Empires and States in the Middle East

Empires and States in the Middle East

Données clés

Professeur(s)	Yilmaz Özcan
Cours	The Contemporary Middle East: States, Nations, and Communities

Lectures

• The concept of the Middle East
• Languages, religions and cultures in the Middle East
• Empires and States in the Middle East
• Political and religious currents in the Middle East

Languages

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The Ottoman Empire

It's an empire that is rapidly imposing itself on the three continents and will destroy Rome. It was founded at the end of the 13th century and conquered the first European territories in the middle of the 14th century. The Ottomans took the Balkans, then Istanbul (1453), captured Cairo in 1517 and Baghdad in 1533. In 1529, the siege of Vienna failed (another attempt in 1623, without success) and defeat at the battle of Lepanto in 1571, which marked the end of Ottoman expansion. The end of the Russian-Ottoman war and the signing of the Kutchuk-Kainardji treaty in 1774 marked the first territorial losses and at the same time the insertion of the religious caliphate as a source of legitimacy.

In 1801, the British and the Ottomans drove the French out of Egypt to place an Ottoman pasha, Mehmet Ali. He proceeded to a growing empowerment knowing that the empire was in decline. He will revive the Nahda (the Arab renaissance). In 1836, his son, Ibrahim Pasha, attacked the Ottoman Empire head on, which was on the verge of collapsing. 3 years later, the Ottomans will carry an offensive, diverted by Ibrahim, who, following pressure from the British, Austrians and Russians, must sign the peace treaty. The British will detach themselves from the Egyptians, recognizing Mehmet Ali and his now legitimate descendants to govern Egypt.

The arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte made the Ottomans realize how far behind they were in terms of modernity. In 1839, the period of reforms - the Tanzimat, "reorganization" in Turkish - was put in place to combat the decline of the Empire. The organisation of the Dhimmis - non-Muslim citizens - was modernised and the Millet (a community with cultural autonomy) was created. Second wave of reforms, attempt to create citizenship, inter-community violence. Revolt within the army, as hostile to the reforms, leading to the formation of the "Young Ottomans" from the middle of the 19th century. In 1876, the culmination of the Tanzimat, the new Sultan Abdülhamid II promotes the first monarchical constitution of the Ottoman Empire. Appearance of pan-Islamism: he invites Muslim leaders and dignitaries and proposes to train their children in Istanbul. Two years later, the constitution is abrogated through the closure of parliament and the expansion of pan-Islamism resumes. Modernization is necessary, but it evolves according to the precepts of Islam. Salafism is strongly influenced by it (pan-Islamism, nahda), whose precursor is Al Afghani.

The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to what is known as the question of the East: how to manage the territories? Indeed, successive losses followed one another from 1830 until 1923. Growing Turkish nationalism and the non-Muslim territories in the East (now the Balkans) gradually detached themselves from the Ottoman Empire, raising the question of what would become of the Empire: why not constitute, in the manner of Europe, an international of Islam?

Germany's Weltpolitik will arrange the Ottomans to escape pressure from Russia and the British. Thus, Germany is going to finance the BBB: a railway passing through Berlin, Byzantium and Baghdad. Panturquists and supporters of the Empire are delighted with this alliance.

In 1908, the second constitutional period will be activated by the party of the Young Turks (Union and Progress), which will force the sultan to accept the second constitution. In 1909, traditional/conservative/religious circles tried to kick out the Unionists. In fact, the latter took advantage of a counter-revolution to crush any resistance. In 1913, the parliament was taken over. In 1915, the policy of the Armenian genocide is launched: deportations and massacres of the targeted population, between 800'000 and 1'500'000 people will perish.

The Persian Empire

When talking about the Persian Empire (Iran), the notion of continuity is important. The Medes (Media) created an empire at the beginning of the 7th century BC which was destroyed by Cyrus II of Persia around 550 BC. Several empires fought for this region until the period of the Sassanid dynasty, which lasted between 224 and 624 and concerned the reign of Great Iran (Iran, Iraq, Armenia, South Caucasus, ...) whose capital was Ctesiphon. From 642 begins the Islamic period of Iran.

In 1501, the Sefevid empire is created in Azerbaijan. The latter will proceed to the concretization of Shiism as a religion and thus to the Shiitization of Iran. In 1514, the Sephevists lost the war (Battle of Chaldiran) against the Ottoman Sultan, which would give rise to the first political demarcation line. On the other hand, the Ottomans regained the eastern half of Anatolia. The Alevis, supporters of the Shah, Ishmael I, are massacred during the decade following the defeat. Sultan Selim then took Cairo in 1517.

In 1796, creation of the Kadjar/Qajar dynasty, of Turkmen origin. In 1906, constitutional period and separation into different international orders (including an English one). But in 1908-9, oil is discovered which upsets the destiny of the territory. In spite of everything, Iran wants to be neutral.

The Ottoman Empire in the First World War

After seeking alliances with the English and the French, the agreement was finally signed with Germany. But, aware of their difficulties, the Ottomans wanted to delay the entry into the war as long as possible. Between the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, several ships were stored, ships that the Ottomans would use to bomb the Russian coast. From then on, the British want to counter-attack directly inland. At the same time, the protectorate over Egypt was made official, to maintain control over the Suez Canal.

