reduced the reparations payments that Germany had to make to the Allies, which helped to relieve the financial pressure on Germany. In exchange, Germany agreed to implement economic and political reforms to stimulate economic growth and strengthen its political stability.

Like the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan was supported by the United States, which provided loans to help Germany repay its war debts and finance its economic recovery. The Young Plan pursued the objective of reducing Germany's war reparations payments to the Allies by proposing a rescheduling of debts to ease German repayments. Specifically, the Young Plan extended the period of repayment of Germany's war debts to 1988, thereby significantly reducing the amount of annual payments. The Young Plan also provided Germany with additional loans to stimulate its economy, in exchange for the implementation of economic and political reforms aimed at strengthening the country's stability.

However, the Young Plan also faced similar difficulties to those faced by the Dawes Plan, notably the global economic crisis of 1929, which had a considerable impact on Germany and made it more difficult to repay its war debts. In addition, political and military tensions continued to rise in Europe, largely due to the rise of Nazism in Germany and German expansionism in the 1930s. The Young Plan was unable to prevent the escalation of these tensions, which eventually led to the Second World War.

Territorial issues

Europe in 1923.

After the First World War ended, many territorial changes took place in Europe. Some of these changes were decided by the victors of the war as part of the Treaty of Versailles, while others were the result of nationalist movements or regional conflicts. There are seven more states in Europe than in 1914. In 1914, Europe was mainly divided into empires and kingdoms, such as the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of France. At the end of the First World War, these empires collapsed and new states were created, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania).

Germany's territorial amputation was significant after the Treaty of Versailles. Territorial losses included Alsace-Lorraine in the west, which was ceded to France, and part of East Prussia in the east, which was given to Poland. The Danzig corridor was also established to give Poland access to the sea. In all, Germany lost about 13% of its territory and 10% of its population. This loss of territory was felt as a great injustice by the Germans and fuelled nationalist resentment, particularly among the Nazis, who used this argument to justify their expansionist policies.

The end of the First World War saw the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the birth of several new states. Austria and Hungary became independent states, while Czechoslovakia was created by combining the Czech and Slovak regions. Part of the Austro-Hungarian territory was attached to Romania, while Italy obtained Trentino and Istria. Finally, Yugoslavia was created by the merger of several regions, including Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. These territorial changes profoundly altered the map of Europe, with new borders that would generate tensions and conflicts in the years to come.

The Russian Empire broke up after the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the Bolshevik takeover. The western part of Russia was affected by the various territorial reconstructions. Thus, Poland regained its independence and the eastern part of Russia. The Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia also gained independence. Finally, Bessarabia was annexed by Romania in 1918.

The Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its Arab possessions to France and Britain, which established mandates over Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Palestine and Transjordan. However, the Empire was not limited to Anatolia, which was only a part of its territory. After the end of the First World War, a war of independence broke out in Anatolia under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, who founded the Republic of Turkey in 1923 and succeeded in having the Treaty of Sevres, which provided for the partition of Turkey, annulled. The 1920 Treaty of Sevres had provided for the creation of an independent Kurdish state, but this was never implemented. Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic, fought a war of independence against the Allies and succeeded in having the Treaty of Sevres annulled. The Treaty of Lausanne of 1923 was then signed between Turkey and the Allies, who renounced most of their territorial claims in Anatolia. Kurdistan was not recognised as an independent state in this treaty and was divided between Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria.

The new map of Europe and the Middle East did not fit all actors. National claims were often contradictory and led to tensions in several countries. In Germany, the loss of Alsace-Lorraine was felt as a national humiliation and fuelled German resentment. In Czechoslovakia, German and Hungarian minorities began to claim autonomy, leading to the Sudetenland crisis in 1938. In Yugoslavia, tensions between the different nationalities broke out in 1991, leading to the dissolution of the country. Overall, the new map of Europe and the Middle East failed to resolve the problems of national claims and even contributed to tensions that eventually led to major conflicts.

The inter-war period

The war profoundly transformed the balance of power in Europe and the world, weakening the central empires (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire) and strengthening the United States and the Soviet Union. On the other hand, the League of Nations, created in 1919 to maintain world peace, was an attempt to settle international conflicts through cooperation and international law, but it proved powerless in the face of the aggression of fascist states (Italy, Germany, Japan) in the 1930s. In addition, the interwar period was marked by major economic and social upheavals, including the emergence of new industrial powers (USA, Japan, USSR), rising unemployment and social tensions, as well as radical political movements (communism, fascism, Nazism) that challenged the foundations of liberal democracy. Finally, the inter-war period was marked by important cultural and artistic transformations, with the emergence of artistic movements such as Surrealism, Dadaism or Expressionism, as well as the spread of mass culture with the appearance of cinema, radio and the written press. Thus, the inter-war period was a pivotal time in world history, marked by major political, economic, social and cultural upheavals, which profoundly transformed the world and set the stage for the dramatic events that were to follow in the 1930s and 1940s.

The new geopolitical situation

The First World War brought about major geopolitical changes in Europe and the world. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, redrawn the borders of Europe and imposed massive war reparations on Germany. It also created the League of Nations, which aimed to promote international peace and cooperation. However, the Treaty of Versailles failed to maintain peace in Europe, and the rise of Nazism in Germany in the 1930s led to the Second World War.

France is considered to be on the winning side, thanks to its participation in the First World War and its reputation of having the best army in the world. However, despite these past successes, France faced a weakening of its power and was obsessed with its security throughout the inter-war period. Although economically strangled, Germany retained significant economic potential because of the little destruction it had suffered in the First World War. This worried France, which sought to recover its power and prevent the reorganisation of the German army and its economic recovery. France relied on alliances of setbacks, notably with Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia, to encircle Germany and limit its capacity to act. The construction of the Maginot Line is an example of this defensive strategy put in place by France to prevent a German invasion. However, despite these efforts, France was seen as a declining power because of its difficulties in regaining its dominant position and its obsession with its security in the face of Germany.

Great Britain: Britain emerged from the First World War seemingly strengthened, thanks in particular to the increase in its colonial empire following the conquest of the German colonies in Africa and the establishment of mandates in the Middle East. However, it faced economic and social difficulties, pushing it into relative decline and placing it second only to the United States. Its status as the world's leading financial centre was also challenged by the United States, which now held the majority of the world's gold stock after the war. In the inter-war period, Great Britain was unable to play its role as arbiter on the European scene, unable to counter the rise of Nazi Germany. In addition, from 1931 onwards, Britain granted independence to its dominions, such as Canada, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia, which marked a loss of influence for the UK. Despite these difficulties, Britain remained a major power on the world stage, with considerable influence in many areas. However, its relative decline and the rise of the United States are important factors that will influence the history of Europe and the world in the years to come.

United States: The United States was undoubtedly the big winner of the First World War, becoming a world power that imposed its vision of international order under the leadership of President Wilson. However, in 1920, the US Congress disavowed Wilson by refusing to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and join the League of Nations, causing a relative return to isolationism. Despite this, the United States continued to intervene in various parts of the world. In Latin America, its economic and military presence was strengthened, particularly in Haiti, Nicaragua and Panama, to the detriment of France and Britain, which had to redirect their financial flows to the war effort. In the Far East, the Treaty of Washington forced Japan and Britain to ally themselves with the United States, forcing the Japanese to give up their presence in China and to scale back their ambitions. In the Middle East, the 1920s were marked by bargaining between the European powers and the French, German, British and American oil companies. The United States became a major player in the region, seeking to defend its economic interests while becoming politically involved in the region.

Germany and Italy were deeply affected by the rise of totalitarian regimes in the 1920s and 1930s. In Germany, the economic and political crisis led to the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in 1933. Hitler established a dictatorial regime, the Third Reich, which eliminated political opponents, Jews and other minorities and pursued a policy of aggressive territorial expansion that led to the Second World War. In Italy, Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party came to power in 1922, after a march on Rome. Mussolini established an authoritarian regime that eliminated political opponents, the free press and created a cult of personality around him. He pursued an expansionist policy in North Africa and formed the Axis with Nazi Germany during the Second World War. Both totalitarian regimes had dramatic consequences for Europe and the world. They led to the deaths of millions of people, caused immense material destruction and disrupted the international political and economic order. The fall of these regimes after the Second World War led to the reconstruction of Europe and the emergence of a new world order.

Italy: Mussolini exploited the theme of mutilated victory, i.e. that not all his claims had been met, in particular his desire to annex Dalmatia. To compensate for this, Mussolini engaged in colonial expansion, notably in Ethiopia. He also set up an authoritarian and fascist regime, inspired by Nazi ideologies in Germany. The cult of personality, the standardisation of the army and youth movements are all symbols of this rise in power of Italian fascism. In foreign policy, Mussolini sought to extend Italy's influence in the Mediterranean by concluding agreements with Germany and Japan as part of the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. However, this expansionist policy led to military defeats and eventually to the fall of the Fascist regime in 1943.
Germany: Germany is a country marked by the rise of totalitarianism. After the defeat in the First World War, the Treaty of Versailles humiliated and demilitarised Germany. The weakness of the German democratic tradition led to the fall of the Weimar Republic and the rise of the Nazi party led by Adolf Hitler. From the moment he came to power in 1933, Hitler set out to overturn the Treaty of Versailles:
- In 1935, he reinstated military service in Germany. The Treaty of Versailles had reduced the German army to 100,000 men in the form of a professional army, thus prohibiting conscription.
- In 1936, Hitler remilitarised the Rhineland, a demilitarised zone since the end of the First World War. He stationed troops next to the French border, which created great international tension.
- In 1938, at the Munich Conference, Hitler obtained the annexation of the Sudetenland, a Czech region populated by Germans. This was done without the agreement of Czechoslovakia and France and the United Kingdom, who gave in to German demands to avoid war.
- In 1939, Hitler seized Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland, triggering the Second World War. Nazi Germany's expansionist policies led to rising international tensions and an arms race, which helped to push the world into war.

In the aftermath of the First World War, a large part of the European population wanted peace at all costs. The memories of the war were still very present and the reconstruction of the continent required considerable effort. However, this pacifist mentality was gradually eroded in the 1930s with the rise to power of authoritarian leaders such as Hitler in Germany and Mussolini in Italy. Faced with these regimes that challenged the established order, the French and British tried to preserve peace at all costs, even to the point of making major concessions. The aim was to avoid a new war that could have been even more deadly than the previous one and cause even greater economic damage. This conciliatory attitude led to a series of compromises that ultimately encouraged German and Italian expansionism. Thus, the policy of appeasement pursued by the French and British leaders was widely criticised for allowing the rise of totalitarian regimes and the outbreak of the Second World War. This period marked a profound change in the world order of the 20th century and led to an awareness of the need to preserve peace at all costs, without giving in to pressure from authoritarian regimes.

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, "Russia" went through a period of chaos and civil war which considerably weakened its influence. In 1922, it was replaced by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which had a centralised, communist political system. Under Stalin's rule, the USSR sought to consolidate its internal power by eliminating all political opposition and developing a planned economy. The creation of the USSR in 1922 allowed Russia to regain its position as an international power after a period of chaos in the 1920s. The USSR proceeded to reclaim some of its former possessions, notably Ukraine, which had been lost after the 1917 revolution. Internationally, the USSR tried to export the communist revolution to other countries, but this policy was not very effective. From the 1930s onwards, the USSR adopted a more pragmatic foreign policy, based on realism and the defence of its national interests. In 1934, the Soviet Union joined the League of Nations, while continuing its policy of expansion and support for revolutionary movements around the world. This policy was motivated by the idea that the proletarian revolution could not triumph in a single country and had to spread internationally. However, with the arrival of Stalin in power, this policy of exporting the revolution was gradually abandoned in favour of the consolidation of socialism in the USSR. In 1939, the USSR signed the German-Soviet pact with Nazi Germany, which allowed it to protect itself from a German invasion and to gain time to prepare for war. The German-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact, also known as the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, was signed in August 1939 between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. Although the two regimes were ideologically opposed, they saw the value of signing a non-aggression pact to avoid an immediate war between them and to share influence in Eastern Europe. The pact also bought the Soviet Union time to strengthen its army and prepare its defence against a possible German invasion. However, in June 1941, Germany broke the pact by launching a surprise invasion of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union's participation in the Second World War was decisive and enabled the USSR to regain great geopolitical power. The Red Army fought major battles against Nazi forces on the Eastern Front, inflicting heavy losses on the Germans and contributing greatly to the defeat of Nazi Germany. This victory enabled the Soviet Union to reinforce its great power status and become one of the two post-war world superpowers, alongside the United States.
Japan joined the Allied forces and had little military involvement in the conflict, but benefited from the economic enrichment of its participation as a supplier of goods and services to the warring countries. Japan also benefited from the Allied victory by gaining the German colonies in the Pacific, which gave it territorial advantages and relays to cover the Pacific Ocean. Japan took advantage of Germany's weakening to seize its colonies in the Pacific, including the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands and the Marshall Islands. These territories allowed Japan to expand its area of influence in the region and strengthen its geopolitical position in the Pacific. However, Japan faced American opposition to its territorial expansion into China in the 1920s, and this contributed to a rise in tensions between the two countries. In 1922, the United States signed the Washington Treaty with Japan and other powers, with the aim of limiting the naval arms race in Asia. The Washington Treaty also established a limit to Japanese territorial expansion into China. However, Japan continued to expand its influence in China in the 1930s, which eventually led to the Sino-Japanese War in 1937. After being halted in its territorial ambitions in China by the United States in the 1920s, Japan saw its ambitions expand to the entire Far East. This trend became more pronounced with the rise of the military to power in the 1930s, with an increasingly hawkish and expansionist policy. Japan thus sought to establish a co-prosperity sphere in East Asia, under its economic and political dominance, with the aim of freeing itself from dependence on Western powers and becoming a major world power. This led to growing tensions with the United States and other Western powers, eventually leading to the Pacific War.

After the First World War, the European geopolitical scene was profoundly transformed, with the disappearance of the German Empire and the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. As a result, there was no longer a dominant power in Europe, which created a power vacuum in the region. At the same time, the United States and Japan emerged as increasingly ambitious powers, seeking to extend their influence around the world. This created a new geopolitical situation, in which the interests of the different powers were in conflict, contributing to rising tensions and the preparation of a new global conflict.

