World War II and the remaking of the world order: 1939 - 1947

Based on a lesson by Ludovic Tournès

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Introduction to the history of international relations

Perspectives on the studies, issues and problems of international history ● Europe at the centre of the world: from the end of the 19th century to 1918 ● The era of the superpowers: 1918 - 1989 ● A multipolar world: 1989 - 2011 ● The International System in Historical Context: Perspectives and Interpretations ● The beginnings of the contemporary international system: 1870 - 1939 ● World War II and the remaking of the world order: 1939 - 1947 ● The international system in the test of bipolarisation: 1947 - 1989

The Second World War was one of the most significant events in modern history, with repercussions for the entire planet. As a global conflict involving the main military and economic powers, the war had a considerable impact on the world order that existed at the time. Indeed, the war profoundly transformed the international power structure, reoriented geopolitical alliances and led to the creation of a new institutional architecture for global governance. This article examines the implications of the Second World War for the reshaping of world order between 1939 and 1947, exploring the key events that led to the end of the war, as well as the implications for world order that emerged in the post-war period.

The onset of the Cold War was a period of significant change in the world order, marking a break with the ideals of cooperation and international governance that had prevailed in the immediate post-war period. However, it would be wrong to minimise the importance of the creation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945. The creation of the UN was a major historical event that gave birth to a new international institution charged with preserving world peace and security, promoting economic and social development and protecting human rights. Although the UN was founded on principles similar to those of the League of Nations, it was also endowed with new powers and a more effective organisational structure. Indeed, the UN was created to provide more effective responses to international crises and to meet the needs of the international community in a more accountable and transparent manner.

Although the Cold War marked a break with the ideals of cooperation and international governance that prevailed in the immediate post-war period, the UN continued to play an important role in international affairs by promoting dialogue, negotiation and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. Ultimately, the creation of the UN laid the foundations for a stronger and more united international community, which has continued to play a crucial role in maintaining peace and stability in the world.

The collapse of the League of Nations

Analysis of the discrediting of the League of Nations

Hopes for the S.D.N. in March 1919, as seen by the weekly Le Miroir: the banishment of war and the quest for universal peace.

The League of Nations was criticised for its inability to prevent or resolve the international conflicts that erupted in the 1930s, including the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the annexation of Austria by Germany in 1938, and the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia in 1938. These failures seriously undermined the credibility of the League of Nations and led to the perception that it was an organisation powerless to deal with international conflicts.

The League of Nations faced several major challenges that compromised its legitimacy and led to the loss of important members. The departures of Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union, as well as other countries, contributed to weakening the organisation and reinforcing the idea that it was incapable of effectively resolving international conflicts. Here is an analysis of these events. Nazi Germany left the League of Nations in 1933, shortly after Adolf Hitler came to power. Japan followed suit in 1933. These departures were motivated by the two countries' dissatisfaction with the League of Nations' system of collective security, as well as their desire to undertake expansionist policies outside the limits imposed by the organisation. The departures of Germany and Japan were seen as a disavowal of the League of Nations and undermined its credibility. The Soviet Union was excluded from the League of Nations in 1939 because of its invasion of Finland. This exclusion was a direct consequence of the inability of the League of Nations to prevent Soviet aggression. The exclusion of the Soviet Union was seen as another failure of the organisation to keep the peace and reinforced the idea of its powerlessness in the face of the great powers. In addition to the departures of Germany, Japan and the Soviet Union, other countries also left the League of Nations. Benito Mussolini's Italy left the organisation in 1937, followed by Francisco Franco's Spain and António de Oliveira Salazar's Portugal. These departures were motivated by political differences and disagreements with the policies of the League of Nations. The loss of members further weakened the organisation and called into question its effectiveness. The loss of important members and the inability of the League of Nations to prevent conflicts and resolve international problems eventually led to its dissolution after the Second World War. The United Nations was created to replace the League of Nations, with revised structures and mechanisms in the hope of addressing the shortcomings and failures of its predecessor.

The League of Nations was heavily criticised for its inability to respond effectively to aggression from aggressive powers, particularly Nazi Germany. Despite attempts by the League of Nations to contain threats to international peace, it was unable to prevent escalating tensions and military aggression from Germany and other countries. This contributed to the creation of a black legend around the organisation and reinforced the idea that it was weak and powerless in its ability to maintain world peace and security. The lack of strong enforcement mechanisms, the reluctance of member states to take decisive action and political divisions hampered the effectiveness of the League of Nations. Economic and diplomatic sanctions imposed on aggressors failed to deter these powers from pursuing their expansionist and aggressive policies. The invasion of Ethiopia by Fascist Italy in 1935-1936, followed by the annexation of Austria and the Sudetenland by Nazi Germany, are examples of the inability of the League of Nations to enforce its resolutions and prevent aggression. The perceived failure of the League of Nations to keep the peace fuelled the belief that a more powerful and effective international organisation was needed to prevent conflict and guarantee global security. This led to the creation of the United Nations in 1945, with stronger mechanisms, such as the Security Council with coercive powers, to prevent conflict and promote international cooperation. The League of Nations thus served as a lesson and helped shape the creation of a new international organisation that was more robust and better equipped to meet the challenges of global peace and security.

The League of Nations faced significant limitations in its ability to manage international conflict due to the reluctance of the major powers to give it the means to act effectively. The member states of the League of Nations often had divergent national interests and priorities, which led to a certain reluctance to engage in collective action to deal with conflicts. Some member countries of the League of Nations were more inclined to protect their national interests rather than support the organisation's collective measures. For example, France and the United Kingdom, which were two of the main member powers, were reluctant to take firm action to contain Nazi Germany, fearing another war after the massive losses of the First World War. This reluctance led to a policy of appeasement towards Germany, in the hope of maintaining peace, but this ultimately reinforced German aggression. In addition, the structure of the League of Nations, which gave veto power to its permanent members, limited its ability to take decisive decisions and implement coercive action. The major powers, such as France, the United Kingdom and later the Soviet Union, could block the organisation's initiatives if they considered them to be against their national interests. As a result of these factors, the League of Nations was often unable to mobilise unified and effective support to resolve international conflicts. This contributed to the perception that it was weak and unable to act decisively to keep the peace. These challenges were taken into account when the United Nations was created, with reforms aimed at strengthening collective decision-making and giving greater powers to the major powers, while seeking to avoid the pitfalls of the League of Nations.

The great powers often ignored or circumvented the decisions of the League of Nations, undermining its authority and its ability to enforce international norms. The example of Nazi Germany is very revealing in this respect. When Nazi Germany decided to leave the League of Nations in 1933, it sent a clear signal that the Nazi regime was not prepared to submit to international norms and decisions. Despite this, the League of Nations found it difficult to apply meaningful sanctions against Germany or to thwart its rearmament plans. The Great Powers were often reluctant to take strong measures for fear of military escalation or of upsetting the precarious political balance of the time. From this perspective, it is fair to say that the failure of the League of Nations lay not only in its own weaknesses, but also in the actions and policies of the Great Powers of the day. National interests, political differences and appeasement strategies often took precedence over commitment to the organisation and its principles. This underlines the crucial importance of international cooperation and the commitment of the major powers to the creation and maintenance of an effective international organisation for world peace and security. The lessons learned from the failure of the League of Nations were taken into account in the creation of the United Nations, with particular attention paid to the commitment of the major powers and the need for structures and mechanisms that encourage sustained cooperation and collective action to prevent conflict and enforce international norms.

The League of Nations has made some important achievements, including the creation of international institutions to regulate trade and security, the establishment of programmes for economic and social development, and the promotion of international cooperation in culture and health. However, the League of Nations has faced major challenges in its ability to manage international conflict, largely due to the failure of the Great Powers to reach agreement. Conflicts between the Great Powers often blocked the League of Nations' efforts to act decisively, leading to the perception that the organisation was incapable of maintaining international peace and security.

The creation of the League of Nations (League) marked a significant moment in the history of international diplomacy. It was a structured attempt to prevent international conflict through negotiation and dialogue rather than military force. However, the context of deep divisions and hostility between the great powers hampered its effectiveness. Nevertheless, the experience of the League of Nations provided essential lessons for the establishment of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) after the Second World War. The first lesson was the importance of Great Power participation. The non-participation of the United States in the League of Nations and the subsequent withdrawal of Germany, Italy and Japan had seriously weakened the authority of the organisation. To avoid a repeat of this scenario, the UN gave permanent status and veto power to five major powers (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China) on the Security Council. Secondly, the UN sought to overcome the lack of enforcement authority that had prevented the League of Nations from implementing its resolutions. The UN has established a more structured system for applying economic and military sanctions, although its effectiveness is still limited by the need for consensus within the Security Council. Finally, the UN has introduced greater flexibility into the decision-making process. Whereas the League of Nations required unanimity for most decisions, which often paralysed its action, the UN allows majority decisions in many cases. The history of the League of Nations is an eloquent illustration of the importance of international cooperation and the commitment of the major powers in maintaining international peace and security. It also shows the challenges of managing international conflicts through multilateral institutions.

The moving process

The late 1930s saw a significant decline in the political activity of the League of Nations due to rising international tensions and the organisation's inability to prevent conflict. However, the technical activities of the League of Nations continued to operate in a variety of fields, including the regulation of trade, cooperation in health, the promotion of culture and education, and international security.

The League of Nations (League), despite its inability to prevent the Second World War, played a key role in creating international norms and regulations that have had a significant impact on international relations. Even in the face of rising international tensions and conflicts, the organisation maintained its activities in many technical fields. One of the areas in which the League played an important role was the regulation of trade. The organisation helped to formulate trade policies and regulate international trade, facilitating trade discussions and resolving various disputes. This work set a precedent for the regulation of trade on an international scale, creating a framework that has been taken up by subsequent institutions. In the field of health, the SDN's Health Office, the forerunner of the World Health Organisation, had a significant impact. This office took major action to combat diseases such as malaria and tuberculosis, while working to improve public health on a global scale. The promotion of culture and education was also a major concern of the SDN. Through bodies such as the International Bureau of Education, which later became part of UNESCO, the League worked to spread education and culture throughout the world. Finally, although it failed to prevent the Second World War, the League worked to resolve minor conflicts and promote disarmament in the field of international security. Despite its critics, the League thus had a lasting impact on international norms and regulations, laying the foundations for increased international cooperation in various fields. These achievements were decisive for global governance and continue to influence international relations to this day.