The Allies seek to open a new front in the south of the Ottoman Empire. The Arab revolt broke out in 1916 at the instigation of Hussein ben Ali, Sheriff of Mecca (after being pushed there by Lawrence of Arabia) to liberate the Arabian Peninsula from the Ottoman Empire. These were the beginnings of Arab nationalism, with Hussein wanting to create a unified Arab state from Syria to Yemen, a promise obtained from General Henry MacMahon. In June 1917, Faisal, Hussein's son, won the battle of Aqaba and, by uniting the Arab tribes of the Hijaz in 1917, succeeded in liberating Damascus and then proclaiming himself King of Syria in 1920.

In between, Russia withdrew from the war because of the internal revolution. This poses a problem for the British, because from now on, Germany only fights on one front, against France. They will therefore take advantage of the strong presence of the Bolshevik Jews to keep them in the war. Enver Pasha, a high Ottoman official with ties to Germany, who wanted to counter-attack against the Russians, was going to lose this operation: he was going to accuse the Armenians, which was going to trigger the genocide.

In January 1919, the Paris Conference was held. The future of the Ottoman territories was discussed. In fact, although countries were allowed to send delegations to put forward their point of view, some were refused: the Egyptian delegation was exiled to Malta, for example. Faisal was going to create a State in present-day Syria. The Clemenceau-Fayçal agreement is very favourable to the French. The Lebanese delegation obtains the right to create a State. The Kurds are promised the creation of Kurdistan. The whole thing leads to the Treaty of Sèvres.

The Ottoman Empire accepts the treaty, which signs the final point of the question of the East. In spite of everything, a nationalist resistance was formed and fought against the Armenians, the Greeks (driven out of Anatolia) and the Kurds. They will emerge victorious, create the Turkish Republic, which will lead to the reconsideration of the treaty. In 1924, the caliphate is abrogated - Hussein, king of Hedjaz since the fall of the Ottoman Empire, proclaims himself Caliph, but will be driven out by the Saudis. In 1920, the French cancel the Arab state in Syria, Faisal will be driven out to become Hashemite king of Iraq. The British will create the kingdom of Transjordan for Abdallah, another son of Hussein, in order to preserve Palestine.

The San Remo conference in 1920 mainly concerned the allocation of mandates over the former Ottoman provinces. The French will have the mandate on Syria and Lebanon, the British on Transjordan, Palestine and Mesopotamia (from Mosul to Basra), renamed Iraq. For their part, the Turks redefine their borders by crushing the Armenians. 4 years later, in 1923, Mustafa Kemal managed to go back on the Treaty of Sèvres in order to reconsider the fixed borders: the Treaty of Lausanne will replace it.

Allied promises and Arab claims

Articles détaillés : La paix de Paris et la Société des Nations, Géopolitique du Moyen-Orient, Les débuts du système international contemporain : 1870 – 1939 et L’ère des superpuissances : 1918 – 1989.

In the context of the First World War, many promises were made, particularly by the Western powers preparing the partition of Ottoman territories. This begins in 1915 in Constantinople: Great Britain, France and Russia meet to discuss it.

In 1916, diplomats Mark Sykes and François Georges-Picot concluded an agreement of the same name to define precisely the division of Ottoman lands between France and Russia. This agreement explains, like a genesis, the collective memories concerning the geographical space in the Middle East: they influenced the creation of states, but did not really determine their borders - the balance of power having modified them.

After the Russian Revolution, the Bolsheviks, in order to criticize the imperialism of the French and English, made the agreements public. These agreements represent the culmination of the process of the question of the East - not the beginning. The French zone serves as a buffer zone between the British and the Russians, having realized the difficulty of cohabiting in India.

The Armenian Genocide

During the First World War, recurrent violence led to a particularly serious event: the Armenian genocide.

This people has been present on the territory for a very long time - as early as 200 BC according to certain nationalist mythologies. In the year 301, Armenia created the first Christian state. It was not until 640 with the Arab conquests that the Armenians were divided between Byzantium and the Arab territories. The most important part was between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire. The Armenians had the status of Dhimmis with the Ottomans. Unfortunately, with the decline of the Empire, this population is also affected. The pan-Islamist phase of Adbülhamid II will lead to the highlighting of Muslim claims to the detriment of Armenian claims. In 1878, the Treaty of San Stefano marked for the first time that the Armenian question was internationalized: the Ottomans were asked to improve the fate of the Armenians living in the territory.

Between 1895 and 1896 there were terrible repressions against Armenian demonstrations - against taxes, Ottoman persecutions. The Young Turks were to be even more violent than the Ottomans, because they were convinced that they were fighting to purify the area from the Turks: they had to get rid of this issue, already internationalized, which represented a risk of territorial losses. The process of the genocidal campaign begins with the recurrent discrimination of Armenians, they are accused of betraying and fomenting together with Russia. The genocide began in 1915, including the arrest and deportation of Armenians to Syria through the ordeal of the death march. The people who arrived at the Black Sea were parked in boats that were sunk. While some Armenians became Islamists and others went into hiding with the Kurds, the same thing happened to the Assyrians between 1914 and 1920: the population was exterminated despite their status as Millet (autonomous cultural community).

Despite the fact that the Allies occupied Istanbul from 1919 and created a court martial to judge the crimes of the Ottomans, the situation did not calm down. The Kemalist nationalists were going to oppose the Allies as soon as the question of the Greek Orthodox populations in Turkey emerged. Mustafa Kemal, who is linked to the Young Turks, is the first to say that the Armenian genocide is "a shameful act" because he is fighting at the same time at the Dardanelles. He will change his position during the resistance for Anatolia.