The impossible resolution of economic problems

From 1918 onwards, the economy took on a central role in international relations, resulting in several consequences, notably the eruption of international economic problems:

question of the transfer of wealth from Europe to the United States: The First World War had major economic consequences for Europe, particularly with regard to the transfer of wealth to the United States. France and Britain had to spend huge sums of money to finance the war effort, including buying weapons and military equipment from the United States. This led to a massive transfer of wealth from Europe to the United States, which became a major economic player in the world. In the aftermath of the war, three quarters of the gold stocks were held by the US. European countries were forced to sell their gold to pay their war debts, which contributed to the depreciation of their currencies and inflation. The situation worsened with the collapse of the European economy in the 1920s. European countries experienced considerable economic hardship, while the United States enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth. The US invested heavily in Europe, but these investments were often aimed at strengthening US economic interests rather than promoting European growth.
disorganisation of European trade: The First World War had a major impact on international trade, particularly in Europe. Before the war, Europe was the hub of world trade, with significant trade between the different European countries. However, the war completely disrupted these trade routes, and by the end of the war, intra-European trade was in disarray. The war had led to massive destruction of material goods, including transport and communication infrastructure. In addition, trade had been interrupted due to the armed conflicts. Economic blockades and import/export restrictions had also disrupted international trade. After the war, the situation worsened due to inflation, currency devaluation and shortages of raw materials, all of which disrupted trade. European countries also experienced difficulties in rebuilding their economies, which slowed the recovery of intra-European trade.
Inflation was a constant in the post-1914-1918 period. Before the war, the production of money was linked to the amount of gold in reserve, which limited the amount of money in circulation and stabilised prices. However, during the war, states had to produce money to finance the war effort, without being able to maintain their gold reserves. This need for additional financing led governments to create money that was no longer indexed to gold, leading to short-term inflation. After the war, this money creation continued, causing the economy to overheat and creating inflation, which became a constant in the inter-war economy. Factors such as the reconstruction of Europe, the rise of mass industry, currency devaluation and demand growth also contributed to inflation. This inflation had a negative impact on the economy, leading to a decrease in the value of money and price instability which complicated the economic situation at the time.
The war left many economic problems that had a significant impact on the interwar period. These included the reorganisation of international trade, the question of reparations and the question of access to energy sources. In particular, the question of access to energy sources became a major issue in the inter-war period. New technologies were developed, especially in the field of transport, which required the use of fuels, such as oil. The demand for these scarce and strategic resources increased, raising the issue of access to energy sources. States that had these resources sought to control them for their own energy and economic security, while states that lacked them sought to obtain them by any means possible, including force. This has led to geopolitical tensions, conflicts and alliances between states. The question of access to energy sources remained a major issue throughout the inter-war period and beyond, with repercussions for the foreign policy of states and for the world economy.

The stock market crash of 1929 had dramatic economic consequences throughout the world, including Europe. American banks were hit hard, leading to a fall in American investment in Europe, particularly in Germany and Austria. This led to a series of bank failures in Europe, particularly in Germany and Austria, which exacerbated the economic crisis in these countries. The economic crisis undermined the foundations of the Versailles peace, in particular the reparations clauses imposed on Germany. Germany refused to pay its debts, which led to France and Britain refusing to pay their own debts to the US. This created tensions between European countries, further aggravating the economic crisis. These economic problems played a major role in the rising tensions that led to the Second World War. The economic crisis contributed to the rise of nationalism and political extremism in Europe, and also weakened European democracies. Ultimately, these factors created the conditions that allowed Hitler to take power in Germany and start the Second World War.

The rise of colonial nationalisms

The rise of colonial nationalisms was characterised by several elements that led to the weakening of empires during the interwar period:

The participation of the colonies in the war was seen as an opportunity to improve their status. However, the mobilisation of the war effort was not followed by the promised compensation. For example, India had negotiated its participation in the war in exchange for an improved autonomous status, but this was not honoured. This lack of reward contributed to the crystallisation of nationalist movements. Similarly, other colonies were also treated unfairly and did not receive the benefits promised in exchange for their participation in the war. This situation reinforced a sense of injustice and discontent among the colonised populations, contributing to the emergence of nationalist movements and the struggle for independence in many colonies.
The rise of the educated middle classes in the colonies led to a growing demand for participation in power. However, the metropoles systematically excluded the natives by creating few representative assemblies and limiting their representation. This created growing frustration among the middle classes. These restrictions were particularly evident in the African and Asian colonies, where Europeans were often in a very small minority and natives were largely excluded from important political and economic spheres. This led to the emergence of nationalist movements and struggles for independence which were sometimes violent, as was the case in the French colonies of Algeria and Indochina.
The protest movements against colonial exploitation were increasingly numerous. Colonisation was mainly a phenomenon of political domination and economic exploitation. The metropolises took advantage of the resources of the colonies without allowing reciprocity. This situation has been increasingly challenged. In many cases, settlers have exploited the natural resources of the colonies without reinvesting the profits in the development of the local economy. Extractive industries, such as mining and logging, have often had a negative impact on the environment and local populations. In addition, metropolises have often imposed economic policies that have favoured their interests over those of the colonies. Unfair trade practices, high taxes on local products and the subordination of colonial economies to the metropole's economy often led to significant economic imbalances. In response to these practices, protest movements sought to highlight the demands of local populations. They often demanded a more equitable distribution of resources, equal access to education and economic opportunities, and greater political autonomy.
Democratisation in Europe has become a model that has led to a loss of prestige of the European model. Although there was a process of deepening democracy in European countries in the 1910s-1920s, this model was criticised and used as an example for the colonies to follow. However, this process of democratisation did not affect the colonies. The elites of the colonial countries witnessed this democratisation phenomenon and it did not affect them. This helped to fuel the nationalist movement and the struggle for independence in the colonies, where the indigenous populations demanded greater political participation and autonomy. Elites in the colonial countries saw democratisation in Europe as proof of human capacity for self-government and therefore demanded equal participation in decision-making processes in their own countries. This demand was motivated by the aspiration for greater autonomy and political equality, which were seen as natural rights. However, the metropolises often refused to recognise these demands and maintained their political dominance over the colonies. This led to growing frustration and stronger contestation of colonial rule, which eventually led to protest movements and struggles for independence.
The influence of the Russian Revolution was a momentous event. The Russian Revolution of 1917 significantly influenced the colonies, particularly in North Africa and Indochina. The revolution provided an alternative model for political and social organisation that was very attractive to many nationalist movements in the colonies. Communist ideals, such as social equality and collective ownership of the means of production, were presented as an alternative to the unjust and exploitative colonial system. Nationalist movements in the colonies adopted the ideas and tactics of the Russian Revolution, such as militancy, mass mobilisation, strikes and armed struggle. The Russian Revolution also provided a model for political organisation. Communist parties were created in the colonies, and were used as a means of mobilising the masses and fighting against colonial rule. Communist parties were also used as a platform for the promotion of independence and political autonomy. In North Africa, the Russian Revolution significantly impacted the Algerian nationalist movement. The Algerian Communist Party, founded in 1936, was an important force in the struggle for Algerian independence. In Indochina, the Russian revolution was also a source of inspiration for the Vietnamese nationalist movements, which created their own communist party, the Vietnamese Communist Party.
The revival of local religions was another breeding ground for nationalist movements. The revival of local religions was another breeding ground for nationalist movements in the colonies. In many colonised countries, religion has been used to assert national identity and cultural specificity in the face of colonial domination. In the Arab world, the revival of Islam has been intimately linked to the development of nationalist movements. Arab nationalist movements have used Islam as central to their political vision, presenting Islam as a foundation of Arab identity and culture. Arab nationalist movements have also used Islam to mobilise the masses, especially the working and rural classes. In India, the revival of Buddhism accompanied the independence movements. Indian leader B.R. Ambedkar encouraged Dalits, the 'untouchables' of Indian society, to convert to Buddhism as a form of protest against colonial rule and caste discrimination. Ambedkar saw Buddhism as an alternative to Hindu domination, and encouraged conversion to Buddhism as a means of emancipation from colonial domination and caste discrimination.

World map showing colonial possessions in 1945.

The globalisation of confrontations

The inter-war period was marked by an intensification of the globalisation of confrontations. The areas of tension increased in number and intensity, reflecting the rise of nationalism and territorial claims in many parts of the world. In Europe, the rise of Nazism and Fascism led to the Second World War, with dramatic consequences for the whole continent. In Asia, Japanese expansionism led to conflicts with China and other countries in the region, resulting in the Sino-Japanese War and Japan's participation in the Second World War. In Latin America, territorial conflicts were exacerbated by US imperialism and the 'Big Stick' doctrine, with military interventions in several countries in the region. In Africa, colonial rivalries led to bloody conflicts, especially within the French empire. In this context, the League of Nations, created after the First World War to promote international peace and cooperation, has shown its limitations. Despite its efforts to resolve conflicts, it did not succeed in preventing the rise of tensions and the multiplication of confrontations throughout the world.

The Middle East became a powder keg in the inter-war period. The dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire created many challenges for the populations living there, especially for the Greeks and Turks. The Sykes-Picot Agreement, signed in 1916, divided the Middle East into French and British zones of influence, creating artificial and unstable borders. Local populations were divided, with some groups favoured while others were marginalised. The presence of ethnic and religious minorities, such as Greeks and Turks, in the territories of both nations created tensions, which led to violent clashes and massive population displacement. The Greek-Turkish conflict also led to the Greek-Turkish War of 1919-1922, which had disastrous consequences for the civilian population. The region was also marked by the rise of Arab nationalism and the emergence of political movements such as the Ba'ath and the Muslim Brotherhood

China experienced a period of chaos after the 1911 revolution, which overthrew the Qing dynasty and proclaimed the Republic of China. However, despite this proclamation, China was still divided into several regions without a strong central government, resulting in continuing political instability. In the 1920s, China faced many challenges, including local rebellions, regional conflicts and social unrest. The Nationalist movement, led by Sun Yat-sen, attempted to modernise China and strengthen central authority, but its efforts were hampered by civil wars and foreign interference. China also faced external aggression, including the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945, during which Japan invaded China and committed numerous war crimes. All these tensions weakened China and hampered its ability to develop and become a world power.

In the 1920s, Japan became an ambitious imperialist power in East Asia, with territorial ambitions in Korea and China. In the early 20th century, Japan had already established an economic presence in Manchuria, a resource-rich region of China, where Japanese capital dominated. In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria on the pretext of an alleged attack by Chinese soldiers on a Japanese-controlled railway. Japan established a puppet state called Manchukuo, ruled by a former Chinese emperor chosen by the Japanese. This invasion was condemned by the League of Nations, but Japan refused to comply with the resolutions of the international organisation. In 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China, which triggered the Sino-Japanese War of 1937-1945. During this war, Japan committed many war crimes, such as the Nanking massacre and the use of chemical weapons against civilians. The Japanese invasion of China was a turning point in the history of East Asia and contributed to the outbreak of World War II in the region. It also discredited the League of Nations, which proved powerless to prevent Japanese aggression in China.

In the 1920s, Germany and Italy began to turn to totalitarian regimes, with fascist governments led by Mussolini and Hitler. These regimes violated the provisions of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, which had ended the First World War, by rearming, annexing neighbouring territories and pursuing expansionist policies. In Asia, Japan became a militaristic state in the 1930s, when power was transferred to the military. Japan sought to create a sphere of co-prosperity in East Asia by seizing neighbouring territories, including Manchuria in China and part of French Indochina. Japan also signed an anti-Komintern pact with Nazi Germany in 1936, which was aimed at countering communist influence in the world. These totalitarian regimes in Europe and Asia eventually formed a coalition, with Germany, Italy and Japan forming the Axis during World War II. This alliance led to massive conflicts in Europe, Africa and Asia, with disastrous consequences for the civilian populations in these regions.

The alliance of totalitarian regimes in Europe and Asia was a new threat to global stability. The pacts signed in November 1936, such as the Rome-Berlin Pact and the Anti-Kommin Pact between Germany and Japan, strengthened the ties between these regimes and laid the foundation for the future Axis alliance.

The Rome-Berlin Pact was signed on 25 October 1936 between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. The pact established a military and political alliance between the two countries, in which they pledged to cooperate closely on diplomatic matters and to act together in the event of conflict. The pact was seen as a consolidation of the increasingly close relationship between Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, who shared a similar political ideology and vision of territorial expansion of their respective countries. The Anti-Kommin Pact, signed on 25 November 1936 between Germany and Japan, was a pact against communism and aimed primarily at countering the influence of the Soviet Union in Europe and Asia. It established a political alliance between the two countries for a period of five years, in which they agreed to cooperate in opposing international communist activities and to assist each other in case of conflict. The pact was also opened for signature by other countries and was eventually signed by a dozen countries, including Italy, Hungary and Spain. These two pacts played an important role in consolidating political alliances between totalitarian regimes in Europe and Asia in the 1930s. They helped strengthen Nazi Germany's position in Europe and Japanese influence in Asia, while consolidating the anti-communist camp and creating a united front against the Western democracies.

The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Tripartite Pact, signed between Germany, Italy and Japan on 27 September 1940, formalised this alliance and affirmed the solidarity of the totalitarian regimes in their desire to divide the world after the war. This alliance led to an escalation of conflicts and eventually to the Second World War. The pact stated the solidarity of the three countries and their desire to divide the world after the Axis (Germany, Italy and Japan) had defeated the Allies (Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union and other allied nations). The pact also stated that the three countries would work together militarily, economically and politically to achieve their common goals. The parties agreed to defend each other in the event of an attack by a power not already at war with them. The Tripartite Pact thus created a military alliance that played a major role in the Second World War. The Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Tripartite Pact was signed shortly after Italy entered the war on Germany's side. With the accession of Japan, the Axis alliance became a considerable military and economic force. However, despite this alliance, the three countries failed to agree on some key issues, such as the war against the Soviet Union. This division weakened the Axis alliance and contributed to its final defeat in 1945.

At the same time, the League of Nations' inability to control the military aggression of these regimes led to its inexorable decline. The League of Nations was an international organisation created in the aftermath of the First World War, but it was unable to prevent the military aggression of Germany, Italy and Japan. The departure of these totalitarian regimes from the League discredited the organisation and it lost all credibility in the eyes of the international community.

Unlike the First World War, where the war started in Europe and spread around the world, the Second World War saw the emergence of hotbeds of tension outside Europe, which eventually led to a world war. Conflicts broke out in Asia, notably between China and Japan, and in the Pacific, where the United States and Japan clashed. In addition, Nazi Germany tried to conquer the Soviet Union, thus provoking a war on the Eastern Front. Ultimately, all of these conflicts led to a total war that involved all of the world's major powers and had dramatic consequences for millions of people around the world.

World War II

Chronological overview

The Second World War took place on both sides of an axis which was the year 1942, with the first period marked by successes for the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis, in particular a rapid invasion (blitzkrieg) of Europe, including Norway, Belgium, Denmark and France.

By 1940, most of Europe was under German and Italian rule, after Nazi Germany had launched a series of successful blitzkriegs against several European countries, including Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands and France. France, which was supposed to have the largest army in the world at the time, was routed by the German forces despite their fierce resistance. After France's defeat, the French government signed an armistice with Germany, allowing Germany to occupy most of the country and establish a collaboration regime with the French Vichy government. Britain was the only country to resist Germany's advances at this time, thanks in part to the Royal Air Force (RAF) which had repelled the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain. This British resistance eventually led to the creation of the Allied coalition, which carried the war against the Axis to final victory in 1945.

In June 1941, the Soviet Union was invaded by German forces in Operation Barbarossa, the largest military land operation in history. The invasion was marked by brutal and deadly battles, including the Battle of Stalingrad, which was one of the bloodiest of the war. In April 1941, the United States had not yet entered the war, but that changed on 7 December of that year, when the Imperial Japanese Army attacked the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. This attack caused significant losses to American forces and was the trigger for the United States to enter the war on the side of the Allies. The entry of the United States into the war was a major turning point in the war, as it brought considerable economic and military resources to the Allied coalition, which ultimately contributed to the defeat of the Axis.