Faced with the League of Nations' inability to prevent conflicts and maintain international peace, some felt that the organisation's technical activities needed to be strengthened. From the mid-1930s, efforts were made to develop these technical activities, which were seen as an area in which the organisation could have a positive impact on people's lives. These technical activities included economic and social development programmes, public health programmes, trade and transport regulations, as well as cultural and educational initiatives. These activities enabled the League of Nations to develop a certain universalism in international cooperation, which continued to have an impact on international relations after the end of the war. By strengthening the organisation's technical activities, some hoped that the League of Nations could become more relevant to member states, particularly those not involved in international conflict. However, despite these efforts, the League of Nations was eventually discredited for its inability to prevent international conflict, and was replaced by the United Nations after the end of the Second World War.

The Bruce Reform, named after its principal advocate, Stanley Bruce, former Prime Minister of Australia and President of the League of Nations Assembly, was a significant effort to strengthen the League of Nations. Adopted in September 1939, it represented a major turning point in the conception of international cooperation, with particular attention paid to economic and social issues. The main aim of the Bruce reform was to centralise and coordinate the technical activities of the League of Nations more effectively. To achieve this, the reform advocated the creation of a Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions. This committee would have been responsible for supervising and coordinating all the economic and social activities of the League of Nations. It would also have had the task of ensuring greater international cooperation in these areas. This stronger organisational structure would have enabled the League of Nations to respond more effectively to economic and social challenges. In addition, it would have encouraged the participation of all member countries, thus contributing to the universalism of international cooperation.

Unfortunately, the outbreak of the Second World War prevented the full implementation of the Bruce reform. This ambitious reform, aimed at strengthening international cooperation and centralising the technical activities of the League of Nations, could not be fully realised due to historical circumstances. However, despite these obstacles, the spirit of the Bruce reform has endured. The ideas and principles it enunciated played an essential role in the design of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) after the end of the war. In particular, the idea of creating a central committee on economic and social questions, which would have coordinated the organisation's economic and social activities, influenced the creation of the UN's Economic and Social Council. The UN Economic and Social Council, one of the six main parts of the UN, took over the role envisaged for the League of Nations' Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions. It is responsible for coordinating the economic and social activities of the UN, promoting higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development.

Germany's invasion of Europe during the Second World War severely disrupted the operation and plans of the League of Nations, including the ambitious reform project known as the Bruce Reform. The escalation of the conflict forced the organisation to disperse and move its various operations to safer locations around the world. For example, the financial services of the League of Nations were relocated to Great Britain. This was done to ensure the continuity of the organisation's essential financial and administrative operations while maintaining the safety of its employees. Similarly, the Economic and Financial Organisation of the League of Nations was moved to Princeton University in the United States, where it continued to operate until the end of the war in 1945. The relocation to the United States enabled the organisation to continue to operate safely away from the conflict zones, while maintaining a link with the academic world and political decision-makers. The dispersal of the League of Nations during the Second World War is testimony to the scale of the conflict and its impact on international institutions. However, despite these challenges, the League of Nations continued to function as far as possible, focusing on the world's economic and social problems.

Despite the monumental challenges posed by the Second World War, several branches of the League of Nations continued to function. For example, the Economic and Financial Organisation, relocated to Princeton University in the United States, continued to reflect and work on the problems of the world economy, anticipating the post-war period. For its part, the International Labour Office was relocated to Montreal, Canada, continuing its role in improving working and living conditions for workers around the world. With the end of the war, the United Nations Organisation (UNO) was founded to replace the League of Nations, with a new vision and structure for global governance. This new organisation took up and incorporated many of the ideas and principles of the Bruce reforms, including the emphasis on economic and social cooperation. The UN Economic and Social Council was created to take over the role of the League of Nations' Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions, as proposed in the Bruce reform. This institution continued to coordinate the UN's economic and social activities, working for progress and economic and social development on a global scale. Although the Second World War led to the dissolution of the League of Nations, its legacy lives on in the structures and principles of the UN, testifying to the enduring importance of its ideas and efforts to promote international cooperation.

Roles and activities during the war

The period of the Second World War represented a turning point for the League of Nations, despite the fact that it was largely devoid of any formal political power during this time. However, far from remaining totally inactive, it managed to maintain certain aspects of its activities, particularly those relating to humanitarian assistance and the protection of refugees. Despite the dispersal of its offices around the world and the extremely tense international climate, the League of Nations set up relief programmes to help the victims of the world conflict. This included assistance to refugees fleeing war zones, a particularly prevalent problem given the scale of population displacement during the war. To achieve this, the League of Nations worked closely with various international organisations, including the Red Cross. It also worked with various religious groups to facilitate the distribution of humanitarian aid. Together, these organisations worked to provide vital assistance to war-affected populations, despite the immense challenges posed by the conflict. Even in the darkest hours of the Second World War, the League of Nations managed to maintain an important role on the international stage, underlining the importance of international cooperation in responding to humanitarian crises.

The League of Nations played an important role in the protection of minorities and civilian populations during the Second World War, despite its lack of coercive power. By insisting on respect for international norms and the Geneva Conventions, the organisation did its utmost to minimise the suffering of civilian populations and minorities caught up in the chaos of the conflict. Although these humanitarian efforts represented only a small part of all the activities carried out by the League of Nations before the war, they were nonetheless of great importance. By providing direct assistance to vulnerable people and by seeking to maintain a degree of international cooperation during a period of global conflict, the League of Nations helped to alleviate some of the most devastating consequences of the war. Moreover, these efforts helped to set a precedent and reinforce the principle that the protection of human rights and civilian populations in wartime is an international responsibility. This principle has played an important role in shaping the principles and norms that guide the international community today.

The Second World War was undoubtedly a period of major challenges for the League of Nations, but it managed to maintain a certain continuity in its activities, despite the many difficulties. Public health work continued to be an important pillar of its operations. Its epidemiological intelligence service played a crucial role during this period. Despite the war, it continued to collect and compile statistics on diseases around the world. This information was essential for monitoring global public health, preventing outbreaks of disease and guiding treatment efforts during a period of disorder and mass displacement. The League of Nations also played an important role in protecting refugees during the war. These efforts provided essential assistance to many people displaced by the conflict.

Despite the constraints imposed by the Second World War, the League of Nations endeavoured to fulfil its humanitarian mandate, concentrating on helping refugees and people displaced by the conflict. Working in partnership with humanitarian organisations and religious groups, the Society was able to provide vital assistance to those most in need. These activities were crucial not only in helping those displaced by the war, but also in maintaining a degree of international cooperation during this tumultuous period. Although its political role was limited during the war, the League of Nations proved that international organisations could still play a constructive role, even in the most difficult situations. The work of the League of Nations during the Second World War underlines the importance of strong international cooperation in times of crisis. Its efforts to help vulnerable populations during this period laid the foundations for international humanitarian action as we know it today. It underlined the importance of protecting human rights, even in times of war, a lesson that is still relevant today.

The economic contributions of the League of Nations during the Second World War had a considerable impact on the architecture of post-war global governance. In the midst of the turmoil of war, the Economic and Financial Organisation of the League of Nations, although forced to move to the United States, did not cease to function. On the contrary, it used this period to pave the way for post-war economic reconstruction. By identifying and analysing potential future problems, such as demographic changes, population movements, world trade and the role of Europe, the Economic and Financial Organisation prepared the ground for post-conflict management of these challenges. In addition, the work of the League of Nations shaped the foundations of the post-war world economic order. The principles and ideas developed during this period had a decisive influence on the creation of the United Nations and its sister institutions, notably the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In short, although the League of Nations did not survive the war, it left a lasting legacy by laying the foundations for international economic cooperation that is still a cornerstone of global governance today.

After the Second World War, Europe faced enormous challenges in terms of material destruction and loss of life. Against this backdrop, the idea of European economic integration began to gain momentum as a potential means of stabilising and rebuilding the continent. The League of Nations, despite its dissolution, left behind a significant base of work in the field of international economic cooperation. Its efforts in economic studies, trade regulation and the promotion of economic cooperation had a lasting impact on the way the international community organised itself after the war. Indeed, the preparatory work and research carried out by the League of Nations played a key role in the establishment of post-war international financial institutions. The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which were founded at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944, took up the torch of international economic cooperation, becoming the main regulators of the global economy. The impact of the League of Nations can also be seen in the rise of European economic integration, with the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which eventually led to the formation of the European Union. Thus, despite its dissolution, the importance of the League of Nations in formulating the principles of international economic cooperation remains indisputable.

In Europe, the prospect of economic integration was ardently supported by influential figures such as Jean Monnet. He advocated economic union and closer cooperation between European nations to prevent further conflict on the continent. His vision and efforts eventually led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, which laid the foundations for European economic integration. It is important to note the role of the League of Nations in this development. Although its political and diplomatic failure is undeniable, the organisation nevertheless succeeded in promoting the idea of international economic cooperation. Its efforts to examine and regulate economic issues, and to encourage cooperation between nations, certainly helped to establish the framework of thought that fostered European economic integration. Thus, the impact of the League of Nations can be seen in the subsequent development of the European Economic Community and, ultimately, the European Union. Despite its shortcomings, the League of Nations left a legacy of economic cooperation that has influenced the shape of Europe today.

The economists of the Economic and Financial Organisation of the League of Nations began drawing up plans for post-war economic reconstruction as early as 1940. They addressed issues such as the allocation of global resources, international cooperation and the establishment of international economic institutions to facilitate global economic cooperation and stability. These economists were aware of the enormous challenge of rebuilding after a war of such magnitude. They therefore worked to identify the key problems that would arise after the war, and proposed solutions to address them. These solutions focused on aspects such as the economic rehabilitation of devastated countries, the redistribution of resources and the establishment of an international trading system that would encourage cooperation rather than conflict. These plans, although drawn up in the context of the war, laid the foundations for reconstruction efforts after the end of the conflict. They influenced the creation of institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, which were designed to stabilise the world economy and help rebuild countries devastated by war.

Despite the failure of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War, its efforts during the war to plan post-war economic reconstruction had a significant impact on the global economy. These efforts laid the foundations for the international economic cooperation we know today and influenced the creation of key international economic institutions.

The emergence of a new world order: Reconstruction

Analysis of emerging issues

The Second World War clearly revealed the inadequacy of the international order established by the League of Nations after the First World War. The mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of conflicts, the application of sanctions and the promotion of disarmament proved ineffective in the face of the rising aggression and expansionism of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and the Japanese Empire. The Society's inability to prevent the Second World War ended its legitimacy as the guarantor of world peace. At the same time, the conflict demonstrated the undeniable need to restructure the international order to prevent future global conflicts.