The foundation of Turkey

The Allies, worn out by the war, went back on the Treaty of Sèvres to conclude the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, definitively closing the door to the Kurdish and Armenian questions - as well as the hunting of the Greeks out of Turkish territories. After this episode, the leaders of the Union and Progress Committee (Young Turks) were exiled and killed, and the movement was dissolved. Several nationalist associations are created and aim at protecting the invasion of Anatolian lands: the process will be partly done through religion (Christian West vs Muslim Anatolia).

In May 1919, Mustafa Kemal arrived in Anatolia, took the lead in the popular resistance and launched a war against the Armenians (1921). He will also oppose the French (signing of treaties on the borders) and the Greeks. For the British, the possibility of a war between Greeks and Turks on one front and between Turks and the British on the other was advantageous to focus on Iraq. The Turks will be interested in the Western front against the Greeks so that in 1922 they will withdraw from Anatolia, leaving room for the Treaty of Lausanne. Parallel to this treaty, a convention between Greece and Turkey for an exchange of populations was put in place. Once the French were expelled and the treaty signed, Mustafa Kemal proclaimed the Turkish Republic.

Despite everything, Antioch remains claimed and the border of Mosul is not determined: the UN must decide on the latter case and in 1925, a treaty is signed between Iraq, Turkey and Great Britain. It stipulates that part of the oil revenue goes to Turkey, but that Turkey must recognise Iraq and its borders.

In 1922, the Ottoman Sultanate was removed from the Turkish Parliament: the only political authority remained Ankara. Mustafa Kemal was to continue his process by abolishing the Caliphate in 1924, through a law which at the same time created a specific body: the Dyianet (Presidency of Religious Affairs). He then proceeded to authoritarian modernization and involved secularism - in the sense of absolute control over religious matters. Non-Turkish and non-Muslim elements are assimilated, morals change as well as laws. The policies of assimilation of minorities and different ethnic groups are manifold: the creation of Turkish surnames, a changed calendar, the closure of religious schools.

In 1925, after the creation of the Ministry of Education, the wearing of the European hat was imposed, legal reforms were implemented (Swiss civil code), metric systems were adapted, the calendar was changed (as was the day of rest). The alphabet also changes, history and the past follow the movement: the Institute of Turkish History is created in 1931. At the same time, a policy of language purification is pursued in order to strengthen the theory of the "Sun Language": to demonstrate the origin and superiority of the mother nation. In the same process, the question of the Kurds, who were assimilated as "mountain Turks" (to bring them back to their "true nature"), was settled. In 1938, repressions against Kurdish and non-Muslim populations took place.

As far as institutions are concerned, the State is centralized, nationalized and secularized. Society is Europeanized, the past of the Muslim empire is associated with a horrible imagination, that's why we have to look to the West. But as early as 1950, Turkey slowed down its westernization in the face of the multiparty system that it implies - at that time Turkey had only one party. So the conservatives are going to question the Kemalist reforms, which represents a real danger for the leaders in power and will lead to large-scale repression.

Turkey is an ally of the West and must therefore maintain a multi-party system. Approximately every 10 years, a coup d'état takes place, but elections are nevertheless called by the army. For some years now, the conservatives in power have been advocating a government that is not revolutionary and have therefore not suffered any setbacks from the army.

Moreover, assimilationist (Kurdish) policies will reinforce Turkish nationalism - these populations do not or no longer enjoy Millet's status. European anti-Semitism and racism will influence discriminatory policies in Turkey and lead to pogroms against Jews in Thrace. Furthermore, a wealth tax law will reinforce this discrimination and for (non-Turkish) individuals who cannot pay, camps will be set up.

Secularization is a long historical process in which the divine and the god cease to be the reference. Secularism is a policy: the state decides to separate itself from the church. So we can have secularized societies, but not secularized societies and vice versa.

After the war, the situation deteriorates even more: a bomb explodes in the house where Mustafa Kemal was born, pogroms are going to be carried out against the targeted populations. One thing leading to another, minorities are shrinking and no longer represent much of a problem nowadays.

The Alevis

The Alevis are happy to see the creation of the new Turkish republic, because it promises secularism and secularism. But as soon as the caliphate was suppressed, the Dyianet was created to promote Sunni Islam (construction of mosques ...) which was going to be a problem for them without making things very complicated - there was talk of murders during the time of the Ottoman Empire. In the 1960s, the first Alevi political party was created even though another political party of the communist left responded better to the demands of the Kurdish and Alevi electorate.

In the 1970s, an extreme right appeared and advocated discrimination against Alevi: massacres, pogroms (1978, 1980), beheadings, etc. The party was not a political party, but a political party of the extreme right. In 1993, Alevi intellectuals were burned alive in a hotel. In 1995, the Gazi district was hit by a massacre against this population. From 2002, the new power further promotes the Sunni cult and reinforces the policy of assimilation (Cf. Kemal): the community is thus forced to go to the mosque even though it does not practice Sunni Islam. The Alevis are Turkish and/or Kurdish speaking, even if their faith is totally determining for their community.

Iran

This country also represents another case of authoritarian modernization. Shortly before the First World War, in 1907, the country was on the verge of implosion: territorial losses, the army was unable to manage the state's influence, and the British were reluctant to establish a strong central power. The British concluded an agreement to share the territory with the Russian power, all within the framework of the Anglo-Russian agreement.

