Perspectives on the studies, issues and problems of international history

Based on a lesson by Ludovic Tournès

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Introduction to the history of international relations

Perspectives on the studies, issues and problems of international history ● Europe at the centre of the world: from the end of the 19th century to 1918 ● The era of the superpowers: 1918 - 1989 ● A multipolar world: 1989 - 2011 ● The International System in Historical Context: Perspectives and Interpretations ● The beginnings of the contemporary international system: 1870 - 1939 ● World War II and the remaking of the world order: 1939 - 1947 ● The international system in the test of bipolarisation: 1947 - 1989

The history of international relations is the study of the interactions between nations and international actors over time. It explores the events, policies, conflicts, alliances and changes that have shaped the global landscape.

International relations can be traced back to antiquity, when city-states and empires established diplomatic, commercial and military relations with each other. However, it was from the European Renaissance and the emergence of modern nation-states that the study of international relations developed.

In the seventeenth century, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked an important turning point by ending the Thirty Years' War in Europe and establishing the principle of state sovereignty. This laid the foundations for the system of sovereign nation states that still dominates today.

In the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution and imperialism profoundly transformed international relations. European nations extended their power and influence across the world, colonising vast territories in Africa, Asia and the Americas. This led to imperial rivalries, economic competition and geopolitical tensions, which eventually culminated in the two world wars of the 20th century.

The First World War (1914-1918) was triggered by a series of factors, including rivalries between the major European powers, military alliances, national tensions and territorial disputes. The war resulted in massive loss of life and destruction. It also contributed to the emergence of new international actors, such as the United States and the Soviet Union.

The inter-war period was a time of tension and instability, marked by economic, political and territorial crises, including the Great Depression and the rise of totalitarian movements. Efforts to maintain international peace led to the creation of the League of Nations, the first international organisation to prevent conflict. However, its limitations were highlighted by the outbreak of the Second World War (1939-1945).

The Second World War was a major global conflict, involving most of the world's nations. It was triggered by the expansionist ambitions of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime in Europe, as well as tensions between the great powers. The conflict resulted in massive loss of life, the Holocaust, the use of nuclear weapons in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and the division of the world into ideological blocs, with the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union following. The Cold War (1947-1991) was a period of ideological, political and military confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, the two superpowers of the time. It was characterised by intense but indirect rivalry rather than direct military confrontation.

The Cold War was fuelled by deep ideological differences between the two sides. The United States defended the capitalist system and liberal democracy, while the Soviet Union promoted communism and socialism. These two ideologies were incompatible and both superpowers sought to extend their influence and convince other nations to adopt their political and economic model.

The Cold War manifested itself through various means. The nuclear arms race was one of the most worrying aspects, with the United States and the Soviet Union developing massive arsenals of nuclear weapons, creating a balance of terror known as 'mutual deterrence'. The two superpowers also supported proxy wars in third countries, notably the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1955-1975), where they supported North Korea and North Vietnam respectively.

Military alliances were formed on both sides to strengthen their position. The United States created the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949, bringing together Western countries to defend themselves against possible Soviet aggression. In response, the Soviet Union formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, which brought together the Eastern European countries under its influence.

The Cold War was also marked by major international crises. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 was one of the most tense moments of this period, when the Soviet Union deployed nuclear missiles in Cuba, directly threatening the United States. This crisis was resolved through intense negotiations and compromise between the two countries.

The Cold War finally ended with the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Economic pressures, internal problems and political reforms weakened the communist regime, leading to the collapse of the Soviet Union and ending the bipolar confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union.

The end of the Cold War opened up new challenges and opportunities in international relations. It ushered in a period of increasing globalisation, geopolitical realignments and the emergence of new powers. However, the consequences of the Cold War continue to influence international dynamics and world politics.

What is international relations?

The definition of international relations may vary according to different perspectives and schools of thought in political science. However, in general, international relations refers to the study of interactions between international actors, such as states, international organisations, multinational corporations, non-governmental groups and individuals, within the context of the international system.

International relations examines the political, economic, social and cultural dynamics that influence the interactions between international actors. It covers issues such as diplomacy, armed conflict, international cooperation, international trade, international organisations, international treaties and agreements, human rights, the global environment, international security, migration, economic development, inter-state relations, and many others.

It seeks to understand how international actors interact, negotiate, cooperate or confront each other to promote national interests, defend sovereignty, seek security, build alliances, resolve disputes, or promote common global norms and values. It also looks at the structures and institutions that influence these interactions, such as international systems, international regimes, international organisations and multilateral forums.