In 1942, Japan conducted a series of blitzkriegs in the Pacific and Southeast Asia, taking advantage of the initial disorganisation of American and British forces in the region. Japanese forces quickly conquered a huge area that included territories such as the Philippines, Malaya, Singapore, French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies and several islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Japanese campaign was marked by brutal battles, notably the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway, which were important turning points in the war in the Pacific. However, the Japanese strategy of rapid expansion eventually backfired, as it stretched their forces and weakened their ability to maintain control of conquered territory. Over time, the Allies were able to regain the initiative in the region, conducting offensives against the Japanese forces and gradually pushing them back from their conquered positions. This campaign ended in 1945 with the surrender of Japan, which ended the war in the Pacific.

The Axis Forces' successes in Europe (31 August 1939- 21 June 1941).

From the summer of 1942, the Allies began to achieve their first significant victories in the war. After months of defeats and setbacks, the Allies finally launched successful offensives in North Africa, pushing back German and Italian forces in Libya and Tunisia. With the entry of the United States into the war and its massive industrial power, the war began to accelerate. The United States quickly mobilised its economy to produce massive quantities of war materials, including aircraft, tanks, munitions and ships. Despite initial setbacks, this massive production eventually provided the Allies with greater resources than the Axis. As the war progressed, the Allies began to take the initiative on several fronts, notably in North Africa, Italy and Eastern Europe. The battles of Stalingrad and Kursk in the USSR were also important turning points in the war on the Eastern Front.

From the summer of 1942 onwards, the Allies began to win major victories, ending the period of Axis success. The Battle of Midway in June 1942 was a major turning point in the war in the Pacific, while the Battle of El Alamein in Egypt in October-November 1942 enabled British forces to push back the Germans and gain the upper hand in North Africa. The Battle of Stalingrad, which took place from July 1942 to February 1943, was also decisive on the Eastern Front, while the Allied landing in North Africa in November 1942 paved the way for an invasion of Italy and continental Europe. As a result of these events, the Allies were able to turn the tide in their favour from a military to an economic war, producing more war material than they lost.

By 1943, the Second World War was at a turning point. The Battle of Stalingrad was one of the major turning points of the Second World War. German forces had launched a massive offensive on the city of Stalingrad in July 1942, with the aim of taking control of the area and weakening Soviet forces. However, the Soviets successfully resisted and eventually surrounded the German forces in the city. The fighting was fierce, with extreme weather conditions, brutal street warfare and shortages of food and supplies for both sides.The German defeat at Stalingrad was a major turning point in the war on the Eastern Front. The German forces lost nearly 300,000 soldiers and suffered a major humiliation. The defeat was also a blow to the morale of the German forces and undermined their confidence in their ability to win the war. In contrast, the Soviet victory galvanised the morale of the Allied forces and showed that the Axis forces were not invincible. The Battle of Stalingrad also marked the beginning of the Soviet counter-offensive that would eventually lead to the defeat of Nazi Germany.

Operation Husky began in July 1943 and was a major Allied operation during the Second World War. Its aim was to land in Sicily, a key island controlled by Italy, one of the pillars of the Axis. The Allied forces, consisting of British, Canadian and American troops, carried out a massive amphibious invasion of Sicily, which was strongly defended by the Italian forces. However, the Allied forces succeeded in capturing the island after several weeks of intense fighting. This victory allowed the Allied forces to secure an important base for the invasion of mainland Italy. Operation Husky also contributed to the neutralisation of Italy as a pillar of the Axis. Italy finally surrendered in September 1943, after the overthrow of Mussolini's Fascist regime and the formation of an Allied-friendly Italian government. This capitulation paved the way for an Allied invasion of mainland Italy, which began in September 1943.

In November 1943, the first major Allied conference was held in Teheran, Iran. This conference was marked by the presence of three major leaders of the time: US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. The conference outlined the first post-war problems and the Allies discussed how to exploit their victory and shape the post-war period. At the Tehran conference, the Allies agreed to open a second front in Western Europe in 1944, which finally happened with the Normandy landings in June 1944. The leaders also discussed how to deal with Germany after the war, with the establishment of an occupation and the demilitarisation of the country. The conference also laid the groundwork for the creation of the United Nations, which would be established after the war to ensure peace and security in the world.

The year 1944 was marked by decisive events in the Second World War. The most notable was the Normandy landings, also known as D-Day, on 6 June 1944. This operation was a massive amphibious invasion by Allied forces, mainly American, British and Canadian troops, who landed on the beaches of Normandy to liberate German-occupied France. The landing was successful, albeit with heavy losses, and marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe. Meanwhile, in the Pacific, the United States continued its campaign to recapture territory occupied by Japanese forces. American forces won a series of decisive naval battles, including the Battle of the Philippine Sea in June 1944, which marked the end of the Japanese naval presence in the region. The United States also conducted a massive bombing campaign on the Japanese islands, which caused severe economic damage and helped weaken Japanese military capability.

The year 1945 was the decisive year of the Second World War. The Allied forces continued their advance against Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire, which were pinned down by the Russian and Anglo-American-French armies. In Europe, the Allied forces launched a series of major offensives that contributed to Germany's defeat. In January 1945, the Soviets launched the Vistula-Oder offensive, which resulted in the capture of Berlin in May 1945. Meanwhile, Western Allied forces led the offensive in the Rhineland, which resulted in the capture of the strategic city of Cologne. These offensives eventually led to the surrender of Germany on 8 May 1945. In the Pacific, Allied forces continued their campaign to defeat Japan. The United States conducted a series of massive bombings of Japanese cities, culminating in the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. This action eventually led to the surrender of Japan on 15 August 1945, ending the Second World War.

The war in Europe, the collapse of the traditional powers and the emergence of the bloc logic

France, which had been one of the great powers in Europe for centuries, suffered a rapid and devastating collapse in the face of Nazi Germany in the Second World War. In May 1940, the German army invaded France, forcing the government to retreat to Bordeaux. In just five weeks, German forces conquered most of the country, leaving Paris occupied. Under German occupation, France was divided into two parts: a zone occupied directly by German forces and a free zone that was administered by the Vichy regime, led by Marshal Pétain. The Vichy regime initiated a policy of collaboration with Nazi Germany, which led to the persecution and deportation of Jews and other minorities. France's rapid defeat came as a shock to the whole world and had profound consequences for the country. France lost its great power status and was forced to withdraw from the international scene. It had to rebuild its economy and society after the war, and faced many challenges, including the issue of collaboration and resistance during the war.

During the Second World War, Britain played a crucial role in the resistance against Nazi Germany, but it also suffered heavy losses and found itself in a weak position. The war had a devastating impact on the British economy, which the Great Depression already weakened, and the country was soon ruined. As a result, Britain desperately needed the help of the United States to keep itself in the war. The US provided considerable material aid to Britain, including weapons, ammunition, medical supplies and food. This enabled Britain to resist German attacks and continue the war. However, despite British resistance, the country was unable to take the lead in the war, and was unable to initiate a process of recapture of German-occupied Europe. Britain had to rely on American forces to lead the military offensives and free Europe from Nazi occupation.

The United States played a crucial role in the Allied victory in World War II by providing essential weapons, equipment and supplies to the Allied military forces. US industry was able to produce aircraft, tanks, ships, small arms, ammunition and other supplies needed for the war on a large scale. In addition to providing material support, the United States also provided financial assistance to the Allies during the war, particularly to Britain and the Soviet Union. This financial assistance helped keep the Allies at war and contributed to the final victory. The economic and industrial position of the United States after the war was also strengthened, which contributed to the transformation of the United States into a global economic and political superpower in the following decades.

The Soviet Union played a crucial role in the Allied victory in Europe. Despite the enormous losses suffered in the war, it managed to mobilise a considerable military and industrial force. The Soviets carried out decisive operations on the Eastern Front, notably at Stalingrad and Kursk, which inflicted heavy losses on the German forces. This constant pressure forced Hitler to move a large number of his troops from the West to the East, weakening German defences on all fronts.

The United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the new masters of the game after the Second World War, each with considerable influence on the international scene. The United States had become the world's leading economic power, with a strong military and diplomatic presence on every continent. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, had established a considerable sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, with communist governments supported by Moscow. Relations between the two superpowers were strained, with growing tensions leading to the Cold War and an arms race that lasted for decades.

The war's toll

The human toll of the Second World War was catastrophic. It is estimated that around 50 million people lost their lives, which is about 20 times more than the number of deaths in the First World War. Of these 50 million deaths, 20 million were in the USSR, a figure that would influence negotiations about the place of the Soviet Union in the new international order that would be established after 1945. In addition to the loss of life, the war also caused significant material and economic damage, leaving many parts of the world in ruins. The Second World War thus had a major impact on the politics, economy and society of many countries and had a profound effect on the history of the 20th century.

The economic toll of the war was also catastrophic, especially for Europe and Japan, which were severely affected and destroyed. Germany, in particular, was considered to be at "zero" in terms of its economic and social situation after the war, with much of its infrastructure and industry destroyed. There was a huge state of distress and a shortage of food, housing and work. The reconstruction of Europe was one of the most important tasks in the years following the end of the war.

The Shoah is one of the worst crimes in human history and caused the death of millions of people, mainly Jews but also Roma, Slavs, homosexuals and disabled people. The Nazis planned and implemented a systematic and industrial elimination of these groups, with the aim of creating a Europe free of these 'undesirable elements'. This resulted in the deaths of between 6 and 10 million people, approximately two-thirds of the pre-war Jewish population of Europe. The Shoah also had a lasting impact on Jewish communities around the world and has deeply marked the collective memory of humanity.

One of the important outcomes of the Second World War was the entry into the nuclear age. The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945 had a major impact on the end of the war and made history as the first examples of the use of nuclear weapons for military purposes. It also marked the beginning of a nuclear arms race between the US and the USSR that characterised the Cold War for several decades. It also had an impact on international relations and global geopolitics by fostering the creation of new blocs and exacerbating tensions between the major powers.

The Cold War

The Cold War was a period of political, military and ideological tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, which lasted from the end of the Second World War in 1945 until the late 1980s. The two world powers had different ideologies and political systems: the United States supported capitalism and democracy, while the Soviet Union supported communism and socialism. The causes of the Cold War were many, but tensions were fuelled by the arms race, propaganda and espionage, as well as ideological conflicts between the two superpowers. The United States and the Soviet Union engaged in proxy wars in regions such as Latin America, Africa and Asia, supporting each other's sides. The Cold War ended in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The end of the Cold War was marked by significant changes in the world, including the end of the division of Europe, the end of the arms race, and a reduction in tension between the US and Russia.

A bipolar world

The bipolar world is a concept that describes a global configuration in which two superpowers dominate international politics. The concept was used to describe the Cold War period, when the United States and the Soviet Union were the two major world powers. During the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union competed for power and influence around the world, vying for the allegiance of developing countries and engaging in proxy conflicts in various parts of the world. This rivalry has created an atmosphere of mistrust and tension, fuelled by a massive arms race and intense intelligence activities. The bipolar world had a significant impact on world politics, diplomacy and international relations. Countries were forced to choose sides, and alliances were formed according to each country's position in the East-West confrontation. Bipolarity also shaped the world economy, with the emergence of two competing economic systems, capitalism and communism. Although the bipolar world of the Cold War ended with the fall of the Soviet Union, great power rivalry remains a feature of contemporary world politics.

Geopolitical objectives of the United States and the Soviet Union

The geopolitical objectives of the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War were different. The USSR aimed to protect its borders and keep its communist regime in place, as well as to promote communism worldwide, although this strategy was adapted to a defensive position after World War II. The USSR also sought to extend its influence in Eastern Europe by creating a buffer zone of allied communist regimes, often referred to as the 'protective glacis'.

The United States, on the other hand, aimed to preserve its position as a world power and to contain the influence of the Soviet Union in the world. To do this, it created military alliances with countries around the world, such as NATO, in order to contain the communist threat. The US also sought to expand its economic and political influence, particularly in Latin America and Asia, by supporting pro-Western governments.

Thus, the two superpowers had different geopolitical objectives, but their strategies eventually clashed, creating a climate of distrust and international tension that lasted for decades.

Western bloc, NATO countries

Eastern bloc, Warsaw Pact

Modèle:Caption line Modèle:Caption Modèle:Caption(Albania would eventually break with the USSR to align with People's China. )]]

The opposing sides

During the Cold War, the world was divided into two main camps: the Western bloc, led by the United States and including most of Western Europe, the Middle East, Latin America and Japan. This bloc was also supported by military alliances such as NATO.

The communist bloc, led by the Soviet Union, included the USSR itself, as well as the communist countries of Eastern Europe known as the People's Democracies. China also became an important member of this bloc after Mao Tse-tung took power in 1949. Other communist countries such as Cuba, Egypt and Syria have also joined the bloc.

It is important to note that some countries took a neutral position during the Cold War, notably India and Ghana. However, most countries in the world were influenced in one way or another by the rivalry between the two blocs, whether through economic aid, propaganda, military alliances or regional proxy conflicts.

Periodisation of the Cold War

1947 - 1953: fixing the two blocs

The period from 1947 to 1953 was marked by the implementation of the Marshall Plan and the establishment of the two Cold War blocs.

The Marshall Plan, officially called the European Recovery Programme, was proposed by the United States in 1947 to assist in the economic reconstruction of Europe after the Second World War. The plan provided massive economic aid to European countries, including West Germany, to help rebuild and strengthen their resistance against communist expansion. The plan was funded by the United States and lasted until 1951. It is considered a key factor in the economic recovery of Western Europe and in the consolidation of the Western alliance.

During this period, the two Cold War blocs were also established. In 1947, US President Harry S. Truman announced the policy of containment, which aimed to contain communist expansion worldwide. This policy was implemented through economic and military aid to the Allied countries, as well as diplomatic measures to isolate the communist countries.

The following year, in 1948, the Soviet Union established Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), an economic organisation designed to coordinate economic aid among the communist countries of Eastern Europe. In response, Western European countries created the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), which eventually evolved into the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1961.

The Prague coup of 1948 was an important event in the Cold War in Europe. In February 1948, the communists took control of the Czechoslovak government after a series of political manoeuvres and pressure on non-communist parties. The takeover led to the establishment of a communist regime in Czechoslovakia, which was one of the most industrialised countries in Eastern Europe.

The Prague coup was seen as another example of the spread of communism in Eastern Europe and was seen as a threat to the security of Western Europe. Western countries, particularly the United States, were deeply concerned by this event and intensified their efforts to counter the expansion of communism in the region. They also increased economic and military support for their allies in Western Europe and created military alliances such as NATO to strengthen their collective security.

The Berlin Blockade of 1948-49 was a major event in the Cold War. After the end of the Second World War, Germany had been divided into four occupation zones controlled by the US, the USSR, Britain and France respectively. Berlin, located in the Soviet occupation zone, was also divided into four sectors. In June 1948, Stalin ordered the blockade of West Berlin, which was under the control of the Western Allies, in order to reduce the Western presence in Germany. The Soviets cut off the roads, railways and canals that linked Berlin to West Germany, hoping to force the Allies to abandon the city. The Western Allies responded by organising an airlift of supplies to West Berlin, which lasted for over a year. The blockade finally ended in May 1949, after Stalin realised that the airlift was too effective to be bypassed. However, this event reinforced the division of Germany into two states, with the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany in the west and the German Democratic Republic in the east, and laid the foundations for the Cold War in Europe.

The creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949 was a direct response to the perceived threat of Soviet expansion in Europe after the Second World War. NATO is a defensive military alliance between the United States and its European allies, created to preserve peace and security in Western Europe. The NATO Treaty was signed by 12 countries: the United States, Canada, France, the United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Norway and Iceland. The member countries undertook to defend each other in the event of an attack, in accordance with Article 5 of the Treaty. NATO also played an important role in the Cold War by providing a military deterrent against the Soviet Union and its communist allies.

The Korean War (1950-1953) was the first major Cold War conflict outside Europe. It began after communist North Korea, supported by the Soviet Union and China, invaded South Korea supported by the United States and other allies. The conflict was triggered by a series of surprise attacks by North Korea in June 1950, which quickly took over most of South Korea. The United States, with UN approval, sent troops to help repel the invasion and restore peace to Korea. The conflict finally ended in 1953 with an armistice, which divided Korea into two states separated by a demilitarised zone. North Korea remained a communist state, while South Korea became a capitalist democracy supported by the US. The Korean War was a key moment in the Cold War, as it showed that the confrontation between the US and the Soviet Union had global implications. It also led to an intensification of the arms race and increased militarisation in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Indochina War, which lasted from 1946 to 1954, is often regarded as a decolonisation war, as it mainly pitted French forces against Vietnamese nationalist movements led by Ho Chi Minh. However, from the late 1940s onwards, the Indochina War became a Cold War issue, as the United States began to provide financial and military aid to France in its fight against the Vietnamese communist nationalists. This US aid increased considerably after the communist victory in China in 1949 and the fear of the spread of communism in Asia. The United States therefore provided financial and material aid to France to fight against the Vietnamese communist nationalists, the Viet Minh, which the Soviet Union and communist China supported.

Between 1952 and 1953, relations between the United States and the Soviet Union were strained as a result of the Cold War and its attendant tensions. The United States had adopted a policy of 'massive retaliation', which provided for a nuclear response to any attack on US interests. The then US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, even publicly raised the possibility of using nuclear weapons to deter Soviet action against US interests. This policy fuelled fears of an imminent nuclear war and contributed to the arms race between the two superpowers. The tension culminated in 1953 with the death of Joseph Stalin, which created uncertainty about the future of the Soviet Union and its foreign policy. This period also saw the end of the Korean War, which affected relations between the US and Communist China.

1953 and 1958: détente

Stalin's death in 1953 marked an important stage in the Cold War, particularly in Eastern Europe. It led to a certain détente in relations between the two blocs, but also to internal tensions within the Communist bloc, particularly with regard to Stalin's succession. With regard to the Korean War, the armistice of 1953 put an end to the fighting and divided the country in two, with North Korea supported by the USSR and Communist China, and South Korea supported by the United States. This created a situation of persistent tension in the region, which continues to this day.

Between 1953 and 1958, there was an easing of relations between the US and the Soviet Union, which was marked by a relative détente, known as the period of 'peaceful coexistence'. This period began after the death of Joseph Stalin in 1953, who was replaced by Nikita Khrushchev. The United States adopted a more conciliatory approach towards the Soviet Union during this period, with policies of engagement rather than confrontation. The two countries worked together to try to resolve international conflicts and prevent new ones, particularly in the Berlin crisis. Negotiations also began on arms control and the reduction of tensions between the two superpowers. This period saw the signing of several important agreements, including the Japanese Peace Treaty of 1956, which ended the state of war between the Soviet Union and Japan. However, the period of peaceful coexistence ended in 1958 with the Berlin Crisis and the rise of tensions between the two superpowers. Relations between the United States and the Soviet Union continued to fluctuate over the following decades, but this period was one of relative détente and cooperation.

In 1955, the Soviet Union and several other Eastern European countries signed the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance in response to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) by the United States and its allies in 1949. The Warsaw Pact was created to strengthen military and political cooperation between the socialist countries of Eastern Europe, and to address the perceived threat from NATO. The Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, the GDR, Hungary, Poland and Romania signed the treaty. The Warsaw Pact created a combined military force and a centralised command, under the control of the Soviet Union. It also established defence and security cooperation between the member countries, including intelligence, logistics and training. The Warsaw Pact reinforced the division of Europe into two rival blocs during the Cold War and helped intensify the arms race between East and West. This military alliance remained active until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.

1958 - 1962: there is a resurgence of tension due to the Berlin crisis

Between 1958 and 1962, there was a resurgence of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, largely related to the Berlin Crisis.

In 1958, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to the West, demanding the withdrawal of US and NATO troops from West Berlin and their integration into the Soviet-controlled German Democratic Republic (GDR). The Western allies refused this demand, leading to an escalation of tensions and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, which physically separated the city and enclosed East Berliners. The Berlin crisis was followed by the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, which was considered one of the most dangerous moments of the Cold War. The Soviet Union had installed nuclear missiles in Cuba, just 145 km off the US coast, which led to a major diplomatic crisis between the two countries. The United States imposed a naval blockade of Cuba to prevent the Soviet Union from continuing to deliver missiles to the island, which eventually led to a compromise agreement in which the Soviet Union withdrew its missiles from Cuba in exchange for a US promise not to invade the island.

1962 - 1981: Thawing of relations

After the Cuban crisis in 1962, the US and the Soviet Union realised the need to reduce tensions and work together to avoid a dangerous escalation. The two superpowers took steps to strengthen international security and stability, including the signing of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty in 1968.

However, the period of thawing relations between the two superpowers was also marked by regional tensions and local conflicts, such as the Vietnam War and the suppression of the Prague Spring in 1968.

The United States was involved in a protracted war in Vietnam, which caused considerable loss of life and property and generated strong public opposition in the US. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union supported liberation movements in countries such as Afghanistan, Angola and Nicaragua, leading to regional conflicts and tensions between the two superpowers.

Despite these regional tensions, the US and the Soviet Union continued to cooperate in areas such as international security, space research and nuclear arms reduction. This period of détente lasted until the early 1980s, when relations between the two superpowers deteriorated again due to regional conflicts and rising ideological tensions.

1981 - 1991

The election of Ronald Reagan in 1981 marked a return to a more aggressive policy towards the Soviet Union. Reagan launched a policy called 'military escalation', which aimed to accelerate the arms race with the Soviet Union in order to drive it into bankruptcy.

This policy was accompanied by Cold War rhetoric and the establishment of a missile defence shield, known as the "Strategic Defence Initiative" or "Star Wars". This initiative caused concern in the Soviet Union, which saw it as a threat to its national security.

The rise in tensions between the US and the Soviet Union in the 1980s was also fuelled by regional conflicts, such as the war in Afghanistan, US support for the Contras in Nicaragua and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. These conflicts exacerbated tensions between the two superpowers and helped to reinforce the logic of the Cold War.

However, despite the tensions, there was also a growing awareness of the need to reduce the risks of nuclear war. The United States and the Soviet Union began negotiations on nuclear disarmament, which eventually led to the INF Treaty of 1987, which provided for the elimination of intermediate-range nuclear missiles.

Finally, in 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed, ending the Cold War. This marked the end of an era of tension between the two superpowers and paved the way for a new era of cooperation and more peaceful international relations.

From the mid-1980s, the Soviet Union began to face serious economic, political and social difficulties. The Soviet bloc began to crack, with dissident movements in countries such as Poland and Czechoslovakia. The Soviet Union was unable to prevent these movements and faced a rise in internal dissent.

When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, he launched a programme of reforms, called perestroika, which aimed to modernise the Soviet economy and introduce elements of democracy and transparency into the political system. He also launched a policy of glasnost, which aimed to promote freedom of expression and transparency in the media.

However, these reforms were also strongly opposed by conservatives and nationalists within the Soviet state apparatus. Perestroika exposed the weaknesses of the Soviet economy and problems of corruption, while glasnost encouraged freedom of expression and highlighted the social and political problems facing the country.

Ultimately, the liberalisation of the political space led to a challenge and questioning of the established order, which led to the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. This period marked the end of the Cold War and the end of bipolarity in international relations, with the emergence of a new world order. This period was also marked by events such as the reunification of Germany, the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and the break-up of the Soviet Union into several independent states.

However, the end of the Cold War does not mean the end of international tensions and conflicts. New challenges and threats have emerged, such as terrorism, the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and regional conflicts. The relationship between the United States and Russia, which emerged from the Soviet Union, has also experienced ups and downs over the years, with moments of cooperation and dialogue, but also of confrontation and mistrust.

The fields of US-Russian confrontation

The Cold War, which lasted from the end of World War II in 1945 until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, was a period of tension and confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, which clashed on many fronts.

The main areas of US-Russian confrontation during the Cold War included:

Diplomatic confrontation: During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union sought to mobilise countries within their respective spheres of influence. The United States sought to mobilise those countries that shared its economic and political system, while the Soviet Union sought to mobilise those countries that shared its socialist system. The United States created the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949, a military alliance between the United States, Canada and Western European countries. The alliance was intended to counter Soviet influence in Europe by providing a collective defence against possible Soviet aggression. The Soviet Union responded by creating the Warsaw Pact in 1955, a military alliance between the Soviet Union and the Eastern European countries that were under its influence. Both sides also sought to mobilise countries that were not members of their respective alliances. The United States sought to influence countries in Latin America and Asia by offering economic and military aid. The Soviet Union and its allies, on the other hand, sought to mobilise Third World countries by offering economic aid and supporting national liberation movements. This diplomatic confrontation led to numerous regional and international conflicts and a race for global influence. Both sides sought to strengthen their position by mobilising countries within their respective spheres of influence.

Military confrontation: Military confrontation was an important aspect of the Cold War. Both the United States and the Soviet Union spent considerable sums of money developing and improving their military arsenals, particularly their nuclear weapons. However, from the 1960s onwards, both sides began to realise the arms race risks and started signing nuclear arms control treaties. The SALT I (1972) and SALT II (1979) agreements limited long-range nuclear weapons, which helped reduce tensions between the two superpowers. However, the Euromissile crisis of the early 1980s challenged these achievements. The United States decided to deploy Pershing II missiles in Western Europe in response to the Soviet threat posed by the deployment of SS-20 missiles in Eastern Europe. This decision provoked strong opposition in Europe and exacerbated tensions between the two sides.

Ideological confrontation': The ideological confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War was based on two different political systems: Western liberal democracy and Soviet communism. The United States sought to promote liberal democracy as a model for the world, emphasising the values of freedom, democracy and human rights. The Soviet Union and its allies, on the other hand, promoted communism, emphasising the values of equality, solidarity and social justice. Both sides sought to demonstrate the superiority of their respective ideological systems by highlighting their economic and political successes, using propaganda media to promote their message and supporting political and social movements in other countries. This ideological confrontation was particularly visible during the Cold War in Europe, where both sides sought to extend their influence by supporting governments and political movements opposed to each other. This confrontation was also marked by international crises, such as the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, which pitted the United States and the Soviet Union against each other in a direct confrontation.

Technological confrontation: Technological confrontation was also an important aspect of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The space race was a key area of this technological rivalry, with each country seeking to demonstrate its superiority in technology and scientific know-how. The launch of the Sputnik satellite by the Soviet Union in 1957 was a key moment in this competition, shocking the Western world and demonstrating the technological power of the Soviet Union. The sending of the first man into space by the Soviets with Yuri Gagarin in 1961 was also a key moment, which demonstrated their lead in space technology. The United States responded to these challenges by launching its own space programme, with the Apollo mission in 1969, which saw Neil Armstrong become the first man to walk on the moon. This achievement was an important moment in the space competition and allowed the United States to regain the technological advantage in the space race. Beyond the conquest of space, the technological confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union extended to other areas, such as weaponry, communications and computers. Both countries sought to develop advanced technologies to improve their national security and geopolitical position.

Areas of confrontation

The Cold War was characterised by confrontations between the United States and the Soviet Union in different areas of the world.

'Europe: Europe was the heart of the Cold War, due to its geographical proximity to the Soviet Union and the strategic interests of both superpowers. After the Second World War, the Soviet Union established communist regimes in Eastern European countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. The United States sought to contain Soviet expansion in the region, supporting anti-communist movements and creating military alliances such as NATO. Germany was one of the main theatres of confrontation between the two blocs. After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two parts: the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the west, under American influence, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the east, under Soviet influence. This division created an ideological and physical boundary that spanned Europe. The FRG became a key member of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), while the GDR was a member of the Warsaw Pact, the Soviet military alliance. The GDR city of Berlin was divided into four sectors, controlled by the military forces of the United States, Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Tension between the two blocs culminated in 1961, when the East German government erected a separation wall across Berlin to prevent East Germans from fleeing to the West. The wall became a symbol of the division of Europe during the Cold War. The two superpowers also conducted a nuclear arms race in Europe, with the deployment of short-range nuclear missiles in NATO and Warsaw Pact countries.

Middle East: The Middle East was a battleground for the superpowers during the Cold War because of the oil issue. The United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence in the region, while seeking to protect their oil interests. In the 1950s, Egypt nationalised the Suez Canal, which was controlled by a Franco-British company. France, Britain and Israel invaded Egypt in an attempt to get the canal back, which led to an international crisis. The United States and the Soviet Union agreed to work together to resolve the crisis peacefully and avoid an escalation into a global conflict. This cooperation between the two superpowers was an example of détente during the Cold War. However, there have been other crises in the region that have been more difficult to resolve. For example, the civil war in Yemen in the 1960s saw the Soviet Union supporting pro-communist forces, while the US supported royalist forces. The 1967 Arab-Israeli war also involved the two superpowers, with the US supporting Israel while the Soviet Union supported the Arab countries.

Africa: Africa was a battleground between the superpowers during the Cold War. Until the late 1950s, Africa was largely under European colonial rule. In the early 1960s, many African countries gained independence, creating a battleground for the superpowers. In the 1960s and 1970s, the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in a competition for influence in many newly independent African countries. From the early 1960s onwards, these countries began to gain independence and thus paved the way for ideological rivalries between the US and the Soviet Union. In Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of Congo), the arrival of Patrice Lumumba as president in 1960 was perceived by the US as a threat to its interests in the region. The US supported a military coup that overthrew Lumumba, replacing him with a leader sympathetic to its interests. This intervention led to lasting political and economic instability in the country. In Angola, the civil war that broke out in 1975 was fuelled by ideological rivalries between the US and the Soviet Union. The US supported the pro-Soviet Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), while the Soviet Union supported the US-backed National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). This civil war lasted for over 25 years and caused the death of hundreds of thousands of people.

