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In terms of religious practices, Judaism is diverse. Orthodox practices adhere strictly to Jewish laws and traditions, while Reform or Liberal (also known as Progressive or Moderate) movements tend to adopt more flexible interpretations and practices. There are also conservative and reconstructionist movements, which seek a balance between adherence to tradition and adaptation to contemporary realities. This diversity reflects Judaism's ability to evolve and adapt while preserving its identity and fundamental values. Different Jewish communities around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or of other origins, have contributed to the rich tapestry of Jewish culture and tradition, each bringing its own unique perspectives and experiences. | In terms of religious practices, Judaism is diverse. Orthodox practices adhere strictly to Jewish laws and traditions, while Reform or Liberal (also known as Progressive or Moderate) movements tend to adopt more flexible interpretations and practices. There are also conservative and reconstructionist movements, which seek a balance between adherence to tradition and adaptation to contemporary realities. This diversity reflects Judaism's ability to evolve and adapt while preserving its identity and fundamental values. Different Jewish communities around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or of other origins, have contributed to the rich tapestry of Jewish culture and tradition, each bringing its own unique perspectives and experiences. | ||
== | ==The Origins and Branches of Christianity== | ||
=== | === The expansion of Christianity in the Roman Empire === | ||
Christianity is centred on the figure of Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians recognise as the Messiah (the Christ) and the Son of God. His birth, life, teaching, death and resurrection are at the heart of the Christian faith. | |||
According to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem, a small town in Judea. The accounts of his birth are recounted in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, which mention the virgin birth of Mary, his mother, and the announcement of his birth by angels as an event of great importance. Jesus spent most of his life in the region of Galilee, preaching a message of love, compassion and repentance, calling for spiritual renewal and a personal relationship with God. He gathered a group of disciples around him and performed various miracles, according to the Gospel accounts. | |||
His crucifixion in Jerusalem is a central moment in Christianity. Christians believe that through his death, Jesus offered the ultimate sacrifice for the forgiveness of humanity's sins, and that his resurrection three days later offers the promise of salvation and eternal life. This event is commemorated every year at the Christian Easter. Christianity began as a movement within Judaism in the 1st century, but quickly spread to other, mainly non-Jewish, populations throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The figure of Jesus and his teachings have had a profound influence on human history, shaping not only the Christian religion but also many aspects of Western and world civilisation. | |||
=== Legalisation and institutionalisation of Christianity === | |||
Under Emperor Constantine I, with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire, putting an end to official persecution. Later, under Emperor Theodosius I in 380 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica. This imperial recognition profoundly transformed Christianity, allowing it to spread and influence all aspects of Roman society. However, this integration of Christianity into imperial power structures also created tensions and divergences within the Christian community. Some Christian communities sought to distance themselves from the official Church and the Empire, either because of theological differences or in response to what they perceived as the corruption or politicisation of their faith. These groups, often labelled sects or heresies by the official Church, sought to preserve a form of Christianity that they considered more authentic or faithful to the original teachings of Jesus and the apostles. | |||
Such differences led to various schisms and movements within Christianity, some of which persisted for centuries. These divisions were exacerbated by theological debates (such as the nature of the Trinity or the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus), cultural and linguistic differences, and political conflicts within the Empire. The integration of Christianity into the structure of the Roman Empire therefore had a complex impact: it enabled an unprecedented expansion and institutionalisation of the religion, but also sowed the seeds of internal divisions that would continue to shape the history of Christianity in the centuries that followed. | |||