The Second World War not only revealed the shortcomings of the international system at the time, but also highlighted new challenges that required a coordinated international approach. The initial isolation of the United States, which finally ended with the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, underlined the need for closer international cooperation to deal with global threats. The growing role of the United States on the international stage after the war, as a superpower alongside the Soviet Union, also redefined global power dynamics. The rise of Nazi Germany and its policy of aggressive expansionism showed the limits of the League of Nations system of collective security. This raised questions about how to prevent aggression and maintain international peace and security, which influenced the conception of the UN and in particular its Security Council. As for the future of Europe after the war, the massive destruction caused by the conflict and the challenges of reconstruction underlined the need for international cooperation for economic recovery. This led to the creation of new international financial institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, as well as regional cooperation initiatives, such as the Marshall Plan and European integration. All these challenges have shown that the world order needs to be rethought to be more resilient, more flexible and more effective in managing international problems. It was against this backdrop that the UN was created, with a more robust mandate and tools to meet the challenges of global governance.

The Second World War created a significant impetus to rethink the international system and avoid the mistakes that led to the demise of the League of Nations. The framework of the United Nations, conceived at the Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta conferences, and finally formalised at the San Francisco Conference in 1945, aimed to resolve many of the problems that had hampered the effectiveness of the League of Nations. The UN was designed to be more robust and flexible than its predecessor, with an expanded mandate that covered not only the maintenance of international peace and security, but also the promotion of economic and social cooperation, the protection of human rights and sustainable development.

One of the key changes was the establishment of the UN Security Council, with extensive powers to resolve conflicts and prevent war, including the ability to authorise the use of force and impose sanctions. Recognition of the role of the major powers in ensuring global security was also formalised by the allocation of permanent seats and veto powers to five countries - the United States, the Soviet Union (now Russia), the United Kingdom, France and China. The UN also introduced new structures for economic and social cooperation, notably the Economic and Social Council, whose mission was to promote economic and social progress throughout the world. Specialised organisations were created to deal with specific issues, such as health, education, culture, food and agriculture, among others. The creation of the UN thus marked an important stage in the formation of a new world order, based on international cooperation and the collective pursuit of peace, development and respect for human rights.

Decoding the international reorganisation

The Second World War marked a major turning point for the League of Nations, demonstrating its shortcomings in peacekeeping and conflict prevention. The organisation had been unable to prevent aggression by Germany, Italy and Japan in the 1930s, which contributed to the erosion of its credibility and authority. The United States, a rising power at the time, was not a member of the League of Nations, which limited its influence and its ability to take decisive action. The exclusion of the Soviet Union, one of the greatest powers of the time, after its invasion of Finland, also weakened the organisation. Britain and France, despite their support for the League of Nations, were unable to sustain it effectively in the face of aggression from Nazi Germany and its allies. The rapid collapse of France in 1940 further weakened the organisation. The failure of the League of Nations during the Second World War highlighted the need for a new international organisation that could be more effective in maintaining peace and preventing conflict. This realisation eventually led to the creation of the United Nations in 1945. The UN was designed to overcome the weaknesses of the League of Nations, with a stronger structure, a broader mandate and greater support from the world powers.

The problems that hampered the League of Nations' effectiveness - the lack of participation of the world powers, the difficulty of achieving consensus among members, and the inability to prevent armed conflict - all contributed to its downfall and the conviction that the world needed a new international organisation. Discussions to create the United Nations Organisation (UNO) began as early as 1941 with the Declaration of the United Nations, signed by 26 nations, which pledged to continue fighting the Axis powers and established the idea of a new international organisation. These discussions continued at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944 and culminated in the San Francisco Conference in 1945, where the United Nations Charter was signed by 50 nations. The UN was founded on the principle of the equal sovereignty of all its members and was given a more robust structure, with a Security Council charged with maintaining international peace and security, and with the ability to authorise coercive actions such as the use of force.

The idea of creating a new international institution capable of imposing its legitimacy on individual states is a major topic of debate in international relations. The challenges posed by global issues such as climate change, international conflicts and pandemics have led many experts to call for a reform of global governance. The League of Nations, created after the First World War, was intended to maintain international peace and security. However, the inability of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War led to its dissolution and the creation of the United Nations (UN). The problems inherent in the League of Nations, in particular its inability to prevent the Second World War, led to extensive discussions on how to improve the international system to maintain peace and stability. The creation of the United Nations was a direct response to these concerns.

The Atlantic Charter was an important step towards the creation of the United Nations. Signed in August 1941 by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, the Atlantic Charter set out a vision of a post-Second World War world order based on principles of peace, human rights, freedom of the seas, free trade, disarmament and national sovereignty. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held in 1944, was another key step towards the creation of the UN. For several weeks, delegates from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China met to discuss the structure and functions of a future international peacekeeping organisation. The proposals developed at this conference formed the basis for subsequent discussions at the San Francisco Conference in 1945, where the Charter of the United Nations was finally drafted and signed. The United Nations Charter was signed in June 1945 by 50 countries in San Francisco at the end of the United Nations Conference on International Organisation, a major event following the end of the Second World War. It officially came into force in October 1945 when the Charter was ratified by China, France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, the United States and a majority of the other signatories.

The creation of the UN represented a major turning point in the history of international relations, reflecting the recognition that international cooperation is essential to maintain international peace and security, as well as to solve global economic, social and humanitarian problems. Today, despite the many challenges it faces, the UN remains the world's largest and most universal international organisation.

The role of the United States in the future world order

The entry of the United States into the First World War in 1917 marked a turning point in the conflict. Until then, the United States had adopted a policy of neutrality, despite increasing pressure from the Allies, particularly the United Kingdom. However, a series of events, including Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare and the revelation of the Zimmermann telegram (a proposed alliance between Germany and Mexico), prompted the United States to enter the war on the side of the Allies. The arrival of American forces provided much-needed support to the exhausted Allies, both in terms of troops and material resources. In addition, the entry of the United States into the conflict also had a significant psychological impact, boosting the morale of the Allies and undermining that of the Central Powers. The war finally came to an end on 11 November 1918, with the signing of the armistice.

After the war, US President Woodrow Wilson played an important role in the creation of the League of Nations, with the aim of preventing future international conflicts. However, despite Wilson's role in the creation of the League, the United States never joined the organisation, largely due to opposition within the US Senate. The entry of the United States into the Second World War in 1941, following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, also had a major impact on the conflict. US involvement helped turn the tide of the war in favour of the Allies and ultimately led to the defeat of the Axis.

Prior to its direct entry into the war, the United States adopted a policy of neutrality while supporting the Allies indirectly through programmes such as the Lend-Lease Act. The Lend-Lease Act, signed in March 1941, allowed the US to provide military equipment and other forms of support to Allied countries "whose defence is deemed vital to the defence of the United States". This included countries such as Great Britain, China, the Soviet Union and other nations at war with the Axis powers. This support was crucial for the Allies, providing them with the resources they needed to continue fighting the Axis powers. The United States was able to use its industrial and economic power to produce massive quantities of war material and other resources. The attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 finally prompted the United States to officially enter the war. The military might of the United States, combined with its economic and industrial power, played a crucial role in the defeat of the Axis powers.

The post-war era was characterised by the bipolarity of the Cold War, with the United States and the Soviet Union as rival superpowers. Each superpower sought to extend its influence around the world, which often led to proxy conflicts in third countries. The two superpowers also sought to extend their influence by creating military alliances - the US-led NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. At the same time, the US played a key role in establishing the post-war global economic system, notably through the Marshall Plan for the reconstruction of Europe and the creation of the Bretton Woods system, which established the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Despite their Cold War rivalry, the two superpowers also played an active role in international institutions such as the UN, where they had a permanent seat and a veto on the Security Council. The Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, marking a new era in international relations and the beginning of what some call a "unipolar world" with the United States as the dominant superpower.

The new global economy after the war

After the Second World War, the reorganisation of the world economy was a crucial issue for American leaders and other nations. The economic crisis of 1929 and the resulting protectionist policies had contributed to global instability and the rise of totalitarian regimes. Leaders at the time sought to prevent this from happening again.

The United States played a central role in creating the new post-war world economic order. The principles of economic liberalism and free trade were at the heart of this vision. Two major figures of the era, President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, had somewhat different visions of how this order should be shaped. Cordell Hull was a fervent advocate of free trade. He firmly believed that international trade was the key to world peace and prosperity. As such, he lobbied for trade barriers to be lowered and for nations to engage in freer trade relations. Franklin D. Roosevelt, while also adhering to the principles of economic liberalism, was perhaps more pragmatic in his vision. He recognised the need for certain safeguards and regulations to ensure the fairness of the economic system and to protect workers and consumers. Despite these differences, the overall vision that emerged was of a more open and economically integrated world, a principle that has largely shaped the global economic order as we know it today.

The United States and its allies adopted an approach based on international economic cooperation and coordination. This approach to international economic cooperation and coordination has been crystallised in a number of important institutions and agreements.

The Marshall Plan, formally known as the European Recovery Programme, was a US initiative to help Western Europe rebuild after the Second World War. The plan, named after US Secretary of State George Marshall, was announced in 1947. The Marshall Plan provided more than $12 billion (more than $100 billion in today's dollars) in economic and technical aid to 17 European countries between 1948 and 1952. These funds were used to rebuild infrastructure, modernise industry, stabilise currencies and stimulate trade in Europe. The Marshall Plan was a remarkable success. Not only did it help rebuild Europe, it also contributed to the rapid economic growth of the post-war years (the "Trente Glorieuses"), the formation of the European Community and European economic integration. It also strengthened political and economic ties between Europe and the United States, laying the foundations for the Atlantic Alliance and NATO. However, the Marshall Plan also had a strategic dimension. By helping to rebuild Europe, the United States sought to contain the spread of communism, support stable and prosperous market economies, and create a favourable environment for international trade.

The Bretton Woods Conference, held in July 1944 in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, USA, brought together 730 delegates from 44 Allied countries. The aim of the conference was to discuss and establish a new international monetary and financial system for the post-war period. The result was the creation of two new international financial institutions: the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), now better known as the World Bank. Today, these two institutions are key players in the global economy. The IMF was created to oversee the international monetary system and provide financial advice and short-term loans to member countries with balance of payments problems. The purpose of the World Bank, on the other hand, was to provide long-term loans to help with the reconstruction and economic development of countries devastated by war. The Bretton Woods conference also led to the creation of a fixed exchange rate system, in which currencies were pegged to the US dollar, which in turn was pegged to gold. However, this system was finally abandoned in the 1970s.