Latin America: Latin America was also a theatre of operations in the Cold War, although to a lesser extent than Europe or Asia. The United States sought to prevent the spread of communism in the region, often using controversial means. Indeed, Fidel Castro's rise to power in Cuba in 1959 posed a major challenge to the US in the region. Castro established a communist regime in Cuba, which triggered a major crisis between the United States and the Soviet Union, with the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. In addition to Cuba, the United States sought to counter the spread of communism in Latin America by supporting right-wing military dictatorships in some countries in the region. For example, in Chile, the democratically elected government of Salvador Allende was overthrown by a US-backed coup in 1973, which installed General Augusto Pinochet in power. Similarly, the US also supported the Contras in Nicaragua in the 1980s, a rebel group fighting against the Sandinista government, which was perceived to be close to the Soviet Union. Although Latin America has not been a major area of confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, the region has seen numerous US interventions to counter the spread of communism, including support for authoritarian regimes and the use of controversial means.
Asia: Asia was a very important Cold War theatre of operations, and this had a major impact on the region. Both superpowers sought to expand their influence in Asia, and this led to conflict and tension in the region. The conflict in Korea, which began in 1950, is one of the most prominent examples of the US-Soviet confrontation in Asia. The war pitted North Korean forces supported by the Soviet Union and Communist China against South Korean forces supported by the United States and its allies. The Korean War ended in 1953 with a ceasefire, leaving the Korean peninsula divided between a communist north and a non-communist south. In addition, the Vietnam War, which began in the 1950s, was also a major conflict between the two superpowers in Asia. The United States supported the South Vietnamese government in its fight against the National Liberation Front of Vietnam (NLF), supported by the Soviet Union and communist China. Apart from these two major conflicts, Asia has also seen tensions and conflicts in other regions, including Afghanistan, Indonesia and Indochina. The two superpowers have also sought to extend their influence in Southeast Asia, where they have supported various political and military movements. Asia was a major confrontation zone during the Cold War, with significant consequences for the region. The conflicts in Korea and Vietnam left lasting scars, and the war in Afghanistan has had repercussions that are still felt today.

The Cold War was a global conflict, with confrontation zones in all regions of the world. Although the main theatres of operation were in Europe, Asia and the Americas, the two superpowers also clashed in Africa and the Middle East. This has manifested itself in conflicts or tensions in different countries, such as the Korean War, the Cuban missile crisis, the Vietnam War, conflicts in Angola and Mozambique, civil wars in Latin America and conflicts in Afghanistan. These conflicts often involved local actors pursuing their own objectives, but supported and manipulated by the two superpowers in their struggle for global influence. The Cold War had a major impact on the whole world, shaping politics, culture and society in many parts of the world.

Focus on a Cold War conflict: Vietnam

The Vietnam conflict was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts of the Cold War. It pitted the communist forces of North Vietnam, supported by the Soviet Union and China, against South Vietnamese forces supported by the United States and other Western countries.

The conflict began in 1946, after the end of French colonisation of Indochina. Communist forces, led by the charismatic leader Ho Chi Minh, took control of the country's north and proclaimed the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, while pro-Western forces established the Republic of Vietnam in the south. Cold War tensions fueled the conflict. The United States feared that the communist victory in Vietnam would lead to the spread of communism throughout Asia, while the Soviet Union and China sought to expand their influence in the region. The United States intervened in the conflict in the 1960s, sending troops to assist South Vietnamese forces and bombing North Vietnam. Despite its technological and military superiority, the US was unable to defeat the communist forces.

The conflict ended in 1975, when communist forces captured Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, ending the war. The country was reunited under the communist regime of North Vietnam, and the United States suffered a humiliating defeat. The Vietnamese conflict had significant consequences for the United States, which suffered a loss of confidence in its global leadership and was forced to rethink its foreign policy. For Vietnam, the conflict left deep scars, particularly due to US forces' use of Agent Orange and other chemical weapons, devastatingly affecting the Vietnamese population.

French Indochina (1913)

The French and the Indochina War (1945 - 1954)

In 1940, French troops in Indochina were ejected by the Japanese, who occupied the region during the Second World War. After the Japanese defeat in 1945, European colonisers attempted to re-establish their dominance over their former colonies in Asia. However, in some cases, local nationalist movements used the war period to strengthen their position and gain independence. This was the case in India, where Gandhi's movement intensified its resistance activities and finally gained independence in 1947.

In Indochina, the nationalist movement led by Ho Chi Minh used the war period to strengthen its position and mobilise the Vietnamese population for independence. After the end of the war, Ho Chi Minh proclaimed Vietnam's independence and established the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. However, European colonial powers, such as France, sought to re-establish control over their former colonies in Asia. The French attempted to regain control of Indochina, but were met with strong resistance from Vietnamese nationalist forces.

The conflict between the Vietnamese nationalist forces and the European colonial powers eventually evolved into a protracted guerrilla war, which lasted for over twenty years and was one of the bloodiest and most destructive conflicts of the Cold War.

After a series of failed negotiations, the conflict in Indochina escalated until 1954, which marked a turning point in the conflict. The decisive battle of Diên Biên Phu took place in March 1954, pitting Vietnamese forces led by General Vo Nguyen Giap against French forces. The battle was a disaster for the French, who suffered heavy losses and were forced to withdraw. The defeat of Diên Biên Phu led to the Geneva Conference in Switzerland, where representatives of France, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia negotiated a peace agreement. This agreement marked the end of the French presence in Indochina and led to the division of Vietnam into two zones, North and South, with a temporary demarcation line established at the 17th parallel.

The Geneva Agreement also provided for unified national elections for all of Vietnam in 1956, with the aim of reunifying the country. However, the US and the US-backed South Vietnamese government refused to hold these elections, fearing that the communists would win. This decision led to an escalation of the conflict in Indochina, with the US becoming increasingly involved in the conflict. This eventually led to the Vietnam War, which lasted from 1955 to 1975 and was one of the Cold War's bloodiest and most destructive conflicts.

Despite the Geneva Agreement in 1954, the conflict in Indochina was not resolved as the Vietnamese communists' goal was to conquer the entire territory, leading to the Vietnam War outbreak. From the mid-1950s onwards, the United States, in a cold war logic, started to support the South Vietnamese government against the communist forces in the North. The US provided massive military and financial aid to the South Vietnamese government and sent military advisors to help train the Vietnamese armed forces. However, the situation quickly deteriorated, and northern communist forces launched an insurgency in South Vietnam. The United States responded by sending troops to Vietnam and intensifying its bombing campaign against North Vietnam. By the mid-1960s, the US had about 500,000 troops in Vietnam, and the war had erupted into a full-scale conflict. The fighting was extremely violent, with massive casualties on both sides and considerable destruction on Vietnamese territory.

American involvement (1965 - 1969)

After supporting the South Vietnamese government with military and financial aid, the United States began sending military advisors to Vietnam to help train and equip the Vietnamese armed forces. However, the South Vietnamese government led by Ngo Dinh Diem was soon criticised for its dictatorial management of the country, corruption and lack of commitment to the independence aspirations of the Vietnamese people. Despite this, the US continued to support Diem's government, fearing that the fall of his regime would lead to a communist victory in the country. Over time, the US sent more and more soldiers to Vietnam to fight alongside South Vietnamese forces.

However, North Vietnamese communist forces also intensified their military campaign, and the war became increasingly brutal and costly for both sides. In 1969, US President Richard Nixon announced his 'Vietnamisation' policy, which involved transferring responsibility for the war to South Vietnamese forces, while gradually reducing the US military presence in the country.

During the war, the US military faced a formidable enemy in North Vietnamese guerrilla and Viet Cong forces, who used guerrilla tactics, booby traps, tunnels and intimate knowledge of the terrain to cause significant losses to US forces. The conflict also generated growing opposition in the United States, fuelled by television reports and graphic images of the war, as well as a growing mobilisation of public opinion against conscription and the war itself. Demonstrations and riots took place across the country, with thousands of young Americans fleeing to neighbouring countries to escape conscription.

International opposition to the war was also intense, with demonstrations in many countries, particularly in Europe and Latin America. In 1968, the Tet Offensive, a surprise guerrilla campaign by communist forces, undermined the confidence of the American public in their government's ability to win the war. Faced with this growing opposition and the continuation of the war, President Nixon began to seek a diplomatic solution to end the war. In 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed, ending direct US military involvement in Vietnam.

Towards the solution (1969 - 1975)

After the failure of the US military escalation in the 1960s, the US began to seek a diplomatic solution to end the war. President Nixon launched a policy of 'Vietnamisation', which involved training and equipping the South Vietnamese armed forces to take over the fight against the communists.

In 1973, the Paris Peace Accords were signed, ending direct US military involvement in Vietnam. US troops began to withdraw, leaving the war to the South Vietnamese armed forces. However, the war did not end, communist forces continued to advance south, and in 1975 North Vietnamese forces launched a decisive offensive that led to the fall of Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, and the reunification of the country under communist rule.

The American involvement in the Vietnam War lasted nearly 20 years and cost the lives of more than 58,000 American soldiers, as well as hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese civilians and combatants from both sides. The conflict is considered one of the most controversial and traumatic wars in American history.

The Vietnam conflict went through several phases and evolutions, reflecting the geopolitical and ideological issues of the time. It began as a decolonisation conflict, when the Vietnamese fought for their independence from the French. This struggle eventually led to the division of the country into two, with a communist government in the North and a Western-backed government in the South. The conflict then turned into a Cold War ideological conflict, as the United States sought to stem the spread of communism in Asia by supporting South Vietnam. Communist forces supported by the North sought to unify the country under a communist regime. Finally, the conflict became Vietnamese with the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule in 1975, which ended the direct US military presence and the war. This development showed that the Vietnamese were capable of taking charge of their own destiny and reunifying their country after years of conflict, division and suffering.

Thus, the Vietnam conflict is an example of the complexity of modern conflicts, which can evolve and change in nature over time, reflecting the political, economic and ideological issues of the time.

The balance of terror and its consequences

The Cold War was characterised by a balance of terror, also known as 'nuclear deterrence'. Both the United States and the Soviet Union had developed a massive nuclear strike capability, and each had enough nuclear weapons to destroy the other several times over. This fact created a situation where the two superpowers were in a position to destroy each other in the event of a nuclear attack, which made both sides very cautious in their behaviour and foreign policy.

Indeed, the idea behind nuclear deterrence was that neither side would use nuclear weapons, knowing that this would result in mutually assured destruction. Both countries, therefore, opted for a policy of restraint and negotiation rather than direct conflict. This has also led to a continuous nuclear arms race between the two countries, each seeking to maintain strategic superiority over the other. This balance of terror has also had important consequences. First, the threat of a full-scale nuclear war has created an atmosphere of fear and insecurity, with serious psychological consequences for the populations of both countries and the rest of the world. In addition, nuclear armament was extremely expensive, draining significant resources from both countries and their economies. Finally, the balance of terror has led to regional crises and proxy conflicts, where both sides have supported opposing sides in conflicts such as the Vietnam War or the Afghan War. Nuclear deterrence was not an important factor in these situations, but ideological rivalry and competition for influence were very present.

The US was the first to develop and use nuclear weapons, dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. At that time, the United States was the only country with nuclear weapons, giving it a significant strategic advantage in the emerging Cold War. However, by 1949, the Soviet Union had succeeded in developing its own nuclear weapon, becoming the second largest nuclear power in the world. This created a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers, each seeking to develop more powerful and sophisticated weapons than the other. Over time, other countries have also developed nuclear weapons, such as China, France, the UK and Israel, among others. This nuclear proliferation has increased the risk of nuclear war and has also complicated international relations, as non-nuclear states often seek to acquire this technology to strengthen their position on the world stage.

The issue of the use of nuclear weapons was a major topic of debate throughout the Cold War, and this was evident from the outset of the conflict in Korea. In 1950, General MacArthur, who commanded US forces in Korea, proposed the use of nuclear weapons against North Korean and Chinese forces that had invaded South Korea. Although President Truman rejected this proposal, it showed that the US military was seriously considering using nuclear weapons to defeat America's enemies.^[5] As time went on, the issue of the use of nuclear weapons became increasingly sensitive, as the scale of destruction that such weapons could cause became more and more apparent. The United States and the Soviet Union therefore sought to find ways to deter the other side from using nuclear weapons, developing the doctrine of nuclear deterrence, which was based on the threat of massive retaliation if nuclear weapons were used. Despite this, there were moments of extreme tension during the Cold War when nuclear weapons were imminent, such as during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. Fortunately, through negotiation and diplomacy, the crisis was resolved without the use of nuclear weapons, but it underscored the seriousness of the nuclear threat in the Cold War context.

Although the issue of the use of nuclear weapons by the United States and the Soviet Union ceased to be so hot in the 1960s, the nuclear arms race and the proliferation of nuclear weapons created a continuing balance of terror. Indeed, from the mid-1950s onwards, other countries began to acquire nuclear weapons, notably France and China. This nuclear proliferation further complicated the Cold War situation, as several nuclear powers could potentially engage in conflicts with disastrous consequences for humanity. In addition, France and China adopted nuclear policies independent of those of the United States and the Soviet Union, which created additional tensions in international relations. For example, France has developed its own nuclear deterrent, based on tactical and strategic nuclear weapons, in order to strengthen its position on the international scene.

The existence of nuclear weapons can be seen as a factor for peace in that it forces nuclear powers to look for ways to limit the risks of nuclear conflict. This situation has thus prompted the protagonists of the Cold War to seek ways to dialogue and find peaceful solutions to their conflicts. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, which was signed in 1968 and entered into force in 1970, is an example of such a measure taken to limit the proliferation of nuclear weapons. This treaty was signed by most of the countries in the world, and aims to prevent the proliferation of nuclear weapons by limiting their development to the five countries recognised as nuclear powers (the United States, Russia, China, France and the United Kingdom). The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty is an example of the importance of international dialogue and cooperation in avoiding nuclear conflict. Indeed, the existence of nuclear weapons obliges countries to engage in intensive diplomacy to regulate their use and effects in order to maintain international peace and security.

During the Cold War, there was a twofold movement towards over-armament by the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. However, this movement was also accompanied by dialogue and negotiation, with the aim of limiting the risks of nuclear conflict. Thus, in addition to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, there have been several nuclear arms control agreements between the US and the Soviet Union. For example, in 1972, the two countries signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which limited the number of intercontinental ballistic missiles and missile launchers that both countries could possess. In 1987, the two countries also signed the INF (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces) Treaty, which banned land-based intermediate-range missiles. These treaties showed that the two superpowers were able to negotiate and cooperate on nuclear security issues, despite their ideological and geopolitical rivalry. This cooperation has reduced the risk of nuclear conflict and stabilised relations between the two countries.

From the early 1950s, civil society began to challenge the use of nuclear energy, especially for military purposes. Scientists played an important role in this movement, as they were aware of the potential risks of nuclear energy and its use for military purposes. The Pugwash movement, founded in 1955 by a group of scientists including Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell, was an international organisation that sought to promote nuclear disarmament and reduce international tensions. The organisation helped to highlight the environmental risks associated with the use of nuclear energy and played an important role in mobilising public opinion against nuclear testing and the proliferation of nuclear weapons. In the 1960s, the anti-nuclear movement intensified, with demonstrations and protests in many countries. The best-known demonstrations were those against French nuclear testing in the Pacific, as well as movements against the use of nuclear energy for civilian purposes. This movement has helped to raise public awareness of the risks associated with the use of nuclear energy, particularly in terms of safety and environmental risks. These concerns have led to the introduction of stricter safety standards for the use of nuclear energy, as well as to a reflection on energy alternatives and ways to reduce dependence on nuclear energy.

The new protagonists in international relations

The emergence of third worlds

The emergence of third worlds is a concept that arose from the Cold War and the division of the world into two blocs, led respectively by the United States and the Soviet Union. Countries that were not part of these two blocs were considered "third worlds".

These countries had common characteristics, such as their colonial history, low economic development and dependence on industrial powers. Third World countries also suffered the consequences of the Cold War, with military interventions and local conflicts encouraged or supported by both superpowers.