The debate over the nature of Jesus is one of the greatest and most significant in the history of Christianity. This theological question, which concerns the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus, was at the heart of many controversies and led to several major councils in the early Church. The main question was how Jesus could be both fully divine and fully human. This issue was first significantly addressed at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, where the doctrine of the Trinity began to take shape. The Nicene Creed, resulting from this Council, affirmed that Jesus was "of the same substance" (homoousios) as the Father, thus establishing his full divinity. However, this declaration did not put an end to the debate. Over the following centuries, different schools of thought emerged. Two of the most influential were Arianism, which held that Jesus, although divine, was not of the same substance as the Father, and was therefore inferior to him; and Nestorianism, which taught that the divine and human natures of Jesus were separate and distinct. | |||
These debates reached their climax at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, which resulted in the formulation of the so-called "double nature" of Christ: Jesus was recognised as being both fully divine and fully human, the two natures being united in one person without being mixed, confused or separated. This doctrine is known as Chalcedonian Christology. This debate about the nature of Jesus was not just an abstract theological question; it had major political, social and cultural repercussions in the Roman Empire and beyond. Disagreements over these issues led to schisms within the Church and were even the cause of conflict and persecution. The way in which the various Christian communities responded to these issues significantly shaped the evolution of Christianity in the centuries that followed. | |||
=== The Council of Nicaea and the Formation of Christian Doctrine === | |||
The Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD, was a crucial moment in the history of Christianity for several reasons. It was the first ecumenical council, bringing together bishops from all over the Roman Empire to debate and decide on central theological issues. The main issue at stake was to respond to Arianism, a doctrine promoted by Arius, a priest from Alexandria, who maintained that Jesus was not of the same substance as God the Father, but was rather a creature created by God and inferior to him. The Council of Nicaea rejected Arianism and affirmed that Jesus was "consubstantial" (of the same substance) with the Father, thus affirming his full divinity. This decision was codified in the Nicene Creed, which became a fundamental statement of the Christian faith. | |||
However, the Nicene decision did not resolve all the controversies. It led to the formation of different interpretations and churches, particularly between the Church of the East and the Church of the West. These differences were linked not only to theological issues, but also to linguistic, cultural and political ones. The Jacobites, for example, followed the teachings of James Baradai and were associated with the Syriac Orthodox Church. They rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), which had elaborated further on the nature of Christ by affirming that he had two natures, divine and human, united in one person. The Jacobites and other groups, such as the Nestorians and Monophysites, formed their own distinct ecclesiastical communities, often in opposition to the doctrines established by the dominant imperial and ecclesiastical authorities. | |||
Image:Nicaea icon.jpg| | |||
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png| | These divisions and controversies within Christianity significantly shaped the evolution of the religion, leading to a complex mosaic of Christian traditions around the world. These different communities have maintained their own theological interpretations, liturgical practices and organisational structures, contributing to the rich and sometimes conflicting diversity of Christianity over the centuries. | ||
=== The Council of Chalcedon and Dyophysite Christology === | |||
The Council of Chalcedon, held in 451 AD, is a major event in the history of Christianity, as it tackled head-on the complex question of the nature of Christ. This Council is often regarded as the culmination of the Christological debates that ran through the Christian Church for several centuries. The decision of the Council of Chalcedon established that Jesus Christ possesses two distinct natures - divine and human - united in a single person (hypostasis). This formulation is known as "Dyophysite Christology". According to this doctrine, the two natures of Christ coexist without confusion, without change, without division and without separation. This meant that, although Christ is fully God and fully man, his two natures do not mix, thus preserving both his complete divinity and his complete humanity. | |||
This Council was crucial in establishing an orthodoxy accepted by the majority of Christians, but it also led to significant divisions. Several Churches, notably some Eastern Churches, rejected the decisions of Chalcedon. These churches are often called "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" and include the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church and others. These communities maintained their own understanding of the nature of Christ, often focusing on the unity of his divine and human natures. The Council of Chalcedon thus marks a pivotal moment in the history of Christianity, establishing a fundamental doctrine for many Christian churches, while at the same time creating lasting schisms with other communities that did not accept its conclusions. These Christological divisions remain an important facet of the differences between the various Christian traditions to this day. | |||