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organisation designed to promote global monetary cooperation, ensure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high and sustainable economic growth, and reduce global poverty. One of the IMF's main tasks is surveillance. It oversees the economic and financial policies of member countries, analyses global economic trends and provides policy advice to member countries. Through surveillance, the IMF seeks to identify any weaknesses that threaten global economic stability. The IMF is also known for providing financial assistance to member countries experiencing balance of payments problems. In other words, when a country is unable to pay its foreign debts, the IMF can intervene to grant loans to stabilise the economy of the country in question. In addition, the IMF provides technical assistance and training to help countries strengthen their capacity to design and implement effective economic policies. This assistance is particularly important for developing countries seeking to improve their financial and economic infrastructure. Finally, the IMF has a mandate to promote international economic cooperation. It encourages collaboration between member countries and promotes a stable and open international trading system. The aim is to promote stable global economic growth, while minimising economic imbalances between countries. Although the IMF plays a key role in promoting global economic and financial stability, its role and policies have sometimes been criticised. In particular, the often strict conditions imposed on countries in exchange for IMF financial assistance have sometimes led to economic and social hardship for the populations of these countries.

The World Bank, founded in 1944, began its activities by helping to finance the reconstruction of Europe after the Second World War. However, its mandate quickly expanded and its current role is much broader and more complex. The World Bank is actually made up of two separate institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). Together, they provide low-interest loans, interest-free credit and grants to developing countries to support a range of development projects, such as building infrastructure, improving education and health, and protecting the environment. In addition to providing financing, the World Bank also offers technical advice and development expertise. It plays an advisory role by helping countries to plan and implement development policies. The World Bank's ultimate goal is to reduce poverty and promote shared prosperity. This is achieved by stimulating economic growth, supporting job creation, increasing access to essential services such as education and healthcare, and providing social protection to help protect the poorest and most vulnerable. Like the IMF, the World Bank has come in for criticism. Some critics argue that its development projects can sometimes lead to population displacement and environmental damage. In addition, there have been concerns about the impact of World Bank loans on the indebtedness of developing countries. However, the World Bank continues to play a key role in the global effort to improve living conditions in developing countries.

The GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) was created in 1947, following discussions at the 1948 Havana Conference. This conference aimed to create an international trade organisation, but due to opposition from the United States and other countries, the GATT was established as an interim agreement. GATT promoted free trade by establishing rules for international trade relations and encouraging the progressive reduction of tariff barriers. The key principle of the GATT was the most-favoured-nation clause, which stipulated that a trade advantage granted to one country by a GATT member had to be extended to all other GATT members. The GATT has been very effective in reducing trade barriers. Eight rounds of trade negotiations have taken place under GATT, with significant reductions in tariffs. However, the GATT has also been criticised for its lack of attention to trade in services and intellectual property issues. In 1995, the GATT was replaced by the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which has a broader mandate and a more formal dispute settlement mechanism. The WTO continues to promote free trade and manage international trade relations. These institutions and agreements established the principles of international economic cooperation and coordination that continue to shape the global economy today.

The international economic order established after the Second World War marked a significant break with the past and contributed to a period of unprecedented prosperity and economic growth. The principles of free trade and international economic cooperation were widely accepted and adopted, largely thanks to the influence and leadership of the United States. The Bretton Woods institutions - the IMF, the World Bank and the GATT (and later the WTO) - played a central role in promoting these principles and managing the world economy. They have helped to stabilise the world economy, promote economic growth and reduce poverty and inequality. However, this system has also faced challenges and criticism. Some developing countries have criticised the IMF and World Bank for their structural adjustment policies, which have often led to cuts in social spending and increased poverty. In addition, trade negotiations have often been dominated by the interests of developed countries, to the detriment of developing countries. Despite these challenges, the international economic order established after the Second World War has played an important role in promoting economic stability and growth.

Examining Europe's position in the world order

The Second World War marked a decisive turning point in the international balance of power. Before the war, Europe had been the centre of international affairs, with powers such as Britain, France and Germany playing a dominant role on the world stage. However, the devastating conflict and internal strife in Europe seriously weakened the continent and called into question its international hegemony. Europe suffered massive human and material losses during the war, and many European economies were devastated. As a result, Europe's ability to exert global influence was seriously compromised. In contrast, the United States and the USSR emerged from the war as superpowers, with considerable economic and military influence and capabilities. The new balance of power led to a decline in European influence and a rise in the power of the USA and the USSR, which largely shaped international affairs during the Cold War.

The reconstruction of Europe after the Second World War is a remarkable example of resilience and cooperation. The Marshall Plan, a massive financial support programme put in place by the United States, played a crucial role in revitalising Europe's devastated economies. At the same time, Europe undertook a series of initiatives to promote economic and political integration. The creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, followed by the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957, laid the foundations for what would become the European Union. These initiatives aimed to promote economic cooperation between European countries in order to avoid future conflicts. Europe was also supported by the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949, a military alliance designed to protect Europe from Soviet aggression. NATO enabled Europe to maintain a degree of security during the Cold War. These cooperative initiatives enabled Europe to rebuild itself and regain its place in the global economy. Today, the European Union is one of the world's largest economies and plays a crucial role in global economic governance. However, persistent challenges, such as internal political tensions and migratory pressures, are testing Europe's ability to maintain this unity and prosperity.

The American plan to reorganise the world after the Second World War included the idea of supporting economic cooperation in Europe and creating a universal organisation to promote peace, security and international cooperation.

The United States played a decisive role in supporting economic integration in Europe after the Second World War. The aim was twofold: on the one hand, to ensure the rapid reconstruction of European economies devastated by the conflict and, on the other, to strengthen the continent's political stability to prevent the emergence of new conflicts. The Marshall Plan, named after US Secretary of State George Marshall, provided funding for large-scale reconstruction projects across Europe, thereby promoting economic recovery. This financial aid also encouraged economic cooperation between European countries. It was against this backdrop that the ECSC and the EEC were created. The aim of the ECSC was to create a common market for coal and steel, two key resources for industry and armaments. By integrating these sectors, European countries hoped to make war unthinkable and materially impossible. Later, the EEC extended this integration to the economy as a whole, creating a wider common market. These economic integration initiatives laid the foundations for the European Union as we know it today. The EU is a unique political and economic union, bringing together 27 countries around a common market and common policies in a variety of areas.

The United States also played a key role in the creation of the United Nations. After the failures of the League of Nations, the international organisation created after the First World War to preserve peace, there was widespread recognition of the need for a new organisation capable of promoting international peace and security. The Charter of the United Nations was signed in June 1945 in San Francisco, USA, by 50 countries. The United States, as one of the victors of the Second World War and as the country that hosts the UN headquarters in New York, played a crucial role in defining the organisation's objectives and operation. The United States is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, alongside Russia, China, the United Kingdom and France. This gives it considerable power over UN decisions, notably through its right of veto. Over the years, the UN has become a forum for international dialogue and cooperation, playing an essential role in the maintenance of peace and security, the promotion of human rights, humanitarian aid, and economic and social development. However, its effectiveness and legitimacy have often been criticised, and there have been calls for reform of its functioning and structure, particularly with regard to the Security Council.

US initiatives have had a significant impact on the post-war international order and have shaped international relations as we know them today. The United States' commitment to European economic integration not only helped rebuild Europe, but also laid the foundations for today's European Union, which is a major player on the international stage. Similarly, the creation of the United Nations, with US support, has been essential in promoting international cooperation and peace. Despite its challenges and criticisms, the UN remains a fundamental institution in maintaining world order and resolving global problems such as conflicts, humanitarian crises, climate change and socio-economic inequalities.

The United States' decision to support the reconstruction of Europe with the Marshall Plan was motivated by both economic and political considerations. Economically, Europe was an important market for American goods and services. By assisting in the economic reconstruction of Europe, the United States was helping to revive a crucial export market. Moreover, by stimulating economic growth in Europe, the US also hoped to avoid another major economic crisis like the one that followed the First World War. Politically, the Marshall Plan was also aimed at preventing the spread of communism in Europe. At the time, there was a widespread fear that European countries devastated by war, and in particular those with unstable governments and shattered economies, might turn to communism in search of solutions. By providing economic aid, the United States hoped to strengthen democratic governments and prevent the spread of Soviet influence in Europe. The Marshall Plan was a strategic initiative aimed both at bolstering the US economy and countering Soviet influence during the Cold War. It played a key role in the reconstruction of Europe and the establishment of the post-war economic and political order.

The United States was enthusiastic about promoting European economic integration, which it saw as a means of stimulating trade, stability and prosperity in Europe, while creating an important market for American goods. However, they were more reticent about the idea of European political integration. There were fears that the creation of a strong European political bloc could potentially compete with the United States on the international stage, or limit its ability to influence the policies of individual European countries. At the same time, the United States favoured the creation of a universal organisation, the United Nations (UN), in which European leadership would be diluted. The UN aimed to promote international cooperation and prevent global conflict, while allowing the US to play a central role in international affairs as one of the permanent members of the Security Council.

American strategies played a key role in the reconstruction and stabilisation of post-war Europe. The economic aid provided by the Marshall Plan not only helped to revitalise the European economy, but also promoted economic integration between European nations. At the same time, American involvement in institutions such as the UN, the IMF and the World Bank helped to shape the post-war global economic order. Europe nevertheless continued on its own path towards deeper political integration, culminating in the creation of the European Union. Although this integration was primarily driven by domestic factors in Europe, US support for European stability and economic cooperation certainly helped to create a favourable environment for this development. Today, the EU is a major player on the world stage, with considerable influence on economic, political and social issues.

The complex strategic position of the United States in post-war Europe, characterised by its desire to consolidate its position as a superpower and avoid the emergence of a competing European political bloc, was balanced by its recognition of the importance of an economically stable and prosperous Europe, both for economic reasons (as a market for American products) and for security reasons (as a bulwark against the spread of communism). This led to a strategy of encouraging European economic integration, but with a reluctance to see deep political integration emerge. The Marshall Plan and support for European economic cooperation were at the heart of this strategy. Nevertheless, Europe eventually pursued its own path towards deeper political integration, culminating in the creation of today's European Union. This shows that, although the United States has had a significant influence on the trajectory of post-war Europe, it has not been able to completely control the political evolution of the continent.

Today, the European Union is a powerful and influential entity on the international stage, even if it cannot be classified as a traditional superpower like the United States. The EU is the largest single market in the world, a major source of development of international standards, and carries considerable weight in diplomacy and foreign policy. The EU and the US have a complex but generally positive relationship. They are each other's key trading partners, and they work closely together on global issues ranging from climate change to international security. However, there are occasional tensions and differences. These can arise from political differences, disagreements over specific issues such as trade regulation or foreign policy, or variations in strategic priorities and approaches.

The United States' involvement in the Second World War and its efforts to shape the post-war world order were certainly motivated by its desire to preserve its own security and economic interests, but also by its desire to promote a freer, safer and more prosperous world. Indeed, even before its official entry into the war, the United States contributed to the Allied war effort through programmes such as Cash-and-Carry and Lend-Lease, which enabled the Allies to purchase American weapons and supplies. These programmes not only helped the Allies resist the Axis, but also stimulated the American economy.