International relations attempts to explain the causes of international events and phenomena, to analyse the motivations of international actors, to study the impacts of international policies and actions, and to propose strategies and solutions to global challenges and problems.

International relations is an evolving discipline, adapting to changes in the international system, new geopolitical realities and emerging challenges. Academic debates and theoretical approaches within the discipline contribute to enriching the understanding of international relations and to guiding the policies and actions of international actors.

The traditional understanding: inter-state political relations

In the traditional understanding, international relations is often defined as political relations between states, focusing on the interactions between states and governments. This perspective emphasises the diplomatic, political and military aspects of international relations.

Within this framework, international relations are studied by focusing on state behaviour, such as diplomatic negotiations, international treaties and agreements, alliances, geopolitical rivalries, armed conflicts and national security strategies. Issues of sovereignty, territoriality, balance of power and foreign policy are also central to this approach.

International institutions, such as international organisations, play an important role in inter-state political relations by facilitating cooperation and conflict resolution between states. Embassies, diplomatic missions and treaties are key instruments in the management of bilateral and multilateral relations.

The analysis of interstate political relations is often based on explanatory theories and models, such as realism, liberalism, constructivism and neo-institutionalism. These theoretical approaches seek to understand the motivations and interests of states, the structural constraints of the international system and the norms and ideas that shape political interactions between states.

However, it should be noted that the evolution of the international system and increasing globalisation have broadened the scope of the study of international relations beyond inter-state political relations alone. Areas such as the international economy, the global environment, human rights, transnational migration and relations between non-state actors have gained in importance and have broadened the contemporary understanding of international relations.

Recent enlargements (economic, cultural, social issues, etc.)

Recent expansions in the study of international relations have incorporated economic, cultural and social dimensions, reflecting developments in the contemporary world.

International economic relations have been central to the study of international relations since the 20th century. Trade, foreign investment, globalisation of financial markets, international economic policies and global economic organisations are all taken into account in the analysis of international relations. Economic theories, such as economic liberalism, mercantilism and dependency theory, are applied to understand the economic dynamics between states and international economic actors.

Cultural and social issues have also been integrated into the study of international relations. Cultural exchange, migration movements, civil society interactions, human rights, cultural diversity, media influence and international social norms have all become integral parts of international relations. Constructivist theories, which emphasise the role of ideas, norms and identities in international relations, have helped to broaden the scope of cultural and social analysis.

In addition, international relations also takes into account social issues, such as economic development, poverty reduction, global inequalities, global health, education and the environment. Transnational issues, such as climate change, pandemics, organised crime, terrorism and forced migration, are also addressed in international relations.

These recent expansions reflect the recognition of the increasing interconnectedness of global issues and the importance of interactions between non-state actors, such as non-governmental organisations, multinational companies, social movements and individuals. They reflect a more holistic and multidimensional approach to the study of international relations, taking into account the multiple facets of contemporary international life.

Other actors: NGOs, IGOs, regional unions

The evolution of international relations has led to the increasing recognition of the role of non-state and intergovernmental actors, such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), as well as regional unions.

NGOs are non-state actors that play an important role in international relations. They include civil society groups, humanitarian organisations, human rights organisations, environmental organisations, lobby groups and other non-governmental entities. NGOs have the capacity to influence the policies and actions of states and international organisations, participate in international negotiations and provide humanitarian assistance and support to vulnerable communities around the world.

Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and many others, are institutions composed of member states that work together on specific issues. They facilitate cooperation and coordination between states in various areas, such as security, economics, environment, human rights and global health. IGOs have a role in regulation, mediation, conflict resolution and the provision of global public goods.

Regional unions, such as the European Union (EU), are regional organisations that bring together several states from the same geographical region. These unions aim to promote regional integration, economic, political and social cooperation between member states. They may have common institutions, common policies and collective decision-making mechanisms. Regional unions have emerged in different parts of the world, such as the EU in Europe, the African Union (AU) in Africa, the Organisation of American States (OAS) in the Americas, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in Asia.

The recognition of these non-state and intergovernmental actors and regional unions reflects an awareness of the importance of transnational participation and cooperation in solving global problems and promoting common interests. This contributes to a more complex and diverse vision of international relations, where state and non-state actors interact and collaborate to shape the global order.

The contribution of history (how these structures are organised over time)

History plays an essential role in understanding international relations. It provides a chronological perspective and a long-term study that complements political science approaches.

History traces the evolution of international relations over a wider time period, highlighting trends, key events, structural changes and interactions between international actors. It provides a historical context for understanding the current dynamics and contemporary challenges facing international relations.