<gallery mode="packed" widths="300px" heights="300px"> | |||
Image:Nicaea icon.jpg|Emperor Constantine (centre), with the bishops of the Council of Nicaea (325), anachronistically holding the text of the "Nicaea-Constantinople symbol" in its Greek liturgical form, based on the text adopted at the first Council of Constantinople (381). | |||
Fichier:Great Schism 1054 with former borders.png|The separation of the Eastern (blue) and Western (orange) Churches from 1054. | |||
</gallery> | </gallery> | ||
=== Implications | === Political and Cultural Implications of Theological Divergences === | ||
The Great Schism of 1054, marking the separation between the Church of the East, later known as the Orthodox Church, and the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, represented a historic turning point in Christianity. This rupture was not an isolated event, but rather the culmination of a long period of growing divergence between the two branches of Christianity. At the heart of these differences were profound theological and ecclesiastical disputes. One major point of contention concerned the question of papal authority. The Church of Rome, with figures such as Pope Leo IX, claimed supreme authority over all the Christian churches, a position contested by the Church of the East. The Patriarchate of Constantinople, under leaders such as Michael Cerularus, rejected the idea of centralised authority and advocated a more collegial approach. | |||
Another key point of contention was the addition of the "Filioque" to the Nicene Creed by the Church of the West. This change, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father "and from the Son", was seen by the Church of the East as an unacceptable alteration of a doctrine established at the first ecumenical councils. This debate reflected wider differences in understanding of the Trinity and the nature of God. Beyond theological issues, cultural and political differences also played a role. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of the Byzantine Empire had created a gulf between the two regions. Linguistic differences, with Latin predominating in the West and Greek in the East, also contributed to a growing cultural divide. | |||
The symbolic event that marked the culmination of these tensions was the mutual excommunication of 1054. Legates sent by Pope Leo IX to Constantinople excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularus, who responded by excommunicating the legates. Although this excommunication was the most dramatic gesture, it represented the culmination of a long series of disagreements and misunderstandings. The Great Schism had profound repercussions on the subsequent development of Christianity, solidifying the division between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. This division, rooted in theological, cultural and political differences, has shaped not only religious history but also the political and cultural trajectories of Europe and the surrounding regions. Efforts have been made in modern times towards dialogue and reconciliation, but the divisions of the Schism of 1054 continue to influence the world's religious and cultural landscape. | |||
=== Protestantism and the Reformation: Transforming Christianity === | |||
In the 16th century, Christianity was profoundly transformed by the emergence of Protestantism, a movement that challenged the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the Protestant Reformation. This period marked a crucial turning point in Europe's religious history and had lasting global repercussions. The genesis of Protestantism is often attributed to Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian. In 1517, Luther posted his "95 Theses" on the door of the church in Wittenberg, criticising various aspects of the Catholic Church, including the sale of indulgences. His writings circulated rapidly, fuelled by the recent invention of the printing press, and resonated with a public increasingly dissatisfied with certain Church practices. | |||
Luther | Luther challenged key doctrines of the Catholic Church, such as the authority of the Pope and the efficacy of works for salvation, advocating instead justification by faith alone ('sola fide') and the authority of Scripture alone ('sola scriptura'). These ideas challenged the foundations of the Catholic Church and initiated a series of religious reforms across Europe. Other key figures in the Protestant Reformation included Jean Calvin in Geneva, who developed a theological system known as Calvinism, and Huldrych Zwingli in Zurich. Each of these reformers helped shape various strands of Protestantism, which then spawned a multitude of denominations, including Lutherans, Reformed, Presbyterians and Anabaptists, among others. | ||