After the war, the United States played a central role in shaping the post-war international order. Through initiatives such as the Marshall Plan, it helped rebuild Europe and promoted economic cooperation to prevent future wars. They also supported the creation of international institutions such as the United Nations, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, aimed at promoting peace, economic stability and international cooperation. However, US decisions and actions have also been shaped by its concerns about the spread of communism, which led to the implementation of containment policies and the emergence of the Cold War. In sum, the role of the United States in the Second World War and in shaping the post-war international order was complex and multidimensional, shaped both by its national interests and by its vision of a stable and prosperous world order.

The founding conferences of the world order: 1941 - 1945

The creation of the UN was the result of a meticulous planning process that began during the Second World War. The major Allied powers met at several conferences to discuss and prepare for the post-war reorganisation and the building of a new international organisation. Unlike the League of Nations, which was created after the First World War without a coherent overall architecture, the UN was conceived from the outset as an integrated system of specialised organisations and agencies with specific competencies. The idea was to put in place a mechanism for international cooperation capable of dealing with various global problems and issues in a coordinated and effective manner. Among the conferences that laid the foundations for the UN were the Atlantic Conference (1941), which resulted in the Atlantic Charter, a set of guiding principles for international cooperation, the Moscow Conference (1943), the Teheran Conference (1943), the Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944), and finally the Yalta Conference (1945). The San Francisco Conference in 1945 marked the official creation of the United Nations. Delegates from 50 countries met to draft the United Nations Charter, which became the organisation's fundamental constitution. The UN officially came into being on 24 October 1945, following ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China) and the majority of other signatories. The UN was thus born of a process of planning and international cooperation aimed at creating an organisation capable of promoting peace, security and cooperation between nations, while tackling various global issues in a coordinated and effective manner.

Roosevelt and Churchill aboard the USS Augusta in the Atlantic off Newfoundland.

The Atlantic Charter was a founding moment in the creation of the United Nations. Signed in August 1941 by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill when they met on board warships off the coast of Newfoundland, the Atlantic Charter set out a series of guiding principles for international cooperation and peace after the war. These principles included respect for the sovereignty and self-determination of peoples, the free movement of goods and people, economic cooperation and the abolition of discriminatory practices in international trade, as well as the promotion of world peace and security. The Atlantic Charter was partly inspired by President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, a peace programme presented in 1918 after the First World War. In January 1942, representatives of 26 Allied countries signed the United Nations Declaration, a document that endorsed the principles of the Atlantic Charter and expressed a common determination to fight the Axis forces. The signing of this declaration is considered the founding act of the United Nations, and the term "United Nations" itself was used for the first time in this document.

The 1941 International Labour Conference in New York was a landmark event in the process of creating a new world order. The fact that these major conferences were held in the United States symbolised the hegemonic transfer of international power. The International Labour Organisation (ILO), founded in 1919, is a specialised agency of the United Nations which aims to promote workers' rights, decent employment and social justice. The ILO organised the 1941 conference to discuss issues of social and economic well-being in the context of the Second World War. In 1944, the ILO adopted the Declaration of Philadelphia, a document setting out the organisation's aims and objectives for the post-war period. The Declaration of Philadelphia affirms that labour is not a commodity, that freedom of association is a fundamental right, that poverty is a danger to the prosperity of all, and that the war against unemployment and want must be waged with vigorous vigour. The Declaration of Philadelphia helped to shape the ILO's vision for a fairer and more equitable world of work and reinforced the organisation's role in promoting workers' rights and social justice in the context of the new international architecture put in place after the Second World War.

UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) was set up in 1943 to coordinate relief and rehabilitation activities in the territories liberated during and after the Second World War. It was a temporary international organisation that operated until 1947. UNRRA provided economic and humanitarian assistance to countries affected by the war, including food, clothing, medicines and equipment. The organisation also helped to rebuild infrastructure destroyed by the conflict, such as roads, bridges and hospitals, and to reintegrate refugees and displaced persons. UNRRA played an important role in international efforts to meet immediate humanitarian needs and the challenges of reconstruction in the post-war period. Although UNRRA was disbanded in 1947, its work provided the basis for the creation of other international organisations, such as the International Refugee Organisation and the United Nations Development Programme, which continued and developed the relief and rehabilitation efforts initiated by UNRRA.

The Conference of Allied Ministers of Education, held in London in 1942, was a key moment in the creation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). Ministers and representatives of the Allied countries met to discuss the importance of education and culture in rebuilding a post-war world and to pave the way for the creation of an international organisation dedicated to these fields. One of the main aims of the conference was to build consensus on the need to reform education systems to prevent the future rise of totalitarian regimes and to promote democracy, tolerance and mutual understanding between nations. Participants stressed the importance of education for peace, international cooperation and sustainable development. After the war, in 1945, UNESCO was officially created as a specialised organisation of the United Nations, taking up and developing the ideas and principles discussed at the London Conference in 1942. UNESCO is committed to promoting education, science, culture and communication in order to strengthen peace and understanding between peoples and to contribute to the economic and social development of nations.

The first conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) took place in 1943 in Hot Springs, Virginia, in the United States. Representatives of 44 governments met to discuss the problems of food supply and agriculture that had arisen during the Second World War and to plan how to meet the food challenges of the post-war period. Conference participants stressed the need for a permanent international organisation to coordinate global efforts to improve food production and distribution, combat hunger and malnutrition, and promote rural and agricultural development. They also established specific objectives, such as increasing agricultural production, improving nutrition and ensuring equitable access to food resources for all. In October 1945, the FAO was officially created as a specialised organisation of the United Nations in Quebec City, Canada, with a mandate to "contribute to the growth of the world's population by raising levels of nutrition and living conditions, by improving the production and distribution of food and agricultural products and by improving the living conditions of rural populations". Since then, the FAO has continued to work towards these goals and to combat hunger and malnutrition throughout the world.

The Bretton Woods Conference, held in July 1944, was a key moment in the establishment of a new world economic order after the Second World War. Delegates from 44 countries met at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA, to discuss the reconstruction of the international financial system. The conference led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), now part of the World Bank Group. The Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco conferences followed in 1944 and 1945 respectively. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held in Washington, D.C., brought together representatives of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China to discuss the creation of an international organisation to maintain peace and security in the world after the war. The discussions laid the foundations for the United Nations Charter and the United Nations Organisation (UNO) itself. The San Francisco Conference, held in April-June 1945, brought together delegates from 50 countries to finalise and sign the United Nations Charter. This conference marked the official creation of the UN as an international organisation responsible for promoting peace, security, cooperation and economic and social development throughout the world.

These conferences shaped the post-war international economic and political order by creating key institutions such as the IMF, the World Bank and the UN, which continue to play an important role in global governance today.

The Bretton Woods system: The importance of economics in global restructuring

Harry Dexter White (left) and John Maynard Keynes in 1946. They were the two main protagonists of the Bretton Woods conference.

The Bretton Woods system was designed to create a new international economic order after the Second World War. The main objectives of the system were to facilitate the reconstruction of the economies devastated by the war, to promote monetary stability and to encourage international economic cooperation. The architects of the Bretton Woods system saw protectionism and economic imbalances in the inter-war period as key factors contributing to the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and the outbreak of the Second World War.

The Bretton Woods conference, held in 1944, was marked by intense debates between the United States and Great Britain, as well as divergent visions between John Maynard Keynes and Harry Dexter White on international economic reorganisation. Keynes, who was one of the main British negotiators at Bretton Woods, favoured the creation of large regional economic zones with a degree of protectionism between them. He believed that this approach would promote economic growth and maintain a sustainable balance of trade between countries. White, on the other hand, who was the US Treasury Secretary, favoured a unilaterally liberalised system, in which trade would be largely open and countries would be encouraged to pursue a stable, low-inflation economic policy. The discussions between the two men were intense and eventually led to a compromise that gave birth to the Bretton Woods system. This system was based on a fixed exchange rate between the major currencies and the creation of an international monetary fund to help countries deal with economic imbalances.

The Bretton Woods system had several key elements:

• Fixed exchange rates: Member countries undertook to maintain the value of their currencies within a narrow band against gold and the US dollar, which served as the international reserve currency. This exchange rate stability was intended to facilitate international trade and investment.
• The creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, now part of the World Bank Group): The mission of these institutions was to support economic reconstruction, provide financial assistance to countries in difficulty and promote international economic cooperation.
• Progressive trade liberalisation: Member countries were encouraged to reduce trade barriers and promote free trade. The idea was that increased international trade would promote economic growth, employment and prosperity, thus helping to prevent the rise of totalitarianism and the repetition of past mistakes.

The Bretton Woods system played a crucial role in post-war reconstruction and global economic growth for several decades. However, it was finally abandoned in the 1970s due to a variety of factors, including the end of the convertibility of the US dollar into gold and the emergence of new global economic challenges. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Bretton Woods system continues to influence international economic governance today, particularly through the institutions it helped to create, such as the IMF and the World Bank.

The Bretton Woods system was largely influenced by the United States because of its dominant economic and political position at the time. After the Second World War, the United States was the world's leading economic power and held the majority of the world's gold reserves. What's more, its economy and infrastructure were largely intact, unlike those of Europe and Asia, which had been devastated by the war. This allowed the United States to impose its vision of total liberalisation of the world economy. The Bretton Woods system was built around the idea of free trade, monetary stability and international economic cooperation. The United States played a central role in the creation of the system's key institutions, such as the IMF and the World Bank, and used its influence to promote its economic objectives. The establishment of the Bretton Woods system was largely beneficial to the United States, which was able to take advantage of its dominant position to shape the global economic order according to its interests. The system contributed to the growth of international trade and the reconstruction of the European and Asian economies, which strengthened economic ties between the United States and these regions and gave American companies access to new markets.

The economic question was at the heart of the reorganisation of the post-war international system, and the Bretton Woods system played a crucial role in this. Although the Bretton Woods system was not an integral part of the UN, it is undeniable that the two systems were closely linked and that their joint establishment was essential in shaping the new world order after the Second World War. The Bretton Woods system, by setting up key institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, facilitated the reconstruction of war-torn economies and fostered international economic cooperation. The system also promoted monetary stability and free trade, creating an economic environment conducive to growth and prosperity. At the same time, the UN was created to promote peace, security and international cooperation in many areas, including economic and social issues. The UN's objectives were complementary to those of the Bretton Woods system, as a stable and prosperous economic environment is essential for maintaining international peace and security.