History allows the analysis of the processes of formation and transformation of international structures and institutions, such as alliances, international organisations, regional unions and international treaties. It highlights the historical, political, economic, cultural and social factors that have shaped these structures over time.

By studying the history of international relations, one can also identify continuities and breaks in the behaviour of international actors. We can observe how political, economic, military and cultural relations have evolved, transformed or endured over time. This allows us to understand long-term trends, cycles, crises and structural transformations in the international system.

Furthermore, history provides valuable lessons and insights to guide policy decisions and actions of international actors. It helps to identify past mistakes, successes and failures of past policies, and to draw lessons for future strategies and policies.

The interaction between history and political science in the study of international relations allows for a multidisciplinary and holistic approach. It offers a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the issues, actors and dynamics that shape international relations, taking into account both structural and conjunctural factors, as well as historical and contemporary influences.

The problem of the course: the unprecedented complexity of international relations in the 21st century

Multiplication of problems

A multiplication and a complexification of problems in international relations marked the 20th century. While international relations were mainly centred on the political field until the end of the 19th century, new issues and challenges emerged and imposed themselves during the 20th century.

The emergence of economic issues was one of the central elements of international relations in the 20th century. With increasing globalisation, trade, foreign investment, international economic policies and financial crises have significantly impacted relations between states. Issues of international trade, economic development, global inequality, financial regulation and economic cooperation have gained in importance and have required special attention in the analysis of international relations.

Nuclear weapons are another example of the increasing complexity of international relations in the 20th century. Technological advances have enabled the development and proliferation of nuclear weapons, creating a dynamic of mutual deterrence among nuclear powers and growing international security concerns. Issues of nuclear arms control, non-proliferation, disarmament and nuclear security have become crucial issues in international relations.

Environmental issues have also emerged as major concerns in international relations in the 20th century. Growing awareness of challenges such as climate change, environmental degradation, biodiversity loss and pollution has led to a recognition of the interdependence of states and the global consequences of these problems. International negotiations, such as climate agreements, aim to coordinate international efforts to address these environmental challenges.

Other issues have also emerged and imposed themselves on international relations, such as human rights, migration, terrorism, cyber-attacks, pandemics, regional conflicts, humanitarian crises, etc. These issues have made international relations more complex. These issues have made international relations more complex by widening the range of problems to be solved and by requiring closer international cooperation.

The increasing complexity of international relations in the 20th century reflects the profound social, technological, economic and political changes that have marked this period. It highlights the increasing interconnectedness of global problems and the need for international co-operation and co-ordination to address them. It has also led to an evolution in the study of international relations, increasingly integrating these multidimensional issues and promoting a holistic approach to global challenges.

Globalisation of issues

The 20th century marked a major transition in international relations, with an increasing globalisation of issues. Until the beginning of the 20th century, international relations were mainly centred on the interactions between the European powers. Europe was the home of the great powers and the main theatre of international affairs.

However, in the twentieth century, international problems began to take on a global dimension, extending beyond European borders and involving more and more international actors. Several factors contributed to this globalisation of problems:

1. The two world wars: The two world wars encompassed a large part of the world, involving many non-European countries. These conflicts showed that international problems were not limited to Europe and had lasting global consequences.
2. Decolonisation: During the 20th century, decolonisation movements intensified, leading to the independence of many countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America. This broadened the international scene by adding new actors and highlighting the specific problems faced by these countries.
3. The emergence of non-European superpowers: In the aftermath of the Second World War, the United States and the Soviet Union became the two global superpowers, replacing Europe as the main actors in international relations. This bipolarity expanded the arena of international affairs on a global scale.
4. Technological advances and communications: Technological advances, such as transportation, communications and media, brought continents closer together and allowed for faster and more extensive exchanges between countries. This has facilitated the spread of ideas, values, information and issues around the world.

Thus, in the twentieth century, international issues have gone beyond Europe and have become increasingly global. Economic, political, social, environmental, security and cultural issues have become globalised, requiring broader and more complex international co-operation to address them. This development has led to a redefinition of international relations as a field of study and has posed new challenges and opportunities for international actors.

Multiplication of actors

A key aspect of the increasing complexity of international relations in the twentieth century is the multiplication of actors. Whereas at the beginning of the 20th century the game of international relations was dominated by a limited number of European powers, today's global landscape includes 196 internationally recognised states, representing a significant multiplication of state actors.