The Non-Aligned Movement was created to unite Third World countries and promote an independent foreign policy, free from the pressures of the two blocs. The Bandung Conference in 1955 was a key moment in the history of the movement, as it brought together leaders from many Third World countries, including India, China, Indonesia and Egypt.

Since then, the non-aligned movement has continued to play an important role in international politics, particularly in the areas of decolonisation, economic development and the promotion of international peace and cooperation.

The rise of China

China is a country that has undergone significant political and economic change since the end of World War II. After establishing a communist regime in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong, China began to break with the Soviet Union in the 1950s due to ideological differences.

Instead of following the Soviet economic and political development model, China adopted a more independent path, focusing on agriculture and land collectivisation. In the 1960s, under Mao's leadership, China launched the Cultural Revolution, a period of radical change in which millions were sent to re-education camps and institutions were dismantled.

However, from the 1970s onwards, China began to adopt more open economic policies and looked to the global market to drive economic growth. Economic reforms were launched under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping and were largely successful, leading to rapid GDP growth and the emergence of a middle class in China.

Today, China is considered one of the world's largest economies and is becoming a major global power, with significant geopolitical and economic ambitions.

Border disputes have arisen between the Soviet Union and China over the years, creating a 'little Cold War' between the two countries. Tensions began to build up in the 1950s, when China began to oppose Soviet policies on international relations and foreign policy.

Tensions peaked in the 1960s, when fighting broke out along the Sino-Soviet border, resulting in loss of life and the severing of diplomatic relations between the two countries in 1969. China also criticised Soviet policies in Eastern Europe and Asia, claiming that the Soviet Union was an imperialist that sought to dominate other communist countries.

The break between the Soviet Union and China had a significant impact on the international politics of the time, as it created a new balance of power in Asia and contributed to China's isolation on the international stage. China finally normalised its relations with the Soviet Union in the 1980s, but relations between the two countries remained tense until the end of the Cold War.

As China moved away from the Soviet Union, it sought to create political space for itself in the international arena. This was symbolised by several important events, such as the allocation of the seat of permanent membership in the UN Security Council to mainland China in 1971, at the expense of Taiwan, which was then recognised by many countries as China's legitimate representative.

The diplomatic rapprochement between China and the United States has also played a key role in China's strategy to position itself on the international stage. US President Richard Nixon's historic visit to China in 1972 helped normalise diplomatic relations between the two countries after years of Cold War tensions.

This rapprochement was driven by common interests, such as the need to contain the Soviet Union and promote stability in Asia. Since then, the relationship between China and the United States has been complex, characterised by periods of cooperation and confrontation.

Today, the Sino-US relationship is one of the major issues in international politics, with growing tensions over issues such as trade, security and human rights.

China's independence and autonomous diplomacy have been key elements in its development as a global power. After decades of foreign domination and civil wars, China adopted a policy of reform and opening up in the 1970s, which allowed its economy to develop rapidly and open up to world trade.

This policy also led to a more active and autonomous diplomacy, in which China sought to defend its own interests and promote its values on the international stage. China has developed diplomatic relations with a wide range of countries and has sought to play a more active role in international organisations, such as the World Trade Organisation, the International Monetary Fund and the United Nations.

China has also sought to promote its own worldview, which emphasises respect for national sovereignty, non-interference in the internal affairs of other countries and mutually beneficial cooperation. This vision has been reflected in China's Belt and Road Initiative, which aims to strengthen economic and trade ties between China and countries in Asia, Europe and Africa.

Europe

The creation of the European Economic Community in 1957 was a key step in building Europe as an integrated economic area. This community, which later became the European Union, enabled European countries to work together to develop their economies and strengthen their influence on the international scene.

However, Europe has struggled to create its own political space and to assert itself as a power on the international stage. Despite significant progress in economic integration, Europe has struggled to agree on common policies in areas such as defence, security and foreign affairs. This has limited Europe's ability to influence global affairs and to deal with international challenges such as economic competition and the threat of terrorism.

Nevertheless, Europe has progressively strengthened its cooperation in foreign and defence policy, with the creation of the European Union and the establishment of a common foreign and security policy. Europe has also worked to strengthen its economic cooperation with other countries and regions of the world, notably with Asia, Africa and Latin America.

Although the Cold War was a structuring force in post-war international relations, it did not overwhelm the other dynamics that were at work at the time.

The issue of the non-aligned countries was an important force in international relations at the time. These countries sought to assert themselves as independent actors on the international scene and to avoid being caught up in the conflict between the US and the USSR. The Bandung Conference symbolised the non-aligned movement in 1955, where Asian and African countries sought to promote cooperation and independence from the two superpowers.

China's independent policy was also an important factor in international relations at the time. China sought to develop its own political and economic model, independent of the USSR and the United States, and played an important role in the construction of post-colonial Asia.

Finally, the construction of Europe was also an important factor in post-war international relations. Europe sought to build itself as an independent political and economic space, able to carry weight on the international scene and defend its interests against the superpowers.

The Arab-Israeli conflict: global and local logics

Plan de partage de 1947 - [http://domino.un.org/maps/m0103_1b.gif See also detailed map (United Nations).

The Arab-Israeli conflict is a complex conflict with deep and diverse roots. It can be approached both from a global perspective, placing it in the context of the Cold War, and from a local perspective, focusing on the specific factors that contributed to its genesis and development.

The Cold War had a major influence on the Arab-Israeli conflict. The United States and the Soviet Union sought to extend their regional influence, supporting Israel and the Arab countries respectively. When the United States began providing arms and economic aid to Israel in the 1950s, the Soviet Union responded by providing arms and economic aid to Arab countries. This rivalry has contributed to tensions and conflicts in the region.

The origins of the Arab-Israeli conflict go back long before the Cold War. As early as the end of the 19th century, Zionist movements developed in Europe as a reaction to the persecution of Jews in Eastern Europe, particularly in Tsarist Russia. These movements advocated the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine, then under Ottoman rule.

The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War created a complex situation in the region. The borders of the new states that emerged were often not determined according to the ethnic or religious affiliations of the local populations, resulting in inter-communal tensions and conflicts. Furthermore, the development of a Jewish national home in Palestine created additional tensions in the region. Local Arab nationalists perceived Jewish immigration to Palestine as a threat to their own independence and sought to oppose this presence. This led to violent clashes between the Jewish and Arab communities in Palestine, which were exacerbated by rivalries between local Arab nationalist movements. Ultimately, the Arab-Israeli conflict was fuelled by a combination of factors, including the legacy of Ottoman rule, rivalries between local Arab nationalist movements, the development of a Jewish national home in Palestine, and Cold War issues. This complexity made a peaceful and lasting resolution of the conflict difficult and contributed to political instability in the region.

After the First World War and the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the region was placed under British mandate. The British authorities promised to support the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine, while also promising to respect the rights of local Arabs. However, these promises proved difficult to keep, and tensions began to rise between the Jewish and Arab communities. The Balfour Declaration of 1917 had a major impact on the development of Jewish nationalism in Palestine. This declaration, issued by the British government during the First World War, promised to support the creation of a Jewish national home in Palestine, while guaranteeing the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in the region. The Balfour Declaration was widely interpreted as a British pledge to support the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine, which gave further impetus to the development of the Zionist movement. However, the promises of the Balfour Declaration conflicted with earlier British commitments to the local Arabs, who had also claimed sovereignty over the region. The Balfour Declaration therefore helped to fuel tensions between the Jewish and Arab communities in Palestine, raising questions about the legitimacy of territorial claims on both sides. These tensions eventually led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, which marked the beginning of a conflict that continues to this day.

Arab nationalism also began to develop in the early twentieth century as a reaction to the rule of the Ottoman Empire and the Western presence in the region. The Ottoman Empire, which had ruled the region for centuries, was perceived as an authoritarian and oppressive regime by the local Arab populations. As a result, Arab nationalist movements began to emerge to demand independence and self-determination for Arab countries. In addition, the presence of European powers in the region, particularly Britain and France, also helped to fuel Arab nationalism. Local Arabs saw the Europeans as colonisers who sought to exploit the region's resources and maintain their political dominance. Arab nationalism was fuelled by key figures, such as Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt, who called for unity and liberation of the region from foreign powers. This led to pan-Arab movements that sought to unite Arab countries into a single political entity. However, Arab nationalist aspirations were also thwarted by inter-Arab rivalries and internal divisions. These factors contributed to political instability in the region, which was exacerbated by the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.

In the years following World War II, the United Nations proposed a plan to divide Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab. The Jewish leaders accepted this plan, but the Arab leaders rejected it as not giving them enough territory. This led to the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, which resulted in the creation of the State of Israel and the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians.

It is important to stress that there is no single Arab nationalism, but rather a multitude of different Arab nationalisms that have emerged across the region. Indeed, Arab nationalism has given rise to various local movements, which were often influenced by each country's specific political and social contexts. For example, Egyptian nationalism was strongly influenced by the modernisation and economic development efforts of Nasser's government, while Iraqi nationalism was more focused on the struggle against British rule in the region. This plurality of nationalist movements often complicated attempts at pan-Arab unity, due to rivalries and differences between the different movements and countries. The ideological and political differences between the different Arab nationalist movements often prevented the establishment of a unitary strategy to fight against the colonial powers and to respond to the challenges of the region. It also complicated relations between Arab countries and the State of Israel, which were often perceived differently by local Arab nationalist movements. This complexity has therefore contributed to the difficulty of finding a peaceful and lasting solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict.

The region's small size plays an important role in the Arab-Israeli conflict, as it has led to strong competition for natural resources, especially water. Access to water is crucial for the survival and development of each community, and tensions have often erupted over the issue of water resource management and sharing. In addition, religious antagonism between the Jewish and Muslim communities has also played an important role in the conflict. The region is considered holy by all three major monotheistic religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam, and the communities' competing claims to the holy sites have fuelled religious tensions. Moreover, the issue of national identity and sovereignty in the region is closely linked to religion, as the claims of both communities to the land of Palestine are closely linked to their respective religious and cultural histories.

The creation of the State of Israel in 1948 is linked to the Shoah, which brought about a fundamental change in the way Jews view their place in the world. After the Second World War, many Jews sought refuge in Palestine, which was then under the British mandate. However, the influx of Jews into Palestine was strongly opposed by Arabs, who saw it as a threat to their own sovereignty and national identity. The neighbouring Arab countries also reacted to the creation of the State of Israel in 1948 by launching a military attack, which resulted in a war that lasted several months. This war exacerbated tensions between the Jewish and Arab communities, and led to the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians who fled their homes because of the war or were expelled by the Israeli authorities. Since then, the Arab-Israeli conflict has been marked by decades of violence, negotiations, peace attempts and failures. Issues of sovereignty, security, human rights, the sharing of natural resources and the status of refugees remain major sticking points in the conflict.

These two maps summarise the territorial evolution of the conflicts with the evolution of the issue from the plan drawn up by Britain and implemented by the UN.

La documentation française.

The 1947 Partition Plan provided for the division of Palestine into two separate states, one Arab and one Jewish, with Jerusalem as an international city. However, the Arabs rejected the plan, claiming that it favoured the Jews and did not give them enough land.

The 1948 war, also known as the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, began shortly after Israel's declaration of independence in May 1948. The war resulted in an Israeli victory, which extended its territory beyond the borders of the UN partition plan. The 1949 map shows the situation after this war, with the West Bank and Gaza occupied by Jordan and Egypt respectively, and the rest of the Palestinian territory under Israeli control. The war also led to the exodus of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes, who were forced to flee to neighbouring countries or to take refuge in other parts of Palestine. This created a refugee problem that continues to this day.

La documentation française

The Six Day War broke out in June 1967, pitting Israel against Egypt, Jordan and Syria. The war was provoked by growing tensions between Israel and neighbouring Arab countries, particularly over control of Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip. The war resulted in a swift and decisive victory for Israel, which expanded its territory by annexing the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, as well as the Sinai Peninsula which had been taken from Egypt. The Yom Kippur War took place in October 1973, when Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel to recover the territories lost in 1967. Although Egypt and Syria initially made territorial gains, Israel eventually managed to repel the attack and retain the territories it had conquered in 1967. Since then, the occupied territories have been at the heart of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and their status remains one of the main sources of tension in the region. The Palestinians claim the Gaza Strip and the West Bank as part of their future state, while the Israelis consider these territories as part of their ancestral homeland. The Golan Heights also remain an area of conflict between Israel and Syria.

There is no clear-cut front line in the Arab-Israeli conflict. On the one hand, there are the alliances of states, but there is also the complexity of local players. Arab nationalist movements, for example, have links with national liberation movements in other parts of the world, such as the Palestinian national liberation movement and the African National Congress in South Africa. In addition, there are differences in approach between Arab countries, with some preferring a more moderate approach while others are more radical. Ultimately, the Arab-Israeli conflict is a complex one, with many players and issues at stake, both local and global.

We have a conflict that is both a condensation of global issues, but not completely summarised in them. If the Arab-Israeli conflict intersects with the divisions of the Cold War, one could imagine that the US supports Israel and the USSR supports the Arab countries. In fact, American support has been constant, but Russian support is not so constant. At the beginning, the Soviets supported the Arab countries in order to eject the colonial powers, but little by little, Soviet support became fluctuating, with oil supplies at stake. In a way, the Middle East is one of the regions where the US and the USSR have most often found themselves in agreement in order to avoid a conflict. The other reason is that the USSR has a number of allies, in particular Egypt and Syria, but these relations will deteriorate, especially with Egypt, which is a promoter of the Third Way and one of the instigators of the birth of the non-aligned movement. The front line is not clear and sharp.

The Arab-Israeli conflict was influenced by the Cold War, but the positions of the US and the USSR were not as clear-cut as one might think. The United States has been the main supporter of Israel since its creation, notably by providing arms and significant economic aid. As for the USSR, it initially supported the Arab countries in their struggle against the colonial powers, but its support subsequently became more fluctuating according to the economic and geopolitical interests at stake. During the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union tried to strengthen its ties with Arab countries by providing significant economic and military assistance, but these ties began to deteriorate with Egypt after the signing of the Israeli-Egyptian peace agreements in 1979. Subsequently, the USSR lost much of its influence in the region, especially with the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

The Middle East region was the scene of many geopolitical issues during the Cold War, as both the US and the USSR sought to expand their influence in the region. However, despite differences in interests, the two powers also worked together to avoid an escalation of the Arab-Israeli conflict that could have led to a direct confrontation between the two superpowers.

As for relations between the USSR and its Arab allies, it is true that they were marked by fluctuations and tensions. Nasser's Egypt, for example, sought to distance itself from the two blocs and promoted the Third Way, which created tensions with the USSR as it sought to extend its influence in the region. This contributed to a certain instability in the region and to a complication of alliances and oppositions between the different actors in the Arab-Israeli conflict.

Local issues have often been paramount in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Local actors have often been the most decisive in the different stages of the conflict, although international powers have played an important role in the history of the region. The conflict is primarily a question of territory and national identity. It pits two peoples, the Israelis and the Palestinians, against each other, each claiming the same land and each with conflicting national aspirations. Although the major powers have strategic interests in the region, they have rarely been able to impose a comprehensive solution to the conflict.