In 1921, the soldier Reza Khan carried out a coup d'état and created a government, an administration and an army to form a central power. He also managed to reach an agreement with the British, particularly on the question of oil. In 1925, the Kadjar dynasty came to an end and a year later, Reza Kahn proclaimed himself Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. Khan was inspired by Kemal's reforms and carried out an authoritarian modernization: suppression of all intermediate powers, introduction of metric systems, development of transport networks, cultural and clothing reforms, strong nationalism (exaltation of the Iranian past, based on the Persian language). All these reforms will be made at the price of censorship, a decrease in freedom of expression, purification of the language, general repression, control of the political apparatus. Some codes (civil, penal, dress code) were also introduced towards the end of the 1920s.

In December 1934, Persia is no longer Persia, the country is now called Iran (a reinforcement compared to the West). The Nazi propaganda, resonating in the East, will convince the Shah who, in reality, only intends to rely on the Germans to counter the British power. Unfortunately, he will have to leave his place to his son, Mohammed Reza, who is still too young to govern. There is also the question of supplying the Soviet forces via the country, under the control of the Allied forces.

In 1951, the Prime Minister, Mossadegh, stated that the independence of the Iranians was dependent on the control of resources: he decided to nationalise the oil wells, which would cost him a great deal of money. The British succeeded in convincing the United States to intervene, via Operation Ajax (CIA), by removing the Prime Minister's government. In 1953, although democratically elected, Mossadegh was humiliated and left power. The Shah became increasingly powerful and planned to modernize Iran. Since 1955, the country belongs to the Baghdad Pact, which places it on the side of the Western bloc. Indeed, he wants to take advantage of the context of the Cold War to find allies (USA) and proceeds to the "White Revolution", a modernization in the form of Americanization: mode of production, consumption, ... American experts on the ground will benefit from privileges, which reinforces tensions in religious circles. At the same time, a reform of agriculture was carried out, which was oriented towards the benefits of the economy and no longer those of Islam (Cf. offerings of the Imams). Opposition is repressed just like the communist left, and through these reforms and the repressions that follow, the Shah will provoke, in spite of himself, the federation of all these oppositions into a common force.

On the 235th anniversary of the Persian Empire, Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi will provoke a change of calendar: a few years later, we will change back to the old one.

Large demonstrations will take place and the Shah, who is ill, cannot meet the expectations of the people, which will lead to the Islamic revolution of 1979. He left power by going into exile the same year while the Ayatollah (the highest member of the Shiite clergy) Rouhollah Khomeini returned to Iranian soil after 15 years. The armed forces of the revolution proclaim neutrality and Khomeini declares the end of the monarchy and sets up a provisional government. The revolution will be supported by many intellectuals, like Michel Foucault. A Shiite theocracy is established. Somewhere, Saddam Hussein saves the revolution by declaring war on the country: it is the burst of national feeling as a factor of cohesion, via religious power, that allows the republic to be definitively anchored as a form of the Iranian state. The Republic was not proclaimed, but came into being with the Islamic revolution. Secularism is not enshrined in the constitution.

Egypt

This state was also created through a revolution. It is a cradle of civilizations, a succession of dominations (Persian, Roman, ...). From 1639, Egypt became Muslim and Ottoman from 1517 (capture of Cairo). From the 18th century, the country becomes very interesting for the British. The Nahda, the Arab renaissance, will take place on Egyptian territory under the regime of Mehmet Ali. Over time, the country will even go as far as challenging the Ottoman Empire (Cf. Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehmet Ali). It became very important in 1869 following the opening of the Suez Canal. At the same time, we are witnessing a decline in economic issues and therefore modernisation (pressure from the Allies). Loans were taken out and from 1876, a Franco-British commission took charge of the administration of the country which was unable to repay its debts. Dissatisfaction was strong among the working classes and the British would establish themselves completely in power by 1880.

When the First World War broke out, the canal became a major issue, which led the British to proclaim their protectorate over Egypt (de jure). After the war, the Egyptians demanded their independence for having largely participated in the war (drudgery, famine), which provoked the ire of Great Britain, which will prevent by all means the Egyptian delegation from arriving in Paris to assert its claims: it will be stopped on the island of Malta. There, the notion of "Wafd" ("delegation") emerges in the history of Egypt.

The nationalist revolutionary movement grew stronger and pushed the British to abrogate their protectorate in 1922, but with reservations: the presence of British soldiers around the Suez Canal, occupation of the Sudan (source of the Nile), ... Sultan Fouad I quickly proclaimed himself king and is closely linked to Great Britain. In 1927, the Muslim Brotherhood is founded to maintain a society in accordance with the Muslim tradition (and against a westernization of the country). The political instability forces Great Britain to sign a new treaty with Egypt to prevent the fascist powers from getting their hands on the country: the country's independence is thus strengthened.

On 23 July 1952, the Free Officers took power, one of whom stood out: Nasser. His idea of pan-Arabism as well as the nationalization of the Suez Canal made his politics very nationalist and Third Worldist. Nasser's socialism is developmentalist, because it does not prevent the constitution of an Egyptian bourgeoisie. The Soviets will approach it, in particular for the realization of the Aswan dam.