The Reformation brought about profound changes not only in the religious sphere, but also in the political, cultural and social spheres. It led to religious wars throughout Europe, changes in political power structures, and had an influence on education, literature and the arts. The Protestant Reformation also paved the way for the expansion of Christianity around the world, particularly through missionary activities in the European colonies. Thus, the 16th century was a period of major transformation for Christianity, with Protestantism challenging the established structures of the Church and redefining the way in which many Christians understood their faith and practised their religion. | |||
Throughout the complex history of Christianity, there have been times when some Eastern Churches have established links with the Roman Catholic Church, leading to Christian communities that combine elements of Eastern and Western traditions. These Churches, often called Eastern Catholic Churches or Uniate Churches, have retained their liturgical rites and Eastern cultural heritage while accepting the authority of the Pope and certain Roman Catholic doctrines. This movement towards union with Rome has been motivated by various factors, including political considerations, desires for support in the face of external pressure, and theological and ecclesiastical interests. A notable example is the Union of Brest in 1596, when certain bishops of the Orthodox Church in Poland-Lithuania agreed to union with the Roman Catholic Church, forming the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Similarly, the Maronite Catholic Church in Lebanon has long maintained communion with Rome while preserving its Eastern liturgical and spiritual traditions. | |||
As far as Christian demographics over the centuries are concerned, it is true that in some regions, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa, the proportion of Christians to the total population has declined over time. This decline can be attributed to various factors, such as conversions, migrations, political changes, and social and economic pressures. For example, after the Muslim conquest of the Middle East, many Christians gradually adopted the Islamic language and religion, although Christian communities continued to exist in the region. However, on a global scale, Christianity expanded significantly, largely as a result of missionary movements and European colonisation between the 16th and 20th centuries. Today, Christianity remains one of the world's major religions, with a substantial presence on every continent. It is important to note that, despite the challenges and changes, Christian communities have continued to preserve their faith and traditions, often in very diverse cultural and political contexts. Christianity's ability to adapt and transform while preserving its core beliefs is a notable aspect of its history. | |||
==Les Principes et les Courants de l'Islam== | ==Les Principes et les Courants de l'Islam== | ||
Version du 23 décembre 2023 à 14:28
Based on a course by Yilmaz Özcan.[1][2]
The Middle East region, the cradle of ancient civilisations and crossroads of historic trade routes, is characterised by remarkable linguistic, religious and cultural diversity. This diversity is the fruit of a rich and complex history, shaped by countless peoples, empires and movements.
Linguistically, the Middle East is a patchwork of languages, with Arabic predominating in countries such as Egypt and Saudi Arabia. Persian, or Farsi, is a linguistic mainstay of Iran, reflecting the heritage of the Persian Empire, while Turkish, the official language of Turkey, bears witness to Ottoman influence. Hebrew, an ancestral language that underwent a unique resurrection with the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, and Kurdish, spoken in regions ranging from northern Iraq to south-eastern Turkey, complete the linguistic landscape. Religiously, Islam dominates, with branches such as Sunnism and Shiism. Historical figures such as Caliph Omar, who reigned from 634 to 644 AD, and Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammed, embody the beginnings of these divisions. Christianity, which has been present since its origins, has seen communities such as the Copts in Egypt endure despite political and social changes. In Israel, Judaism is central, illustrated by historical figures such as David Ben-Gurion, the main founder of the State of Israel.
Middle Eastern culture, deeply influenced by these linguistic and religious diversities, is rich in artistic, musical and culinary expression. For example, Islamic art, with its complex geometric patterns, reflects religious prohibitions on figurative representations. Classical Arabic music, carried by icons such as Oum Kalthoum, has influenced regional culture far beyond linguistic borders. Festivities such as Ramadan and Persian Nowruz are examples of how religious and cultural traditions have intertwined to form unique practices.
Linguistic Diversity in the Middle East
The linguistic diversity of the Middle East is one of its most distinctive features, illustrated by the presence of three major language families: Ural-Altaic, Indo-European and Semitic.