The end of the Cold War did not end the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which has become increasingly localised. Since the 1990s, peace negotiations have alternated with waves of violence between Israel and the Palestinians. The 1993 Oslo Accords, which aimed to establish a lasting peace between the two sides, were followed by the second Intifada in 2000, which saw an intensification of the violence. Since then, peace negotiations have been interrupted several times, notably because of the continued expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the question of Israel's security in the face of Palestinian attacks.

Decolonisation

Decolonisation is a historical process by which former colonies gain political independence from their colonial metropolises. This process took place mainly in the 1950s and 1960s, after the Second World War, when nationalist movements began to gain momentum in many parts of the world. Decolonisation took place mainly in Africa and Asia, but it also affected other parts of the world, such as the Caribbean and the Pacific. The colonising countries were mainly European powers such as Britain, France, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal. Decolonisation had major consequences for the former colonies and the colonising countries. It enabled former colonies to free themselves from the yoke of foreign domination and to take their destiny into their own hands, although this was not always easy. For the colonising countries, decolonisation meant a loss of power and prestige, as well as economic and political upheaval.

The shock of the two world wars

The two world wars profoundly impacted the history of decolonisation and helped accelerate the process of liberation of the colonised peoples. The First World War undermined the credibility of the European colonial powers, which had promised the colonised peoples liberation in exchange for their support during the war. However, these promises were not kept, which fuelled the resentment of the colonised peoples towards their colonisers. The Second World War further reinforced this trend, as it undermined the power of the European colonial powers and created a climate in which nationalist movements demanded independence. In addition, the war created a global awareness of the need to end imperialism and colonialism, as these were seen as the root causes of global conflicts. Finally, the war also created opportunities for nationalist movements, as the colonial powers were forced to mobilise their resources to deal with the war, which weakened their ability to maintain their hold on the colonies. As a result, many nationalist movements took the opportunity to launch campaigns of protest and resistance, which eventually led to the independence of many colonised countries.

The difference between the two world wars is crucial to understanding the impact of decolonisation. In 1918, the European colonial powers won the war, which strengthened their position and prestige. However, by 1945, the European colonial powers were weakened and no longer able to lead international affairs. The USA and the USSR became the dominant powers, which created a space of opportunity for nationalist movements in the colonies.

In 1945, the US and the Soviet Union became the two global superpowers, considerably impacting international relations. Indeed, the United States played a key role in the Allied victory by providing resources and soldiers to the war effort, while the Soviet Union also contributed significantly by fighting Nazi Germany on the Eastern Front.

In contrast, in 1940, France collapsed militarily against Nazi Germany, while Britain successfully resisted the Battle of Britain, but failed to influence the course of the war in any significant way until the United States entered the war in 1941. This led to a weakening of the European colonial powers, which lost their leading position on the international scene and were forced to face a period of decline and redefinition of their role in the world.

Indeed, the participation of the colonies in the war effort also contributed to the strengthening of national consciousness and the demand for independence. Colonial troops were involved in the fighting and often showed courage and determination, despite the discrimination and injustices they suffered. This contribution was widely recognised by nationalist movements and strengthened their demand for independence.

Finally, the loss of prestige of the European colonial powers also created space for contestation at the international level. The United States and the USSR criticised the colonial system and supported national liberation movements, which helped to strengthen their position and legitimacy. The creation of the United Nations in 1945 was also a turning point in the history of decolonisation, as it gave nationalist movements a voice on the international stage.

In sum, the shock of the two world wars was decisive in the history of decolonisation, as it created a space of opportunity for nationalist movements, strengthened national consciousness and the demand for independence, and weakened the position of the European colonial powers.

The wars of decolonisation

It is difficult to speak of 'successful' decolonisation in general, as each situation is unique and involves different challenges and successes. Decolonisation has often been a complex and difficult process, with long-term consequences for former colonies and colonial powers. Some countries managed to gain independence peacefully and establish stable democratic regimes, such as India or Ghana. Other countries faced prolonged armed conflicts and long-term political instability, such as Algeria or Angola. Decolonisation has sometimes led to ethnic tensions and internal conflicts, such as in Rwanda or Indonesia. Moreover, decolonisation has often left complex legacies, such as artificial borders created by colonial powers, persistent economic inequalities, continued political and cultural domination by former colonial powers, or the marginalisation of indigenous populations. It is therefore important to take into account local contexts and realities when assessing decolonisation, rather than seeing it as a universal process with a clear end.

Britain (1947 - 1960)

Britain experienced a significant period of decolonisation in the years following World War II, particularly in Asia and Africa.

In 1947, India and Pakistan gained independence from Britain, ending over two centuries of British colonial rule in the region. This decolonisation was preceded by a series of nationalist movements in India, which were led by figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. The partition of India into two separate states, India and Pakistan, however, was marked by sectarian violence and mass migration of people. The decolonisation of India in 1947 was not without tensions and violence between the different religious communities. Religious rivalries were encouraged and used by the British in their 'divide and rule' policy. This led to bloody conflicts, especially during the partition of India into two separate states: India, which was predominantly Hindu, and Pakistan, which was predominantly Muslim. Partition led to massive population displacement and inter-communal violence, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths. Therefore, although India became independent in 1947, decolonisation cannot be said to have been successful without taking into account the many tensions and violence that followed. Britain also accelerated decolonisation in Africa during the 1950s and 1960s.

In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain independence from Britain, followed by a series of other African states in the years that followed. The nationalist movement in British colonies in Africa was inspired in part by liberation movements in India and Asia, as well as by opposition to the apartheid system in South Africa.

Nigeria gained independence on 1 October 1960, becoming the largest African state to emerge from European colonisation. Nigeria experienced significant unrest after independence in 1960, culminating in the secession of the Biafra region in 1967. Ethnic and religious tensions were exacerbated by British colonisation, which had established a political and administrative system that favoured some communities over others. After independence, these tensions continued to be expressed, including violent clashes between Muslim and Christian communities in the north of the country. The secession of Biafra was triggered by the Igbo, a majority community in the region, who felt politically and economically marginalised by the federal government. The resulting conflict was particularly deadly, killing hundreds of thousands of people, the vast majority of them civilians. Finally, in 1970, Biafra was reintegrated into Nigeria, but ethnic and religious tensions continued to be a source of conflict in the country.

Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) was founded by British settlers of European origin who created a segregated and discriminatory regime against the black majority. In 1965, white Prime Minister Ian Smith unilaterally declared Southern Rhodesia's independence, refusing to follow British directives to establish a representative government including the black population. This decision was widely condemned by the international community, which imposed economic sanctions on Southern Rhodesia. Black nationalist movements, particularly ZANU and ZAPU, waged a guerrilla war against Ian Smith's regime until 1980, when Southern Rhodesia became independent Zimbabwe.

Decolonisation in Africa has not been without violence and conflict, particularly in areas such as Kenya, Algeria and Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Nationalist movements often faced heavy repression from the colonial powers, while guerrilla groups also carried out violent attacks on colonial forces.

The decolonisation of Malaysia was marked by tensions and clashes, particularly with the Malayan Communist Party, which had launched an armed insurrection to oppose British colonisation. The situation worsened after the Second World War, when the Malay Communists intensified their struggle against the colonial authorities, who responded with severe repression. In 1957, Malaysia finally gained its independence, but tensions continued, particularly with the Malay Chinese minority, who were discriminated against and abused.

Between 1947 and the early 1960s, Britain decolonised much of its Empire, including India (1947), Pakistan (1947), Burma (1948), Jordan (1946), Egypt (1952), Sudan (1956), Ghana (1957), Kenya (1963), Tanzania (1961), Uganda (1962), Zambia (1964), Malaya (1957), Singapore (1963) and Northern Rhodesia (1964). However, some British colonies gained independence later, such as Botswana (1966), Mauritius (1968) and the Seychelles (1976).

France

France began its decolonisation process after the Second World War, with the recognition of equal rights between French citizens and colonised populations. However, unlike England, France encountered many difficulties in its decolonisation process.

The most notable conflicts were in Algeria, where France fought a bloody war of decolonisation from 1954 to 1962, which cost hundreds of thousands of lives. France began colonising Algeria in 1830, and met with strong resistance from the Algerian population, who fought a long struggle for their independence. The National Liberation Front (FLN) was created in 1954 to fight against French rule in Algeria. This struggle intensified over the years, with violence on both sides, before culminating in the Evian Agreements in 1962, which led to Algeria's independence. This conflict had important political, social, and economic consequences for France and Algeria. Tunisia and Morocco also gained independence in 1956, but France continued to maintain a significant military presence in the region for many years. Tunisia and Morocco gained independence in 1956. In Tunisia, independence was achieved through negotiations with France, while Morocco experienced more violent tensions, including an armed insurrection led by the Moroccan nationalist movement Istiqlal. France finally accepted Moroccan independence after signing the Evian Agreements in 1962, which ended the Algerian War and recognised Algerian independence.

France granted independence to most of its colonies in sub-Saharan Africa between 1958 and 1960, but it also encountered violent conflicts and rebellions, notably in French Algeria, Cameroon and Côte d'Ivoire. Côte d'Ivoire gained independence in 1960, after more than 60 years of French colonisation. The independence process was relatively peaceful, with negotiations between France and Ivorian leaders, including Félix Houphouët-Boigny, who became the first president of independent Côte d'Ivoire. However, despite formal independence, France retained a strong influence on Côte d'Ivoire, notably economic and political, with cooperation agreements and regular military interventions in the country. Senegal gained independence in 1960, after more than 300 years of French colonial rule. Nationalist movements began to gain momentum in the 1930s, but actual independence was only achieved after a long political and diplomatic struggle, led by figures such as Léopold Sédar Senghor and Mamadou Dia. Senegal then opted for a socialist development model, with strong state intervention in the economy and priority given to education and health. The country has experienced periods of political and economic turmoil, but is now considered one of the most stable and democratic countries in West Africa. Mali gained independence from France on 22 September 1960. Modibo Keïta became the country's first president. Mali was part of the Federation of Mali, which also included Senegal, but the federation collapsed in 1960 due to political differences between the two countries.

In Asia, France lost its influence in Indochina after the Indochina War from 1946 to 1954, which resulted in the division of Vietnam into two countries. France suffered a military defeat in Indochina, which marked the end of its influence in the region. The Indochina War, which lasted from 1946 to 1954, pitted the French army against Vietnamese communist forces, supported by China and the Soviet Union. After France's defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954, a peace agreement was signed in Geneva, which divided Vietnam into two countries: the communist-led North and the US and French-backed South. France then gradually ceded control of its colonies in India, Laos and Cambodia. France had to cede control of its colonies in Asia. In India, France had colonies in Pondicherry, Karikal, Yanam, Mahe and Chandernagor, which were ceded to India in 1954. In Laos and Cambodia, France granted independence in 1953, following a long period of conflict.

Holland

The Dutch lost their position in Southeast Asia during World War II when the Japanese took control of the region in 1942. After the war, the Dutch sought to re-establish their influence in the region, but the United States exerted strong pressure to drive them out. The United States feared that the Dutch would not be able to manage decolonisation in the region effectively, which could cause unrest and tensions that could harm its interests in the region.

Indeed, there were strong independence movements in the former Dutch colonies, notably in Indonesia, where the nationalist movement led by Sukarno had gained popularity. The Dutch finally granted independence to Indonesia in 1949, after a long war of independence and difficult negotiations with Indonesian nationalists.

Italy

Libya gained independence in 1951, after being an Italian colony for several decades. In 1947, the United Nations created the Territory of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, which was administered by Britain and France until Libya's independence in 1951. This independence was achieved by King Idris I, who proclaimed the birth of the Kingdom of Libya.

However, despite Libya's independence, the political and social situation in the country was unstable for many years. In 1969, Colonel Muammar Gaddafi took power in a military coup and established an authoritarian regime that lasted for almost 42 years. Under Gaddafi's regime, Libya was involved in several international conflicts and experienced ongoing political instability.

In 2011, a popular rebellion broke out in Libya, leading to the fall of the Gaddafi regime. However, the situation in Libya has remained unstable since then, with conflicts between rival factions and a presence of terrorist groups. The situation in Libya is still evolving, and it is difficult to predict what the future holds for the country.

Belgium

Congo was a personal property of the Belgian king, Leopold II, from 1885 to 1908. Under his rule, the country was brutally exploited economically, with practices such as forced labour and mutilation of workers.

In 1908, the Congo became a Belgian colony, but practices of economic exploitation and discrimination against the Congolese population persisted. At the time of Congo's independence in 1960, the situation was explosive, with many tensions between the Congolese and the Belgians, as well as between the different Congolese communities.

Indeed, the Katanga region was particularly rich in copper and other minerals, and parts of this region declared their independence in 1960, leading to a major political and military crisis. Belgian and UN forces were sent in to try to restore order, but the situation remained tense for several years.

Finally, in 1965, the Congolese leader Mobutu Sese Seko took power in a coup and established an authoritarian regime that lasted for almost 32 years. Under his regime, Congo was renamed Zaire and was involved in several regional conflicts. The country's political and economic situation has remained unstable since then, with conflicts between rival factions and widespread poverty.

Portugal

Guinea-Bissau, Angola and Mozambique experienced prolonged armed conflicts after independence.

In Guinea-Bissau, the war of independence from Portugal lasted from 1963 to 1974 and was followed by a civil war that broke out in 1998 and lasted until 1999. Since then, the country has experienced some stability, but still faces challenges such as poverty, corruption and drug trafficking.

In Angola, the war of independence from Portugal lasted from 1961 to 1974, followed by a civil war that broke out in 1975 and lasted until 2002. The civil war was marked by clashes between the Soviet-backed government and rebel movements supported by the US and South Africa. Since the end of the civil war, the country has experienced rapid economic growth, but faces challenges such as poverty, corruption and social inequality.

In Mozambique, the war of independence from Portugal lasted from 1964 to 1975, followed by a civil war that broke out in 1977 and lasted until 1992. The civil war was marked by clashes between the Soviet-backed government and South African-backed rebel movements. Since the end of the civil war, the country has experienced some stability, but faces challenges such as poverty, corruption and social inequality.

It should be noted that conflicts in these countries have been fuelled by complex factors, including political rivalry, ethnic tensions, natural resources and foreign influence, and the consequences of these conflicts are still felt today. However, there have also been significant efforts to rebuild countries and resolve conflicts, including through peace negotiations and economic development programmes.

Decolonisation is often a tumultuous and conflictual process, marked by tensions, violence and power struggles. Former metropolises have often sought to maintain dominance over their colonies, while nationalist movements and colonised populations have struggled for independence and freedom. Decolonisation processes have therefore often been marked by violent confrontations, repression, wars of independence and intercommunal violence. However, there are also examples of more peaceful and negotiated decolonisation, such as in India or Tunisia, where nationalist movements were able to mobilise public opinion and obtain important political concessions from the colonial powers.

The political emergence of the Third World

Situation of the alignment of the countries of the World with the two blocs in 1980; Cold War guerrillas are mentioned.

The political emergence of the Third World countries is linked to the logic of the Cold War, which was characterised by the rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union to extend their influence throughout the world. This rivalry manifested itself in numerous armed conflicts in the Third World, particularly in Asia and the Middle East. However, the main battleground between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War was in Europe, and in particular in Germany. After the Second World War, Germany was divided into two parts: the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) in the west, supported by the United States, and the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in the east, supported by the Soviet Union. The Cold War began in Europe after the end of the Second World War, when the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race and began to compete for dominance in Europe. One of the most important events of this period was the Berlin Blockade of 1948-49, in which the Soviet Union attempted to isolate the western part of Berlin by closing the roads and railways leading to it.