The United Nations system

After the failures of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War, it was clear that a new organisation was needed to maintain international peace and security. The Charter of the United Nations Organisation, signed in San Francisco in 1945, laid the foundations for the UN, an international organisation designed to facilitate cooperation between nations and promote peace, human rights and economic and social development. The UN Charter established an institutional structure comprising several principal organs: the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Each body has specific responsibilities and functions, which together further the objectives of the UN.

he League of Nations Assembly met for the last time in April 1946. During this Assembly, the League of Nations formally dissolved its organisation and transferred its responsibilities to the United Nations (UN). These responsibilities included the international mandates, territories placed under the League of Nations Council after the First World War. These mandates were taken over by the UN in the form of the United Nations trusteeship system.

The United Nations (UN) was designed to avoid some of the mistakes and weaknesses of its predecessor, the League of Nations. One of the key points was the importance attached to inclusion and representativeness. Unlike the League of Nations, from which some key countries were absent or had withdrawn, the UN was founded with the participation of all the major powers and a majority of countries around the world. This strengthened its legitimacy and its ability to take effective action. Another major innovation was the creation of the Security Council. With five permanent members - the United States, Russia, China, the United Kingdom and France - and a right of veto, the Security Council has ensured that the major powers are directly involved in key decisions concerning international peace and security. At the same time, the UN broadened its scope from that of the League of Nations, tackling a much wider range of issues, including economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. To this end, the UN has created a number of specialised agencies, such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). Finally, the UN was also designed to cooperate closely with regional organisations, such as the African Union and the Organisation of American States, to resolve conflicts and promote regional stability. These innovations have enabled the UN to play a central role in world affairs, making a significant contribution to conflict prevention, economic and social development, the protection of human rights, and the response to humanitarian and environmental crises.

The creation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945 was inspired by some of the fundamental principles of the League of Nations. Like its predecessor, the UN was designed to preserve international peace and security and foster cooperation between nations. However, the designers of the UN also learned important lessons from the mistakes and weaknesses of the League of Nations. Firstly, the UN was designed to be more inclusive and representative than the League of Nations. The latter had suffered from the absence of certain major powers, in particular the United States, which had refused to join, and the Soviet Union, which had been excluded for much of its existence. The UN, on the other hand, counted among its founding members all the major powers of the time, which strengthened its legitimacy and its ability to act effectively. Secondly, the UN has put in place a more effective structure for maintaining peace and security. The UN Security Council, with its five veto-wielding permanent members, plays a central role in conflict prevention and resolution. This contrasted with the League of Nations, which found it difficult to take effective security decisions because of the unanimity requirement. Thirdly, the UN broadened the scope of its activities compared with the League of Nations, by including economic, social and cultural issues in its mandate. It created a number of specialised bodies to deal with these issues, such as the World Health Organisation and UNESCO. Finally, the UN sought closer cooperation with regional organisations to maintain peace and stability, in contrast to the more universal perspective of the League of Nations. This cooperation with organisations such as the African Union and the Organisation of American States has enabled the UN to manage conflicts in a more decentralised and contextual manner. Although the UN inherited some of the principles of the League of Nations, it also made major changes to avoid repeating the mistakes of its predecessor and to respond better to the challenges of the post-war period.

The creation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945 marked a decisive turning point in the history of the international system. Although based on some of the principles and ideas of the League of Nations, the UN introduced major changes to meet the challenges of the post-war world and to overcome the failures of its predecessor. The UN sought to be more inclusive and representative by incorporating all the major powers into its founding membership. This has strengthened its legitimacy and its ability to take effective decisions. In addition, with the UN Security Council and its five veto-wielding permanent members, the organisation has put in place a more robust structure for conflict prevention and resolution. In addition, the UN has broadened its scope to include economic, social and cultural issues, reflecting a growing understanding of the interconnectedness of these areas with international peace and security. The creation of specialised organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) illustrates this broadening of the mandate. Finally, the UN has sought to strengthen its cooperation with regional organisations, recognising the key role that these entities can play in maintaining peace and stability in their respective regions. Thus, while the UN inherited some of the principles and ideas of the League of Nations, it also introduced important and innovative changes. This makes its creation both a breakthrough and an evolution in the international system, marking a new phase in efforts to maintain global peace and security.

The United Nations (UN) was conceived and developed during the Second World War, with the aim of preparing an international system adapted to the needs of a post-conflict world. The architects of the UN learned from the experience of the League of Nations, whose weaknesses had been highlighted by its inability to prevent the outbreak of the Second World War. Their aim was to create an organisation that would be more inclusive, more representative and better structured to meet the challenges of the post-war world. To achieve this, they established a structure that included all the major powers in key decisions, in particular through the Security Council and its five permanent members, each with a right of veto. In addition, the UN was designed to deal with a much wider range of issues than its predecessor. It was given a number of specialised agencies, such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), to deal with issues ranging from public health to food security. This reflected a more nuanced understanding of how various economic, social and cultural factors can contribute to international peace and stability. So, while drawing on some of the ideas and principles of the League of Nations, the UN was designed to be a significant break with the past, offering a new approach to managing international relations in a rapidly changing and increasingly interdependent world.

The United Nations (UN) is structured around several principal organs, whose specific responsibilities are defined by the UN Charter, the organisation's founding document. The General Assembly is the UN's main deliberative body, in which all Member States are represented. It meets in regular session once a year and may also hold extraordinary sessions or emergency meetings. Its mandate covers a wide range of international issues, including peace and security, economic and social development, human rights and international law. The Security Council is the body responsible for maintaining international peace and security. Composed of 15 members, five of whom are permanent members with a right of veto over the Council's decisions, it can take measures to prevent or put an end to conflicts, including sanctions or the authorisation of the use of force.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is responsible for coordinating the economic and social activities of the UN and its specialised agencies. ECOSOC also oversees various regional and functional commissions dealing with specific issues, such as sustainable development or women's rights. The International Court of Justice (ICJ), located in The Hague, the Netherlands, is the UN's principal judicial body. It settles legal disputes between Member States and issues advisory opinions on legal questions raised by other UN bodies. Finally, the Secretariat, headed by the Secretary-General, is the UN's administrative arm. It provides administrative and technical support to the other UN bodies and ensures the implementation of the programmes and policies adopted by them. These bodies work together to achieve the UN's objectives in the areas of peace, security, economic and social development, human rights and international cooperation. In addition, the UN has also created a number of specialised agencies and programmes to deal with specific issues, such as education (UNESCO), health (WHO), economic development (UNDP), refugees (UNHCR) and many others. These organisations work closely with governments, non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders to address complex and interrelated global challenges.

The United Nations, through its various bodies and specialised agencies, covers a wide range of global issues. Whether dealing with international conflicts, promoting economic and social development, working to protect human rights or responding to humanitarian crises, the UN aims to maintain peace, guarantee security and improve the well-being of the world's population. It is an essential institution for global governance and an important platform for dialogue and cooperation between nations.

Political aspects of the UN

The UN operates through a complex web of organisations and levels. The General Assembly and the Security Council are two of the UN's main political bodies. The General Assembly is the forum where all 193 UN member states can express their views through resolutions and declarations. It meets once a year in ordinary session, but can also meet in special or emergency sessions. It is responsible for discussing and making recommendations on any matter within the scope of the United Nations Charter, with the exception of issues of peace and security, which are already dealt with by the Security Council. The Security Council, on the other hand, has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It has fifteen members, five of whom are permanent (the United States, Russia, China, France and the United Kingdom) and have the right of veto over any substantial decision. The other ten members are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year term. The Council can take various measures to prevent or resolve conflicts, including imposing sanctions, sending peacekeeping missions and, in some cases, authorising the use of force. These two bodies, among others within the UN, play a crucial role in global governance, conflict resolution and the promotion of development and human rights around the world.

The UN architecture, in particular the coexistence of the General Assembly and the Security Council, reflects the delicate balance between the principles of sovereign equality of States and the reality of political power in the world. The General Assembly, where each Member State has one vote, symbolises the ideal of equality and universal participation. It is a forum where all countries, large and small, can express their opinions and perspectives on global issues. It adopts resolutions on a wide range of issues, and although these resolutions are generally not binding, they have significant moral and political force. The Security Council, on the other hand, is clearly driven by the power of the big nations. The five permanent members - the United States, Russia, China, the United Kingdom and France - all have veto power, which means they can block any resolution that does not correspond to their interests. The Security Council has primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security, and its decisions are legally binding. This delicate balance reflects the political reality of the world, but it is also a source of controversy and debate.

The United Nations is built around two apparently contradictory principles: universalism, represented by the General Assembly, and political realism, represented by the Security Council. The General Assembly is the pillar of universalism. Every country, large or small, rich or poor, has an equal vote. It is the forum where all states can make their voices heard, discuss issues of global importance and work to build consensus. The resolutions adopted by the General Assembly, although non-binding, have significant value as reflections of international opinion. At the same time, the Security Council is the bastion of political realism. The five permanent members - the United States, Russia, China, France and the United Kingdom - have a veto which enables them to block any resolution that does not correspond to their national interests. The decisions of the Security Council, which are binding, often have a direct impact on the maintenance of international peace and security. These two pillars reflect the tensions between the ideal of sovereign equality and the reality of unequal power between nations. Navigating between these two principles is a delicate task, and the UN has often been criticised for its inability to resolve this tension effectively. Nevertheless, despite these challenges, the UN continues to play an essential role in promoting international cooperation and managing global crises.

The UN has managed to maintain a certain balance in a complex geopolitical world. Thanks to its unique structure, it has been able to serve as a platform for international dialogue, facilitating cooperation between countries and advancing universal ideals such as peace, justice and respect for human rights. However, the UN's relevance also depends on its ability to adapt and reform in the face of evolving global challenges. The UN is under pressure to reform in areas such as the functioning of the Security Council, funding methods and the management of new challenges such as climate change, international terrorism and the Covid-19 pandemic. Despite the criticisms and difficulties, the UN continues to be an indispensable institution for international cooperation and the resolution of global problems. Its successes in areas such as decolonisation, the promotion of human rights and the provision of humanitarian aid are testament to its value and impact. For the UN, the challenge is to maintain a balance between respecting the sovereignty of Member States and acting effectively for the global common good.

Universalism, in the context of the international system, refers to the idea that all states are equal in terms of sovereignty and are entitled to equal participation in international institutions and processes. This principle emerged as a reaction to the inequalities of the old empire-based international system and was codified in the Charter of the United Nations, which establishes the sovereign equality of all its members. The aim of universalism is to promote cooperation and dialogue between all states, regardless of their size, power or wealth, in order to solve global problems and maintain international peace and security. Nationalism, on the other hand, emphasises the primacy of national interests and the identity of each state. It considers that each nation has the right to preserve its culture, traditions and political independence. In the international system, nationalism manifests itself in the defence of national sovereignty against external interference and in the pursuit of national interests in international relations.