To constitute a pan-Arab state, Israel must be eradicated: the Six Day War will be lost in 1966. Nasser will die in 1970. His successor, Sadat, will proceed with the nationalization of the country: economic revival, questioning of the pan-Arab concept and even rapprochement with Israel (Camp David agreements), which will lead to the exclusion of Egypt from the Arab League. For some experts, this marks the end of pan-Arabism. Sadat is killed by the Muslim Brotherhood, his successor is Hosni Mubarak. He will repress the Muslim Brotherhood but will be expelled during the Arab Spring to make way for Mohamed Morsi. General Sissi will carry out a coup d'état and take power in May 2014.

Saudi Arabia

The state is very young and of a different nature. We have to talk about one particular element to understand its constitution: it is the ideology of Wahhabism.

In 1744, a pact was concluded between Saud and Wahhab with the aim of making the reign of the word of God triumph: it is necessary to return to a purer form of Islam and to conquer territories in order to create a State. Many attempts will take place, the first as early as the 18th century. Shi'ism is considered foreign to Islam and in 1803 Mecca will be attacked. The attempt fails, because Mehmet Ali, sent by the Ottoman Empire, will have the Saudi general beheaded. The second attempt in 1820-1840 also failed. From 1900-01, part of the Saud family returned from exile and resumed its project to create a Saudi state.

In 1915, the British will contact Chérif Hussein (Hashemite) and, at the same time, his enemies, the Saudis. The Saudis will not revolt, Hussein is isolated. He ends up proclaiming himself Caliph, which leads the Saudis to attack him. In 1926, Ibn Saud proclaimed himself King of Hejaz, recognized by Russia, France and Great Britain. In 1932, the Kingdom of United Arabia is proclaimed which includes the Nejd and the Hejaz. Also, oil is going to be discovered, which will help the kingdom - all the more so in a context of world war. It thus becomes a privileged ally of the French and the British.

It is feared that the Islamic revolution in Iran will be exported to Saudi Arabia, which strengthens its position as an ally. Wahhabism becomes the spearhead of the anti-Soviet struggle. In 1981, the Gulf Cooperation Council was created, in which Saudi Arabia would play an important role. Saddam Hussein will invade Kuwait: military bases will be created in Saudi Arabia to counter the Iraqi offensive. On the other hand, Al Qaeda is turning against the Americans, considering that they have desecrated the holy land of Islam during this process.

On November 20, 1979, Islamic fundamentalists took control of the Mosque of Mecca, their leader claiming the status of Madhi, considering the Saudis corrupt and enjoying luxury, opening up to Western society. Thousands of hostages are held until 4 December, the date of the liberation battle that killed more than 200 people.

Countries created by decrees

Article détaillé : La paix de Paris et la Société des Nations.

La Société des Nations possédait plusieurs mandats (A, B, C), classés sur un degré d'ancienneté et de "civilisation". Les anciens territoires de l'Empire ottoman étaient relativement bien « civilisés » et donc se voyaient attribuer un mandat de type A.

À ce moment, les Américains ne sont pas en faveur du maintien des conquêtes territoriales et souhaiteraient qu'ils soient accessibles à tout le monde – ce qui avantage leur position d'un point de vue commercial. Néanmoins, les Britanniques et les Français ont obtenu des gains de terres considérables : un compromis est donc décidé à travers les mandats dont s'ensuit un long procédé (conférence de San Remo, du Caire, traités de Sèvres puis de Lausanne).

En 1919, les territoires sont partagés entre les différentes puissances. On remarque une grande hostilité des populations locales face au mandat et la majorité de celles-ci souhaite la création d'un État arabe. Farouchement opposés aux occidentaux, ils sont moins réticents envers les américains.

La Syrie

Fayçal, fils d’Hussein ben Ali, se rendant à la conférence de paix à Paris, comprend que quelque chose ne joue lorsque les Français s'opposent à la création de son royaume – les Britanniques ne le soutiennent pas du tout. Pour renforcer sa position, il signe un accord avec Clemenceau pour établir un protectorat sur la Syrie, chose qu'il ne dévoile pas à ses partisans. De leur côté, l'État est en cours de création : éducation, réformes, armée, administration. En 1920, les Français souhaitent récupérer les territoires définis par les accords Sykes-Picot. En juillet de la même année se déroule la bataille de Mayssaloun : l'armée de Fayçal est écrasée et lui est forcée à l'exil. Le mandat devient donc une conquête territoriale.

La France procède à des divisions et va séparer les territoires pour créer des républiques : celle de Syrie et celle du Liban – bien que les territoires appartiennent au même peuple historiquement parlant. La Syrie sera divisée en plusieurs États, selon des critères religieux ou ethniques. Le tout sera fait dans un but d'empêcher une mobilisation arabe sur l'entier du territoire ("diviser pour mieux régner"). De plus, à travers les hauts représentants, la France va diriger la république comme un de ses départements (selon le modèle centralisé). Une administration directe est mise en place rapidement, ce qui va aggraver les frustrations arabes. En 1925, la grande révolte syrienne éclate et se prolongera sur plus de 2 ans. En effet, les Druzes ne sont plus les maîtres et perdent leurs privilèges. La répression est terrible : bombardements, exposition des corps des révoltés, etc.