From the early 1950s onwards, there was a logic of exporting the Cold War outside Europe, with the globalisation of containment. George Kennan, an American diplomat, theorised the concept of 'containment' or containment in 1947, which aimed to contain the expansion of communism in Europe and everywhere else.^[6] The United States implemented this policy by supporting anti-communist regimes in many countries, intervening in armed conflicts to prevent communist regimes from coming to power, and assisting anti-communist guerrilla movements. This was manifested, for example, by US intervention in the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1955-1975), as well as by its support for authoritarian and anti-communist regimes in countries such as Indonesia, Iran, Chile and Afghanistan. Indeed, wherever the United States saw communist or supposedly communist regimes taking hold or in the process of taking hold, it lit counterfires by supporting anti-communist movements or by intervening directly. This policy contributed to the bipolarisation of the world into two blocs, with US-allied countries on one side and Soviet-allied countries on the other.

In an effort to contain the spread of communism, the United States sought to create military alliances with countries in the Middle East and Asia. In 1955, it signed the Baghdad Pact with Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan, Iran and the United Kingdom, which aimed to strengthen military and security cooperation between these countries. One of the aims of this initiative was to counter Soviet influence in the region. The United States also created the South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) in 1954, which included Thailand, the Philippines, Pakistan, India and the United States itself. The purpose of this organisation was to counter communist expansion in the region and to protect American interests in Southeast Asia. These military alliances were modelled on NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), which was created in 1949 by the US and its European allies to counter Soviet influence in Europe.

The export of Cold War logic played a major role in the emergence of the non-aligned movement. These countries refused to join either of the two blocs, considering that alignment with either side would lead to a loss of national sovereignty. The non-aligned countries met for the first time in 1961 in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, at the Conference of Non-Aligned Countries. They criticised the export of Cold War logic to their region and called for a multipolar world, in which countries could freely choose their own development path without being pressured by the great powers. The Non-Aligned Movement became an important political and diplomatic force in the 1960s and 1970s, and played a leading role in the struggle for decolonisation, as well as in defending the interests of developing countries in international forums. The movement continues to exist today, although its membership has evolved over time and its role has changed somewhat.

The non-aligned movement can be seen as a response to the globalisation of the logic of containment by the United States and the expansion of the Cold War outside Europe in the 1950s. Non-alignment was an alternative for countries seeking to preserve their independence and sovereignty from the two Cold War blocs, while seeking to promote peaceful international cooperation and preserve global stability and security. The movement was successful in that many countries joined its ranks, although not all members agreed on all issues. Non-alignment also played an important role in promoting international peace, security and cooperation, and helped shape world politics in the years that followed.

The failure of non-alignment

The Bandung Movement

The Bandung Movement, which took place in 1955 in Bandung, Indonesia, was a key moment in the history of non-alignment. The conference brought together representatives from 29 Asian and African countries, who expressed solidarity with colonised peoples and called for the promotion of peace, cooperation and economic development. Although the Bandung Movement raised many hopes, it is true that non-alignment failed to break the bipolar logic of the Cold War. The two superpowers continued to exert a strong influence on world affairs, and the non-aligned countries were often caught between the two blocs. Despite this, the non-aligned movement continued to play an important role in world diplomacy, and helped shape international relations in the decades that followed. Although non-alignment did not succeed in achieving all of its goals, it nevertheless offered an important alternative to the two Cold War blocs and advocated for the promotion of peace, cooperation and development throughout the world.

The non-aligned countries continued to meet regularly in an attempt to develop a 'third way' between the two Cold War blocs. These summits, known as the Conferences of Non-Aligned Nations, began in 1961 in Belgrade and continue today. The non-aligned countries sought to promote economic and political cooperation among themselves, and called for reform of the global economic system to better serve the needs of developing countries. They have also advocated reduced military spending and nuclear disarmament, while seeking to avoid armed conflict. The non-aligned summits have also provided an important forum for developing countries to voice their concerns and demands, and to put pressure on developed countries to address their needs. Although the results of these summits have sometimes been limited, they have nevertheless contributed to strengthening the collective voice of developing countries on the international scene.

The Belgrade summit in 1961 was an important moment for the non-aligned movement, but the hopes raised were soon dashed. The non-aligned countries were faced with internal divisions, especially on the issue of cooperation with the two Cold War blocs. The 1964 Cairo summit revealed these divisions, with dissension over how to handle relations with the two superpowers and how to deal with regional conflicts. Some non-aligned countries argued for a harder line against the Western powers, while others preferred a more pragmatic approach. In addition, there were also differences in the priorities and concerns of the different non-aligned countries. Some countries were more concerned with economic development issues, while others were more concerned with security and defence issues. These differences made it difficult for the non-aligned countries to cooperate more closely, despite sharing some common values and demands. Despite these challenges, the non-aligned movement has continued to play an important role in world politics, highlighting the concerns of developing countries and seeking to promote cooperation and solidarity among them.

Divergent interests between different non-aligned countries have contributed to the weakening of the movement. For example, relations between India and China deteriorated in the late 1950s, leading to a border dispute in 1962. India also disagreed with some Arab countries on the Palestinian issue. In addition, some non-aligned countries were accused of favouring one or the other of the two blocs despite their commitment to remain neutral. As a result, the non-aligned movement experienced difficulties in acting coherently and in carrying weight on the international scene.

Pan-Arabism and the estrangement from China contributed to the disintegration of the non-aligned movement. Pan-Arabism, which advocated the unification of Arab countries, created tensions with the non-Arab countries of the non-aligned movement, notably India. Tensions reached their peak during the Six Day War in 1967, when several Arab countries broke off diplomatic relations with India for its support of Israel. The estrangement of China, which had initially supported the non-aligned movement, also contributed to its disintegration. After the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, China began to move closer to the United States and adopt a more pragmatic foreign policy. This led to a growing distance between China and other non-aligned countries, which continued to distrust the United States and the West. In addition, changes in the global political landscape, including the end of the Cold War and globalisation, also contributed to the decline of the non-aligned movement. Despite this, the non-aligned countries continue to exist and work together on issues of common interest.

Pan-Arabism

Nasser attempted to modernise Egypt by developing the country's industry, agriculture and infrastructure. To finance these projects, he sought financial support from various international partners, including the United States and the Soviet Union. However, he soon ran into difficulties with both sides, who each wanted to exert their influence on Egypt and its politics. Nasser, disappointed by the attitude of the United States, which refused to finance the construction of the Aswan Dam, turned more to the Soviet Union, which provided him with substantial technical and financial assistance for economic and industrial projects. This pro-Soviet orientation of Egypt was frowned upon by the United States and its allies in the region, who feared an extension of Soviet influence in the Middle East. In parallel with his efforts to modernise Egypt, Nasser presented himself as a leader of pan-Arabism, a political and ideological movement that advocated the unity of Arab countries and the defence of their interests against foreign powers. Nasser's ambition to federate the Arab countries took concrete form with the creation of the United Arab Republic (UAR) in 1958, which included Egypt and Syria.

However, this political union did not last long. In 1961, Syria withdrew from the union and Nasser was confronted with rising tensions with other Arab countries, notably Saudi Arabia, which feared the expansion of pan-Arabism supported by Egypt. Border disputes with Israel also contributed to increased tensions in the region. In addition, Nasser's alignment with the Soviet Union also caused tensions with the United States, which supported Israel in the Arab-Israeli conflict. The Suez crisis of 1956 is one of the most prominent examples of the opposition of the US and its allies to Nasser's influence in the region.

Nasser's plan for pan-Arab unity met with many obstacles and eventually fell apart in the 1960s. Opposition from the US and disagreements with the USSR complicated matters, but there were also disagreements between the individual Arab countries themselves. The rivalry between Egypt and Saudi Arabia, for example, was a major obstacle. Moreover, Arab nationalists quickly realised that the pan-Arab project risked turning into Egyptian domination of the Arab world. Finally, Egypt's military defeat by Israel in 1967 marked a turning point in the history of the region. The Six-Day War profoundly weakened Nasser and his pan-Arab project, and strengthened the influence of the Gulf oil countries, notably Saudi Arabia. From then on, the region became the scene of conflicts between the various regional powers, which eventually took precedence over the pan-Arab union project.

The failure of the Pan-Arab Union and the disintegration of the Arab Union weakened the position of the non-aligned movement, which sought to unite to challenge the power of the two Cold War blocs. Moreover, the Arab military defeat by Israel in the Six Day War in 1967 reinforced the idea that the non-aligned countries were unable to defend themselves on their own and strengthened the position of the major world powers. This led to a loss of confidence in the non-aligned movement, which gradually lost its political influence.

China

Mao Zedong's seizure of power in 1949 marked a decisive turning point in China's history. The new communist regime implemented a policy of economic and social development that empowered China and made it a major world power. However, China soon distanced itself from the Soviet Union and the socialist camp due to ideological and strategic differences. China thus adopted a policy of non-alignment and joined the non-aligned movement at the Bandung Conference in 1955. China played an important role in the non-aligned movement because of its position as an emerging power and its ability to influence international relations. However, tensions between China and the Soviet Union eventually split the non-aligned movement, leading to its political decline in the 1970s and 1980s.

China began to distance itself from the non-aligned movement in the 1960s. Indeed, Mao Zedong broke with the Soviet Union and began to promote a vision of revolution that was different from that of the Soviets. China began to assert its own revolutionary path and promote its own ideology that quickly diverged from that of the Soviets and other communist countries. Moreover, China began to assert its economic and military power, which enabled it to become a major world power gradually. As a result, China no longer sought to position itself as a member of the non-aligned movement, but rather to assert its own regional and global leadership.

The record of non-alignment

Non-alignment experienced difficulties from the 1960s onwards, particularly because of the emergence of differences between the members of the movement, which made it difficult to take joint decisions. The non-aligned countries also had to face the rise of new international actors, such as China, which challenged the global geopolitical balance. Moreover, the end of the Cold War changed the international context, bringing about new forms of cooperation and alliances, which reduced the importance of the non-aligned logic. However, the non-aligned movement continues to exist today, although it no longer plays the same role as before.

Although the non-aligned movement did not succeed in becoming a major force in international relations, it was still able to compete with the bipolar logic at times. For example, during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, the non-aligned played an important role in the peaceful resolution of the crisis by offering a compromise solution. In addition, the movement has been instrumental in putting forward the demands of the South on issues of development, disarmament and economic justice. It was also an important actor in the struggle against colonialism and imperialism, especially in Africa. Thus, although non-alignment did not succeed in achieving its initial objectives, it did have a significant impact on the international scene.

The non-aligned movement still exists today, although it is not as influential as it was in the 1950s and 1960s. It currently has 120 member countries, making it one of the largest groups of countries in the world. Members meet regularly at summits to discuss important issues such as economic development, international peace and security, human rights, international cooperation and other matters of common interest. However, the movement is often criticised for its lack of cohesion and leadership, which limits its influence on the international scene.

Annexes

Treaties

Others

J. Bainville et J.M. Keynes : deux analyses du traité de Versailles par Édouard Husson, spécialiste de l'Allemagne.
Textes en rapport avec le traité de Versailles Cliotexte.
Chronologie des réparations allemandes après la 1^re guerre mondiale
Réactions de la presse française à l'égard des négociations de paix et du traité de Versailles

Articles/Works

Hurtig Serge. Le conflit Truman - Mac Arthur. In: Revue française de science politique, 10e année, n°3, 1960. pp. 608-634.
THRONTVEIT, T. (2011), The Fable of the Fourteen Points: Woodrow Wilson and National Self-Determination. Diplomatic History, 35: 445–481. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2011.00959.x
NSC-68: Forging the strategy of containment with analyses by Paul h. Nitze edited by sS. Nelson Drew - National Defense University - Fort Lesley J. McNair Washington, DC
Monde-diplomatique.fr,. (2015). Bandung ou la fin de l’ère coloniale, par Jean Lacouture (Le Monde diplomatique, avril 2005). Retrieved 17 July 2015, from http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2005/04/LACOUTURE/12062
Foreign Policy,. (2015). Forget Sykes-Picot. It’s the Treaty of Sèvres That Explains the Modern Middle East.. Retrieved 11 August 2015, from https://foreignpolicy.com/2015/08/10/sykes-picot-treaty-of-sevres-modern-turkey-middle-east-borders-turkey/
Foreign Affairs,. (2015). Europe without the League. Retrieved 19 September 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/western-europe/1939-10-01/europe-without-league
Foreign Affairs,. (2015). How Europe Conquered the World. Retrieved 8 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/europe/2015-10-07/how-europe-conquered-world
W.P. Deac. ‘Duel for the Suez Canal.’ Military History, Vol. 18 Issue 1. Apr2001, pp. 58- 64.
P.H.J. Davies. 2012. Intelligence and Government in Britain and the United States, Vol. 2. ‘Ch 7: The Great Centralization, 1957-66’, pp. 163-177.
R.J. Aldrich. 2001. The Hidden Hand. ‘Ch 21: Defeat in the Middle East: Iran and Suez’, pp. 464-494.
W.S. Lucas. ‘The missing link? Patrick Dean, Chairman of the Joint Intelligence Committee.’ Contemporary British History. Vol.13 No. 2. 1999, pp. 117-125.
P. Cradock. 2002. Know Your Enemy: How the JIC Saw the World. ‘Ch 18. Intelligence and Policy.

References

↑ Page personnelle de Ludovic Tournès sur le site de l'Université de Genève
↑ Publications de Ludovic Tournès | Cairn.info
↑ CV de Ludovic Tournès sur le site de l'Université de la Sorbonne
↑ THRONTVEIT, T. (2011). The Fable of the Fourteen Points: Woodrow Wilson and National Self-Determination. Diplomatic History, 35(3), 445-481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2011.00959.x
↑ Roger Dingman, 'Atomic Diplomacy during the Korean War', International Security, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, vol. 13, no. 3, Winter 1988-89, (DOI 10.2307/2538736 , JSTOR 2538736 )
↑ Casey, Steven (2005) Selling NSC-68: the Truman administration, public opinion, and the politics of mobilisation, 1950-51. Diplomatic History, 29 (4). pp. 655-690. ISSN 1467-7709

[1] Page personnelle de Ludovic Tournès sur le site de l'Université de Genève

[2] Publications de Ludovic Tournès | Cairn.info

[3] CV de Ludovic Tournès sur le site de l'Université de la Sorbonne

[4] THRONTVEIT, T. (2011). The Fable of the Fourteen Points: Woodrow Wilson and National Self-Determination. Diplomatic History, 35(3), 445-481. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7709.2011.00959.x

[5] Roger Dingman, 'Atomic Diplomacy during the Korean War', International Security, Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, vol. 13, no. 3, Winter 1988-89, (DOI 10.2307/2538736 , JSTOR 2538736 )

[6] Casey, Steven (2005) Selling NSC-68: the Truman administration, public opinion, and the politics of mobilisation, 1950-51. Diplomatic History, 29 (4). pp. 655-690. ISSN 1467-7709

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