In addition to states, there is also a proliferation of non-state actors that cut across different domains and regions of the world. These non-state actors include non-governmental organisations (NGOs), multinational corporations, international media, think tanks, social movements, terrorist networks, transnational criminal organisations, and many others.

Non-state actors have become increasingly influential in international relations, often filling gaps left by states. They can mobilise resources, act quickly and effectively, and address specific problems in innovative ways. NGOs, for example, play a crucial role in humanitarian, environmental, human rights and global governance issues. Multinational companies also have a significant economic and political impact, influencing national and international policies.

This proliferation of non-state actors adds a further layer of complexity to international relations. The interactions between state and non-state actors and between different non-state actors can create complex and sometimes contradictory dynamics. The interests, objectives and decision-making mechanisms of these actors can vary considerably, making coordination and problem-solving more complex.

Moreover, the globalisation of communications and transport has facilitated exchanges and interactions between these many actors around the world, contributing to increased trade and greater interconnection. International problems can spread more rapidly and reach wider, requiring extensive international cooperation and coordination to address them.

Ultimately, the multiplication of actors in international relations reflects the reality of an increasingly interconnected and complex world. This raises challenges, but also offers opportunities to address global issues in a more collaborative and inclusive manner.

Growing interdependence

Since the 19th century, there has been an extraordinary expansion in the means of communication, which has led to increasing global interdependence. During this period, technological advances, such as the development of railways, telegraph, telephone, aviation, television, internet and social media, have revolutionised communications and brought people and societies around the world closer together.

In the 19th century, the development of railways and the telegraph allowed for an unprecedented acceleration in the exchange of information and travel, reducing distances and communication delays between regions of the world. This led to the expansion of international trade, the intensification of political and economic relations, and the spread of ideas and knowledge on a faster and wider scale.

The period between 1860 and 1914 was marked by increasing interdependence, partly due to advances in communications. Trade networks expanded, investment flows increased, diplomatic links strengthened and cultural exchanges intensified. However, this interdependence was disrupted by the two world wars and rising geopolitical tensions.

Since the 1970s, with the advent of computers, the internet and digital communications, the world has experienced a new revolution in communication. Interdependence has increased exponentially due to the speed and accessibility of global communications. Information flows almost instantaneously, allowing individuals, organisations and governments to connect, share ideas, conduct business, coordinate actions and engage in transnational interactions.

This growing interdependence has profound implications for international relations. The decisions and actions of one country can have repercussions in other parts of the world. Global issues, such as climate change, security, economics, health, migration and terrorism, are interconnected and require increased international cooperation to be addressed effectively.

However, it should be noted that despite this growing interdependence, there are still inequalities and disparities in access to and use of communication technologies, creating digital gaps between countries and within societies. This can create power imbalances and challenges in managing this global interdependence.

In sum, the expansion of the means of communication has contributed to a growing global interdependence, transforming international relations into a complex network of links and interactions. This interdependence underlines the need for

The omnipotence of states is being challenged

The omnipotence of states is increasingly being questioned in the current context of international relations. While states have traditionally been seen as the main actors and sovereign decision-makers, their central position is increasingly being challenged by other non-state actors.

Non-governmental actors, such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs), multinational companies, think tanks and social movements, have gained increasing influence in international affairs. They can act independently of states, influence the policies and actions of governments, and play an active role in shaping international agendas.

NGOs, for example, can promote specific causes, defend human rights, fight inequality, advocate for the environment and provide humanitarian assistance. They can mobilise public opinion, lobby governments and participate in international negotiations. Similarly, multinational companies can exert significant economic and political influence, investing in different countries, influencing trade policies and shaping global norms.

The rise of these non-state actors challenges the decision-making monopoly of states. The processes of globalisation, the rapid spread of information, the ease of transnational communication and technological advances have created opportunities for these non-state actors to engage directly in international affairs.

However, this does not necessarily mean that states have lost their power and central role. States remain the primary holders of sovereign power, they have resources and coercive capabilities, and they continue to have a significant impact on international relations. Governments have the primary responsibility for making political decisions, representing their countries on the international stage and ensuring the security and well-being of their citizens.

It is important to note that the relationship between states and non-state actors can be complex and evolving. States may collaborate with non-state actors, consult them in the decision-making process, or, on the contrary, seek to control or limit them. The dynamics between these actors are often influenced by specific political, economic, legal and cultural factors.

In sum, the challenge to the omnipotence of states is a reality in the contemporary landscape of international relations. Non-state actors play an increasing role, but this does not mean that states have lost their importance. Rather, it is a redefinition of the relations of power and influence in an increasingly complex and interconnected world.