Au final, le peuple ne sera pas aidé, la gestion se rapproche énormément d'une colonie. Le nationalisme syrien grandissant parvient tout de même à décrocher l'indépendance du pays. Néanmoins, dans un contexte de deuxième guerre mondiale, la Turquie, liée à l'Allemagne nazie, devient problématique. La France va donc offrir un bout de territoire (Antioche, Alexandrette) aux Turcs pour éviter une alliance dangereuse entre ces deux puissances. En 1939, un plébiscite finit par accréditer la cession de ce territoire au profit de la Turquie.

Durant la Deuxième Guerre mondiale, le gouvernement de Vichy permet aux Allemands d'utiliser les infrastructures militaires (aéroports) basées au Liban. Les Britanniques ne peuvent laisser passer cet outrage et procéderont de telle manière pour que, une fois la guerre finie, les Français doivent renoncer à leur autorité sur le territoire et déclarer l'indépendance du pays.

Cette dernière va pousser dans une direction panarabe et très nationaliste. Bien qu'affaiblie, la Syrie participera à la guerre de 1948 contre Israël. Suite à la défaite, elle poussera le pays au bord du gouffre et ouvrira la porte à un trait caractéristique de l'époque contemporaine de ce pays : les coups d'États. En effet, avec l'expérience des protectorats, le contrôle de l'État se fait via l'armée, seule institution durable entre les changements de gouvernance.

Le baasisme se développera encore plus. On se dit de plus en plus qu'une alliance avec Nasser est plus qu'intéressante : en 1958, les deux pays proclament la République arabe unie. Rapidement, le leadership de Nasser apparaît clairement comme vocation principale de ce projet – la Syrie serait réduite à l'état de province de l'Égypte. En 1961, un coup d'État prend lieu pour échapper à la République arabe unie par des régionalistes, ce qui aggrave encore plus la déstabilisation du pays. En 1963, les baasistes procèdent à un nouveau coup d'État : réformes, sécularisation, éducation, agriculture, etc. On appellera ça le socialisme arabe. En 1966, la tendance socialiste du baasisme fera elle aussi son coup d'État. Une année plus tard, Israël gagne la guerre de Six Jours et affaiblit les Baas, ce qui plonge le pays dans le chaos. Hafez Al Assad fait son coup d'État en 1970, en accentuant le caractère national.

Il réalise qu'il faut une assise sociale ou légitimité pour conserver le pouvoir et va s'intéresser aux Alawites : les postes les plus importants leur seront donnés. Bien que le discours sur le panarabisme n’ait pas totalement disparu, la nation est toujours d'actualité. Il procédera aux mêmes méthodes que les Français en 1920: coopter, diviser, réprimer. Le pouvoir va se « confessionnaliser ». Toute l'opposition sera purgée sauf la partie islamiste, possédant une réelle assise sociale auprès du peuple. En 1982, Al Assad rasera une ville islamiste pour imposer une répression de grande ampleur, le tout avec une dimension symbolique.

Assad nécessite une personne d'autorité religieuse en tant que Fatwa (spécialiste de la loi islamique), chose qui ne peut pas être assumée par des Alawites, considérés comme non-musulmans. Hafez décède en 2000 et c'est son fils, Bachar Al Assad, qui est depuis au pouvoir.

Le Liban

Depuis le 16ème siècle, le territoire est sous contrôle ottoman. Il fait preuve d'une diversité particulière, au niveau ethnique et religieux : les druzes et le maronites (chrétiens) ont joué un grand rôle dans l'histoire de ce pays, surtout à cause de leur opposition.

Durant son mandat, la France va tenter de jouer le rôle de médiateur entre les deux populations. On applique une division administrative (Mutasarrifiyyah) sur le territoire, le mont Liban échappe au contrôle des ottomans. Par ailleurs, la France va dépêcher deux délégations libanaises à la conférence de paix de Paris pour contrecarrer les revendications de Fayçal.

L'État libanais est créé en 1921, une république avec un système politique particulier: le système communautaire. Ainsi, chaque communauté aura un poids sur la fonction étatique par rapport à son poids démographique. Les élites, déçues de ce système, se regroupent pour tenter d'imposer leurs revendications. Le système reste faible, car se base uniquement sur un recensement de population : la migration palestinienne tout comme le panarabisme vont provoquer des fluctuations dans la démographie libanaise. En 1970, les Jordaniens chassent les Palestiniens de leurs territoires, qui vont donc s'établir au Liban. Suite à ces événements, le Liban va être plongé dans une guerre civile, avec une occupation israélienne au Sud-Liban dès 1975.

La Syrie, dans une volonté d'annexer le Liban, va soutenir et s'associer avec les différentes communautés. En 1989, elle organise la conférence de Taëf : le Liban sort de la guerre civile, sous administration syrienne. On refuse de faire un recensement, de peur de déséquilibrer le pays. En 2005, Rafiq Hariri, Premier ministre libanais, est assassiné à Beyrouth, ce qui provoque des instabilités et de larges mouvements protestataires, conduisant à la révolte du Cèdre et au retrait des troupes syriennes du pays. Parallèlement, le Hezbollah, parti islamiste chiite fondé en 1982, ne veut pas se désarmer et le conflit de 2006 contre Israël va lui permettre de renforcer sa position sur l’échiquier de la résistance arabe.