The conflict between universalism and nationalism is a fundamental aspect of the dynamics of the international system. It shapes many aspects of international relations, from diplomatic negotiations and military intervention to economic development and multilateral cooperation efforts. The first challenge is the tension between the sovereign equality of states and the disproportionate power of the major powers. This is clearly visible in the workings of the UN Security Council, where five countries (the United States, Russia, China, France and the United Kingdom) have a right of veto that enables them to block any resolution. This goes against the principle of sovereign equality and can sometimes hamper the UN's ability to act effectively to resolve international crises. Secondly, there is a constant tension between respect for national sovereignty and the promotion and protection of human rights and universal values. While universalism advocates common standards and rules for all states, nationalism insists on respect for the cultural and political particularities of each country. This can lead to controversy when, for example, international efforts to protect human rights are perceived as interference in a country's internal affairs. Finally, the third challenge relates to geopolitical rivalries and conflicts of national interest, which can hamper international cooperation and the collective resolution of global problems. Even when states share common concerns, such as climate change or nuclear non-proliferation, divergent national interests and geopolitical rivalries can prevent effective and united decision-making. The rise of nationalism and populism represented a major challenge for the multilateral system. These political movements, which emphasise national interests and often criticise international institutions, can hinder global cooperation and threaten the stability of the international system.

The overall architecture of the United Nations (UN) has been strongly influenced by its predecessor, the League of Nations (League), although there are some key differences. The UN General Secretariat, similar to the Secretariat of the League of Nations, is responsible for providing administrative and organisational support to all other UN bodies and ensuring the continuity of their work. The Secretary-General, who heads the General Secretariat, plays a central role in coordinating UN activities and promoting peace and international cooperation. A major contrast between the two secretariats is the way in which the Secretary-General is chosen. At the League of Nations, the Secretary-General was appointed by the League Council. At the UN, on the other hand, the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly, on the recommendation of the Security Council. This gives the UN Secretary-General greater legitimacy, as he enjoys the support of both the permanent members of the Security Council and the majority of the members of the General Assembly.

Although there are notable differences between the UN and the League of Nations, it is undeniable that the UN draws heavily on the legacy of the League. In particular, the principles of universality and collective security that were fundamental to the League of Nations have been taken up and strengthened by the United Nations. The UN's overall institutional architecture, with bodies such as the General Assembly and the Security Council, also reflects the influence of the League's structure. However, the UN has been able to adapt to the specific realities and challenges of the post-war world, establishing a more robust and coherent system. The UN also set up specialised agencies to deal with specific issues, notably economic, social and cultural. These additions have enabled the UN to respond more effectively and comprehensively to contemporary global challenges.

Specialist agencies and their roles

The UN's specialised agencies are independent entities that work in coordination with the UN to solve specific problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian nature. These agencies maintain links with the UN through cooperation agreements and are coordinated by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), one of the six principal organs of the UN. ECOSOC plays a central role in providing a platform for the discussion of international economic and social issues and in formulating policy recommendations to Member States and the UN system as a whole.

The UN's specialised agencies include:

• The International Labour Organisation (ILO): This agency is dedicated to promoting social justice and labour rights around the world.
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): Its main mission is to stimulate international collaboration in the fields of education, science, culture and communication.
• The World Health Organisation (WHO): is responsible for coordinating and directing international efforts to improve public health.
• The World Bank: Provides financing and technical advice to help developing countries reduce poverty and support sustainable economic growth.
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF): This agency monitors the global economy and offers economic advice, as well as financial assistance, to member countries in difficulty.

Although these specialised agencies enjoy autonomy, they maintain a close relationship with the UN and other entities of the UN system to achieve common goals. They succeeded the functions performed by the former technical departments of the League of Nations, but have been restructured and strengthened to meet the demands of a post-war reconstruction world.

The size and complexity of these agencies may give them the appearance of "big bureaucracies". However, their role is indispensable in tackling specific global problems and fostering international cooperation in a variety of fields. They provide technical expertise, carry out research, implement programmes and projects, and provide a platform for dialogue and negotiation between states. So while their work can sometimes be criticised for being cumbersome or slow, it is essential to recognise the value and impact of their work.

UN commissions, programmes and funds

UN commissions, programmes and funds are designed to respond to particular problems or specific global issues. They differ from specialised agencies, which are autonomous organisations with permanent mandates. Commissions, programmes and funds are generally created with the idea that they could be temporary and dissolved once their objectives have been achieved. However, in practice, many of them have continued to exist well beyond their initial mandate because of changing global issues or the emergence of new challenges requiring their expertise. These organisations play an essential role in achieving the UN's objectives and make a significant contribution to global efforts to tackle problems such as poverty, conflict, inequality and humanitarian crises.

In practice, the boundary between specialised agencies and other UN entities, such as commissions, programmes and funds, can sometimes be blurred. Although the latter are often created with a temporary perspective to address specific problems, they may endure well beyond their initial mandate because of evolving global issues or the continuing need for their expertise. For example, the World Food Programme (WFP) was created in 1961 as an experimental programme, but is still active today, providing food assistance in emergencies and working to improve the nutrition and quality of life of the most vulnerable populations. These entities, whether temporary or permanent, are all an integral part of the United Nations system and contribute to its global work to promote peace, security, development and human rights around the world. Their effectiveness depends on their ability to adapt to the changing needs of the world and to work in collaboration with other actors and entities within and outside the UN system.

These entities all play a crucial role in achieving the UN's objectives. For example:

• The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) works with countries to eradicate poverty and achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. It provides technical assistance, promotes national capacity and helps coordinate development efforts.
• The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) works to protect children's rights, including their right to education, health, nutrition and protection from violence and exploitation.
• The World Food Programme (WFP) is a key UN agency that provides food assistance to those who need it most, particularly in emergency situations such as wars, natural disasters and food crises.
• The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is responsible for protecting and assisting refugees, displaced persons and stateless persons. It also coordinates international efforts to resolve problems of forced displacement.

All these bodies work closely with governments, non-governmental organisations, the private sector and other partners to achieve their objectives and respond to urgent needs around the world.

The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) plays a major role in coordinating these various commissions, programmes and funds. ECOSOC is one of the six principal organs of the UN and is responsible for coordinating the economic and social work of the organisation and its specialised agencies and programmes. ECOSOC serves as a central platform for debate, dialogue and the creation of innovative policies in the economic and social fields, as well as for the implementation of international development goals. It is also responsible for reviewing progress made in implementing the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). ECOSOC's role is therefore essential to ensure effective cooperation and coordination between the different UN entities, in order to optimise their collective work in tackling global challenges.

UNICEF plays a crucial role as a global organisation working specifically to protect children's rights and promote their well-being. It works in more than 190 countries and territories around the world, in collaboration with local partners, to improve the lives of children and ensure their access to quality health, education, nutrition and protection services. UNICEF is funded entirely by voluntary contributions, mainly from governments, but also from individuals and companies. This allows it to maintain a certain independence in its work, while remaining accountable to its donors and the nations in which it operates. UNICEF is also known for its advocacy work on behalf of children's rights on an international scale. It uses evidence to influence policy and practice at all levels, from local to global, in order to create an environment conducive to the realisation of children's rights.

The World Food Programme (WFP) is a humanitarian organisation created in 1961 and managed by ECOSOC. Its main objective is to combat hunger and malnutrition, particularly in developing countries and those affected by conflict or natural disasters. The WFP works closely with other United Nations organisations, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). UN agencies and programmes each have their own mandates, governance structures and funding sources, which can sometimes lead to inefficiencies and overlaps in their work. To overcome these challenges, several strategies are generally implemented. Firstly, strengthening coordination is crucial. The UN has put in place various mechanisms to strengthen coordination between its agencies and programmes. The UN Resident Coordinator system, for example, is designed to coordinate UN action at the country level. In addition, ECOSOC and the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) both play key roles in coordinating efforts at the international level. Secondly, harmonising procedures is another way of improving efficiency. The UN is working to harmonise procedures between its agencies and programmes in order to reduce bureaucracy. This can include simplifying procurement procedures, standardising financial management systems and pooling administrative services. Finally, inter-agency dialogue and learning is encouraged. UN agencies and programmes are invited to share experiences and good practices, and to learn from each other. This may include regular staff exchanges, inter-agency workshops and joint programme reviews. However, despite these efforts, challenges remain in ensuring effective cooperation and coordination between the different parts of the UN system. Overcoming these challenges requires ongoing commitment from Member States, UN leadership and staff at all levels.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. It is the principal United Nations body responsible for promoting environmental protection and sustainable development worldwide. UNEP works closely with a range of governmental and non-governmental organisations, other UN agencies and international partners to address global and local environmental challenges.

Despite their joint efforts to address environmental issues, UNEP and its partner organisations can face challenges due to a number of factors. Firstly, there can be an overlap of mandates and expertise between UNEP and other organisations, which can lead to duplication of effort and competition for resources and attention. This can undermine the overall effectiveness of the actions undertaken and make it difficult to achieve common environmental objectives. Secondly, a lack of communication and information sharing between these organisations can lead to poor coordination. This lack of coordination can lead to a waste of valuable resources, with several organisations perhaps unknowingly pursuing the same objectives. Finally, cultural, organisational and political differences between different organisations can lead to tensions and difficulties in working together. Each organisation has its own working methods, priorities and culture, and it can be difficult to overcome these differences to achieve a common goal. Despite these challenges, UNEP's work remains essential in coordinating global efforts to solve environmental problems. It is important to continue working to improve coordination and communication between these organisations to maximise the effectiveness of their efforts.

== UN-related organisations

Related organisations are organisations that are part of the United Nations system but are not directly subordinate to ECOSOC. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is an example. Established in 1946, the ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and is responsible for settling legal disputes between member states and giving advisory opinions on legal questions submitted by UN bodies and specialised agencies authorised to do so. ICJ judges are elected by the UN General Assembly and Security Council for a nine-year term. The ICJ is based in The Hague, the Netherlands, and is composed of 15 judges representing the principal forms of civilisation and legal systems of the world.

Since its creation, the ICJ has dealt with many international disputes, particularly border disputes. Here are some examples of cases it has dealt with:

• Corfu Channel case (1947): The ICJ was seized of a dispute between Albania and the United Kingdom concerning Albania's liability for the mining of the Corfu Strait and damage to British ships. The Court ruled that Albania was liable and had to compensate the United Kingdom for the damage caused.
• Case concerning the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (1994): The ICJ was seized of a dispute concerning the delimitation of the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria, particularly in the Bakassi Peninsula, a region rich in natural resources. In 2002, the Court ruled in favour of Cameroon, attributing sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon and delimiting the land and maritime border between the two countries.