Linguistic Panorama of the Middle East
The Ural-Altaic family encompasses languages spoken in much of Asia and parts of Eastern Europe. In the context of the Middle East, this family is mainly represented by Turkish, the official language of Turkey, which bears witness to the expansion of the Turkic peoples and the historical influence of the Ottoman Empire in the region. Other languages, such as Azeri, spoken in Azerbaijan and by certain communities in Iran, also belong to this family. The Indo-European family, which is one of the largest and most diverse in the world, includes languages such as Persian, Kurdish and Armenian. Persian, in particular, is of major historical and cultural importance, being the language of the ancient Persian Empire and modern Iran. Kurdish, spoken by the Kurdish people spread across Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey, and Armenian, the language of Armenia and the Armenian diaspora, complete this linguistic wealth. Finally, the family of Semitic languages is crucial in the context of the Middle East. Arabic, the language of the Koran and the lingua franca of many Arab countries, is the most widespread of this family. Hebrew, an ancient language which underwent a modern renaissance with the creation of the State of Israel, and other languages such as Aramaic and Assyrian, although less widely spoken, are of significant historical and cultural importance.
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This coloured map shows the languages spoken in the Middle East and illustrates the population density of the regions where these languages predominate. It distinguishes languages by linguistic family and by population concentration in the regions concerned.
The Expansion and Influence of the Arabic Language
The yellow areas represent densely populated regions where Arabic is predominant. This includes countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Jordan, Lebanon and others. Arabic is the main language of the Semitic language group and is spoken throughout the Arabian Peninsula and beyond. The map illustrates the predominance of the Arabic language in areas coloured yellow, indicating a high population density in these regions. The Arabic language, belonging to the Semitic group, is not only an official language but also an integral part of cultural and religious identity in the Middle East.
Arabic spread well beyond the Arabian Peninsula, notably through the Islamic conquests from the 7th century onwards, becoming one of the most influential languages in the region. It is now spoken in many countries in the Middle East and North Africa. In countries such as Egypt, where civilisation dates back thousands of years, Arabic has supplanted ancient languages such as Ancient Egyptian, becoming the language of the majority of the population. In Saudi Arabia, the cradle of Islam and site of the two holy cities of Mecca and Medina, Arabic is of particular importance both religiously and culturally. In other regions, such as Yemen and Jordan, Arabic is spoken in a variety of dialects, reflecting the intrinsic diversity of the language. Lebanon, known for its cultural and religious diversity, also has a mosaic of Arabic dialects, influenced by many other languages throughout its history. In this way, the map confirms that Arabic not only serves as a language of everyday communication, but also plays an essential role in the preservation and transmission of culture and history throughout the Middle East.
The Indo-European and Semitic Linguistic Mosaic
The green areas on the map indicate the presence of Indo-European languages, which bear witness to the ethnolinguistic and historical diversity of the Middle East. Persian, for example, is the official language of Iran and has considerable cultural and literary influence. It is a language that can be traced back to the ancient Achaemenid Empire, testifying to the historical depth of the region. Kurdish, meanwhile, is spoken in geographically discontinuous areas, mainly in the mountains of Kurdistan, which span several modern national borders, including Turkey, Iraq, Iran and Syria. Kurdish is the mother tongue of the Kurdish population, who have maintained their language and culture despite the pressure of assimilation and political change in the region. Armenian, spoken in Armenia and by the Armenian diaspora, is another important Indo-European language that has survived despite historical upheaval, including the Armenian genocide in the early 20th century. Armenian has its own unique alphabet, created in the 5th century, which is a key element of Armenian national identity. These 'islands' of Indo-European languages not only represent the geographical distribution of ethnic groups, but also reflect the complex migratory movements and historical interactions that have shaped the Middle East. Languages are vectors of culture and collective memory, and their distribution offers us a glimpse into the histories of resilience, adaptation and cultural preservation in a region marked by great dynamics of change.