Jordanie

CARTE

Il faut revenir au mandat britannique sur la Palestine pour appréhender la formation de la Jordanie. Une des premières choses que la Grande-Bretagne va faire est de diviser le mandat en deux: la Palestine (conférence du Caire, 1922) et celui sur les émirats de Transjordanie. Le fils du Chérif Hussein, Abdallah, est le leader des révoltes dans une partie du territoire: pour le contenir, il devient émir de la Transjordanie. L'opposition sioniste se manifeste, elle, sur le fait que l'immigration juive est interdite par les Britanniques en Transjordanie.  Le fleuve Jordan détermine les notions de Trans- et de Cisjordanie.

Les Jordaniens vont créer la légion arabe, une armée sous contrôle d'un haut officier britannique. En 1946, la Jordanie devient indépendante. Deux ans plus tard, suite à la guerre civile, Israël proclame son indépendance, les États arabes s'opposent : l'émirat de la Transjordanie va occuper, donc annexer, la Cisjordanie.

En 1950, la moitié des sièges parlementaires est occupée par des députés palestiniens : le projet concret est en réalité l'annexion de la Cisjordanie. Les nationalistes palestiniens, au courant d'un accord secret entre les Israéliens et les Transjordaniens sur des questions d'autorité/souveraineté/territoire, s'opposent à cette loi et Abdallah est assassiné en 1952. Le territoire palestinien est perdu dans la guerre de 1967.

Le roi Hussein, petit-fils de Abdallah, régnera sur la Transjordanie jusqu'à sa mort, en ne réglant pas l'ambigüité palestinienne – notamment à cause de ses ambitions panarabes. En 1971, le roi procède au "Septembre noir" : les combattants palestiniens sont chassés du territoire de manière violente. Les quartiers généraux des chefs palestiniens sont bougés au Liban. Sur une question de principe, même en participant aux guerres israélo-arabes (Kippour), les Jordaniens entretiennent une relation proche avec Israël, sur des sujets en opposition avec les autres États arabes. À sa mort, Hussein est remplacé par son fils, Abdallah II.

Au final, les hachémites à qui on avait promis un état arabe, ne régneront que sur la Transjordanie. Lors de la Conférence d'Oslo (Accords d'Oslo), les diplomates jordaniens sont obligés de renoncer à toute ambition sur le territoire palestinien.

 Par ailleurs, la Jordanie bénéficie de l'aide américaine, État avec lequel le pays est en très bons termes.

Irak

L'État est composé de trois anciens territoires ottomans (villaet = provinces): Mosul, Baghdad et Basra. Les Britanniques ont toujours été intéressés par ce dernier, principalement pour son accès direct au Golfe – enjeu de protéger l'exploitation du pétrole en Perse. Le territoire, plus particulièrement celui de Mosul, est très intéressant pour plusieurs raisons: - Découverte de pétrole - Source des fleuves - Contrôle sur le nord pour assurer la stabilité du reste du territoire.

Gertrude Bell, archéologue, va militer pour donner le nom arabe d’« Irak » plutôt que Mésopotamie (grec). Dès lors, on jette les bases de tous les problèmes, contenus dans la question irakienne selon Pierre-Jean Luisard. On parle de massacres, d'instabilité et de violences, qui peuvent s'expliquer simplement par un rapport de domination des Sunnites sur les Chiites et une domination des Arabes sur les Kurdes.

Selon la méthode colonialiste, on place la minorité au pouvoir pour qu'elle reste subordonnée à la métropole. Ainsi, les élites sunnites, minoritaires, se retrouvent à la tête de l'Irak: Fayçal devient souverain hachémite du pays en 1920. Dès 1925, les contestations chiites et kurdes sont matées (avec l'aide de la Royal Air Force), l'État est stabilisé.

En 1932, l'Irak est le premier état créé par décret à devenir indépendant en adhérant à la Société des Nations. Néanmoins, l'administration gouvernementale reste sous contrôle des Britanniques – chaque ministre possédera un assistant britannique. En 1941, un coup d'État est tenté, la Grande-Bretagne intervient pour placer un nouveau roi au pouvoir. L'histoire se répète durant la guerre froide, l'Irak ayant un poids décisif dans les accords de Bagdad en 1955 : ces derniers cherchent à mener la politique américaine du « containment », visant à créer un « cordon sanitaire » pour contrer la montée en puissance de l’URSS. En 1958, la révolution renverse la monarchie, la république est proclamée, Abdel Karim Kassem est élu. C'est aussi la période où les gouvernements syrien et égyptien fondent la République arabe unie, organe que Kassem décide de ne pas rejoindre : il se rapproche des Kurdes et des chiites. En 1963, Kassem est tué en direct lors d'un coup d'État, Abdel Salam Aref le remplaçant à la tête du pouvoir. Ce dernier était baasiste et, contrairement à Kassem, se positionnait en faveur de la République arabe unie. À sa mort, son frère le remplacera en tant que président. Le baasisme s’est donc mis en place en Irak grâce au frère Aref dès le début des années 1960.

En 1979, Saddam Hussein devient le nouveau maître de l'Irak. Le processus d’étatisation de la tribu sera renforcé, toujours dans une optique baasiste : on cherche le soutien des Tiplit. Saddam va lancer des programmes de modernisation : école, économie, logement, etc. pour arriver finalement à la nationalisation du pétrole. Néanmoins, l'économie se fondera sur une société clientéliste et non pas selon une approche moderne. En 1980, Saddam Hussein déclare la guerre à l'Iran face aux provocations de Khomeini et pour éviter la propagation de sa révolution. Une alliance est mise en place entre la Syrie, l'Iran et le Hezbollah contre l'Irak. Au final plus d’un demi-million de soldats seront morts pour chacun des camps. La guerre ne donnera lieu à aucune réparation et n’induit aucun changement territorial. L’Iran accepte en 1988 le cessez-le-feu proposé par le Conseil de Sécurité, l’utilisation par l’Irak d’armes chimiques comme première étape d’une escalade de la violence du conflit.