These cases demonstrate the importance of the ICJ as an international institution responsible for resolving disputes between UN member states and contributing to international peace and stability.

Ad hoc international criminal tribunals, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), were established by the UN Security Council in the 1990s to try individuals responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law, including genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. These tribunals were set up specifically to respond to conflict situations in these regions and have a limited duration. Although part of the UN system, these ad hoc tribunals are autonomous in their operation and decision-making. They have their own staff, their own judges and their own rules of procedure and evidence. Their main objective is to contribute to the restoration of international peace and security by putting an end to impunity for the most serious crimes committed during these conflicts. These ad hoc tribunals are distinct from the International Criminal Court (ICC), which is a permanent and independent institution responsible for investigating the most serious crimes committed anywhere in the world and which is not formally linked to the UN, although it cooperates closely with the organisation.

Other examples of related organisations include the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), and the World Bank Group. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) is an international institution that oversees the rules of international trade between nations. Founded in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the WTO has over 160 members, representing the majority of the world's nations. The WTO provides a framework for trade negotiations, in which members can discuss their trade disputes and seek to resolve them through negotiations. It also provides a dispute settlement mechanism to resolve trade disputes between members. For example, if a country believes that another country is not complying with WTO rules, it can take the matter to the organisation. The WTO also works to promote free trade by seeking to reduce or eliminate trade barriers such as tariffs, quotas and subsidies. It plays an essential role in the global economy by encouraging healthy and fair competition, promoting economic stability and helping to reduce poverty.

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an autonomous organisation linked to the UN, created in 1957. It promotes the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, provides assistance for the safe and secure use of this technology, and works to prevent the use of nuclear energy for military purposes, in particular the proliferation of nuclear weapons. The IAEA plays an important role in monitoring and verifying States' compliance with international nuclear commitments, in particular under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons. It also provides technical assistance and training to help countries use nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, such as energy production, medicine, agriculture and research. The World Bank Group is an international financial institution that provides loans and grants to developing countries for infrastructure projects (such as roads, schools and hospitals) that are intended to stimulate economic development and improve economic and social well-being. The World Bank Group is made up of two separate institutions: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA).

These organisations, although independent, work closely with the UN and play a crucial role in achieving sustainable development and other UN goals. Each organisation brings its unique expertise to the table and contributes to the achievement of a more peaceful, just and sustainable world.

The role of non-governmental organisations in the UN context

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are key players in the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals and other global initiatives. Their work covers a wide range of areas, from health and education to environmental protection and human rights. NGOs bring valuable expertise, a grassroots perspective and an ability to mobilise resources and reach populations that governments and intergovernmental organisations sometimes find difficult to reach. For example, they can implement development programmes on the ground, conduct advocacy campaigns to raise awareness of certain issues, and mobilise financial and human resources to support their initiatives. NGOs can also interact with the UN system in a variety of ways. Some NGOs have consultative status with ECOSOC, which allows them to participate in UN meetings, submit written statements and conduct side events. Others work in partnership with UN agencies to implement projects or participate in conferences and other UN forums.

The UN recognised early on the importance of NGOs as essential partners in achieving its global goals. In fact, the UN Charter, drafted in 1945, refers to "arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organisations which are concerned with matters within the competence of the United Nations". Thus, over the decades, the relationship between NGOs and the UN has developed and been formalised. Today, many NGOs have consultative status with ECOSOC, which enables them to participate actively in various UN processes. In addition, NGOs regularly collaborate with different UN agencies on a variety of projects and programmes. This formalised integration of NGOs into the UN system has undoubtedly strengthened their ability to contribute to solving global problems. Not only do NGOs provide valuable expertise and resources, but they can also help to ensure that the voices of the most marginalised and vulnerable populations are heard at the international level.

The Charter of the United Nations provides for consultation with non-governmental organisations. More specifically, Article 71 of the Charter states that "The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organisations which are concerned with matters within its competence". In 1946, ECOSOC adopted Resolution 1296, which established the principles of consultation with NGOs. This made it possible to establish consultative status for NGOs, which was subsequently revised by resolution 1996/31. Consultative status with ECOSOC enables NGOs to participate in the work of the UN and contribute to its agenda. Depending on their status, NGOs may be invited to submit written and oral reports, participate in debates, attend meetings, propose agenda items, and even organise side events at major conferences. This has not only opened up a channel of communication between NGOs and the UN, but has also enabled NGOs to play an active role in the work of the organisation. As a result, NGOs have become key players in achieving the UN's goals, contributing their expertise, raising awareness of important issues, and helping to implement programmes on the ground.

The 1948 Conference of Non-Governmental Organisations (CONGO) marked a decisive turning point in the way NGOs are perceived and included in the work of the UN. This conference helped to formalise the relationship between the UN and NGOs and underlined the crucial importance of these organisations in achieving the UN's objectives. Since then, NGOs have become key players in the UN system. They bring valuable perspectives, technical expertise and the ability to mobilise support at all levels, from policy formulation to project implementation on the ground. Today, NGOs contribute significantly to a multitude of areas, including, but not limited to, the promotion of human rights, humanitarian assistance, sustainable development, education, health, and the fight against climate change. The UN continues to encourage closer cooperation with NGOs, recognising their vital role as a bridge between government and local communities around the world.

In 1996, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) adopted resolution 1996/31, which updated the principles governing consultation with non-governmental organisations. This resolution made it possible to increase and strengthen the involvement of NGOs in the UN system. Among the changes brought about by this resolution are the following:

• Clearer and more rigorous eligibility criteria for NGOs seeking consultative status with ECOSOC.
• The establishment of a procedure for the suspension or withdrawal of consultative status for NGOs in the event of violation of UN rules or principles.
• Increasing NGO access to UN meetings and conferences, as well as to its decision-making processes.

This reform has played a key role in strengthening the capacity of NGOs to contribute to the work of the UN and to work with UN agencies and governments. It has also helped to maintain the integrity and effectiveness of the partnership between the UN and NGOs.

Cooperation on the ground between NGOs and UN agencies is vital to the success of many programmes. NGOs often have a long-standing presence in the areas where they operate, enabling them to build relationships of trust with local communities and to understand their specific needs. Their local knowledge and technical expertise is often invaluable to UN agencies. NGOs can also play a role in defending human rights, monitoring the implementation of international agreements and providing essential services such as education, healthcare and food aid. In many cases, they can reach populations that would otherwise be inaccessible to UN agencies. In addition, NGOs also contribute to the accountability and transparency of UN programmes by monitoring project implementation and reporting potential problems.

On the other hand, some may argue that the consultative status of NGOs within the UN is limited and insufficient. For example, while NGOs have the opportunity to participate in certain meetings and conferences, they have no decision-making power and their influence on final decisions may be limited. In addition, not all NGOs have equal opportunities to obtain consultative status, which can create inequalities between NGOs and favour those with more resources and international connections. There are also concerns about the accountability and transparency of NGOs. Because NGOs are diverse and operate to different standards and structures, it can be difficult to ensure their accountability and transparency. Some may fear that some NGOs will use their consultative status for personal or political gain, rather than for the public good. Finally, there is the risk that the dependence of NGOs on UN funding and support may compromise their independence and their ability to criticise and challenge UN policies and practices. While the consultative status of NGOs within the UN offers many opportunities, it also presents challenges and limitations that need to be taken into account.

This is an important perspective to consider. By complying with UN standards and procedures, some NGOs may find their autonomy and capacity for action restricted. This type of structure could potentially lead to a homogenisation of NGO actions and messages, limiting the diversity of voices and perspectives that are essential to tackling complex global issues. There is also the risk that some NGOs may be encouraged to focus their activities according to funding priorities and political agendas, which could divert their attention from issues that may be less popular or more controversial, but nonetheless important. On the other hand, it is important to note that consultative status is not the only form of NGO participation in the UN. Many NGOs interact with the UN through informal networks, project partnerships, conferences and forums. These channels can offer NGOs more flexibility and freedom to pursue their actions and advocate their causes. Nevertheless, it is clear that the relationship between NGOs and the UN is a complex and multifaceted subject, requiring careful consideration and ongoing reflection to ensure a balance between cooperation, independence and effectiveness.

The question of balance is fundamental to the relationship between NGOs and the UN. On the one hand, the UN must recognise and value the unique contribution of NGOs, which are often at the forefront of meeting the needs of the most vulnerable and marginalised populations. NGOs bring valuable knowledge, skills and perspectives that can enrich and strengthen the work of the UN. On the other hand, it is essential that the UN respects the autonomy and independence of NGOs. NGOs have their own mission, their own values and their own mandates, which may sometimes differ from those of the UN. It is important that NGOs retain the freedom to defend their own objectives and to criticise UN policies and actions where necessary. At the same time, collaboration between NGOs and the UN must be transparent, accountable and based on ethical principles. This requires open communication, information sharing and effective coordination to avoid duplication, wasted resources and misunderstandings. The relationship between NGOs and the UN is a complex issue that requires careful management and ongoing reflection. It is essential to continue to explore ways to strengthen this relationship while respecting the identity, autonomy and unique role of NGOs.

The complexity of the UN structure is both a source of richness and a challenge. On the one hand, it reflects the diversity and scale of the issues facing the world today, and demonstrates the UN's commitment to responding to these challenges in a comprehensive and integrated way. The multiplicity of UN bodies, agencies, programmes and commissions enables the organisation to cover a wide range of areas, from peace and security to health, education, human rights, the environment, economic and social development and so on. It also enables the UN to work with a wide range of actors, including governments, civil society, the private sector, academic institutions and others. On the other hand, this complexity can pose challenges in terms of coordination, communication, coherence and effectiveness. With so many different entities working on similar or related issues, there can be a risk of overlap, duplication of effort, confusion or conflict. It can also be difficult for external actors to understand and navigate the UN system. To address these challenges, the UN has undertaken various initiatives to improve its coordination and coherence, such as the creation of the UN "resident coordination" system, the establishment of joint programmes between different UN entities, and the Secretary-General's reform efforts to modernise and simplify the organisation. Nevertheless, it is clear that much remains to be done to make the UN more effective, efficient and responsive to the needs of today's world.

Annexes

• Reforme Bruce
• Goodrich, Leland M. “From League of Nations to United Nations.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 3–21. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703515.
• “The General Assembly.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 46–73. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703519.
• “Security Council.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 74–98. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703520.
• “International Monetary Fund.” International Organization, vol. 1, no. 1, 1947, pp. 124–125. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2703527.
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