En 1990, Saddam Hussein déclare la guerre au Koweït selon des revendications territoriales. La guerre onusienne est en réalité américaine, l'embargo produit des conséquences terribles. Avec la présidence Bush, l'imaginaire de l'Irak comme point de « l'axe du Mal » se renforce, d'autant plus avec les attentats du 11 septembre. Ce chaos sera le berceau du nouveau djihadisme représenté par Daesh/Al Quaida. Les Américains vont "débaasiser" l'Irak en démontant toute l'administration et l'armée : le pays est plongé dans le chaos. Les Chiites commencent à reprendre le contrôle du pays, les autres populations sont marginalisées dès le retrait en 2009 des Américains.

Israël

Le pays a été créé par décret ou par révolution, selon le point de vue. La déclaration de Balfour est primordiale pour comprendre la fondation de cet État. On peut retracer l'origine du conflit à travers celle-ci selon les historiens, qui pourraient même être datés: le 2 novembre 1917, date de la rédaction. Dans ce document, les populations non-juives ne sont pas nommées. Les intérêts britanniques ont joué un rôle prédominant dans le processus.

Néanmoins, le conflit ne commence pas dans le vide. Jérusalem a toujours connu une population juive, tout comme le nord du territoire. Dès les années 1800-1830, de plus en plus de populations juives vont quitter l'Europe pour la Palestine : le processus s'accélère notamment à cause des persécutions sous l'empire tsariste visant à réprimer la renaissance juive, Askala (Ashkénaze. La communauté souhaite faire revivre la culture et la tradition en s'intéressant notamment à la langue, Eliseth Beskeouda étant à l'origine de l'hébreu moderne.

Une partie de la population va émigrer aux USA. Léon Pinsker, médecin, réfléchit beaucoup à la question et pose les premières bases de l'idée de fondation d'un foyer national. Théodore Herzl, journaliste et écrivain austro-hongrois, va pousser cette idée encore plus loin en imaginant fonder ce foyer en France : l'affaire Dreyfus va entacher ses plans, preuve de l'antisémitisme récurrent à cette époque.

Selon l'histoire religieuse, les juifs sont tenus responsables depuis des siècles de la mort de Jésus ("le peuple déicide") par les chrétiens. Les manifestations de l'antisémitisme se déroulent dans un contexte socio-économique bien précis : au Moyen-Âge, les juifs ne peuvent travailler avec des chrétiens. Dès le 19ème siècle, l'antisémitisme devient "moderne", car trouvent ses racines sur une base raciale uniquement.

Vers la fin du 19ème siècle, le programme "Rovere Zion" (les amants de Zion) est créer, le congrès à Bâle est organisé en 1897 : les idées de Herzl sont discutées, on parle de migrer en Palestine. Entre 1903 et 1914, 30'000 juifs arrivent sur le territoire et créent la ville de Tel-Aviv. Les Kibboutz sont imaginés à cette période: des petits villages autonomes, dont la sécurité est très primordiale. Entre 1921 et 1931, 150'000 personnes arrivent en Palestine.

Les tensions se manifestent dès la déclaration de Balfour: de nombreux massacres entre les populations ont lieu. Cela débouche sur la création d'une force armée sioniste, la Hagana. Les milieux sionistes vont collaborer avec les puissances mandataires, ce qui provoque la colère des Arabes. Par ailleurs, l'Agence juive est mise en place pour coordonner le processus – l'achat de propriétés foncières en particulier.

Dès 1937, la Grande-Bretagne reconnaît son incapacité à gérer la situation sur place: ce sont les premiers signes du désengagement. La Société des Nations prend le relais et propose le premier plan de partage issu de la commission Peel. Cela provoque de nouvelles tensions, on assiste à l'émergence de formations extrémistes, des attentats sont fomentés. Un nouveau plan de partage est proposé en 1947, refusé par les arabes, car ne respectant pas leurs revendications.

En mai 1948, Israël déclare son indépendance alors que les Anglais quittent le territoire. Une coalition armée de pays arabes (Transjordanie, Syrie et Égypte) déclare la guerre à l’État juif. Alors que les Arabes prenaient l’avantage, les rapports de force s’échangent – l’URSS soutenant Israël pour chasser définitivement les Anglais du territoire. Le conflit se termine par le cessez-le-feu conclu entre février et juillet 1949.

En juin 1967, la guerre des Six Jours se déclare entre les mêmes protagonistes en plus du Liban, Israël ressortant vainqueur du conflit, triplant son emprise territoriale. – l’Égypte perdant la bande de Gaza et la péninsule du Sinaï. En 1973, guerre du Kippour. En 1979, les accords de Camp David sont négociés en secret entre Israël, l’Égypte (Sadate) et les États-Unis comme médiateurs (Jimmy Carter) et débouchent le premier traité de paix entre Israël et l’Égypte.

Actuellement, l’un des points centraux de la lutte palestinienne consiste en la reconnaissance du droit de retour des réfugiés.