The map highlights the regions where the Turkic languages, symbolised by different shades of red, are predominant. These languages belong to the Ural-Altaic language family and are spoken by peoples whose history and culture have been profoundly shaped by migration and the Turkic empires. Turkish, the national language of Turkey, is the most notable representative of this family and is the direct result of the legacy of the Ottoman Empire, which at its height extended over vast swathes of the Middle East, South-Eastern Europe and North Africa. The Ottoman Empire not only spread its language, but also its culture, administration and religious influence across its territories. Azeri, spoken in Azerbaijan and by some communities in Iran, is closely related to Turkish and represents another important branch of Turkic languages in the region. These communities share cultural and historical links with Turkey and other Turkic peoples.
Other Turkic languages, although less represented, are spoken in adjacent regions, including parts of Russia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. These languages, although distinct, share common features due to their similar origins and historical development. The presence of these Turkic languages bears witness to the impact of the nomadic population movements from the steppes of Central Asia, which crossed the Middle East and left an indelible linguistic and cultural mark on the region. These languages and their speakers continue to play an important role in the ethnic and cultural diversity of the modern Middle East.
The map highlights Caucasian and other minority languages, represented in shades of brown and grey, which reveal an often overlooked aspect of the Middle East's linguistic diversity. These languages are characteristic of regions which, although less densely populated, are rich in linguistic and cultural variety. The Caucasus is particularly notable for its linguistic complexity. Languages such as Georgian, which has its own unique writing system, Kartvelian, are endemic to this region. Georgia, with its distinct history and culture, is a striking example of how languages can encapsulate a nation's identity.
In addition to Georgian, there are other Caucasian languages that are spoken nowhere else in the world, such as Abkhazian and Ossetian. These languages, often geographically and historically isolated, have survived and developed independently, giving rise to unique linguistic features. Their survival testifies to the cultural resilience of the peoples of the Caucasus in the face of centuries of political and social change. Minority languages, on the other hand, may comprise linguistic varieties spoken by small communities and often reflect a rich cultural heritage and distinct traditions. Although these languages are less dominant in terms of the number of speakers, they play a crucial role in preserving the region's cultural diversity and intangible heritage. Thus, the distribution of Caucasian and minority languages on the map is a reminder that the Middle East is a region not only of conflict and trade, but also of profound linguistic and cultural richness, often overlooked in global narratives.
This map is not simply a snapshot of linguistic diversity; it also suggests histories of settlement, trade, conquest and culture. The distribution of languages and peoples in the Middle East has been influenced by geographical factors, historical empires, migratory movements and political change. Languages, as vehicles of culture, reflect these complex dynamics, and understanding them is essential to understanding the rich history and culture of the region. The languages represented on the map are not simply tools of communication; they embody the souls of the civilisations that speak them. Each language is the reflection of a cultural identity, carrying traditions, poetry, stories and philosophies that have been woven over the centuries. Persian literature, for example, is characterised by the works of poets such as Hafez and Rumi, who have influenced not only their native region but also world thought and literature.
Turkic languages, with epics such as Dede Korkut, convey the values and stories of the nomadic peoples of the steppes, and Caucasian languages have oral histories that bear witness to their resistance to conquest and empire. Even minority languages, which may only be spoken by small communities, are the repositories of unique cultures, offering a window onto ways of life and belief systems that are often distinct from those of the dominant cultures. The linguistic map of the Middle East is thus a living mosaic, with each colour representing not only a group of speakers, but also a chapter in human history. Migrations, conquests and trade have shaped this region, but it is the languages and cultures that have survived and continue to tell the story of its peoples. They are the link between past, present and future, perpetuating heritage and continuing to evolve through contemporary interactions.
Dialects and Minority Languages: A Living Cultural Heritage
The dialectal diversity within the majority languages of the Middle East is a richness that is often underestimated. Take Turkish for example; although there is a standard language taught in schools and used in the media and politics, many regional dialects co-exist and reflect the history and culture of different parts of Turkey. These dialects can vary considerably from standard Turkish in terms of pronunciation, vocabulary and even grammar. Arabic is perhaps one of the most striking examples of this dialectal diversity. Literary Arabic, or Modern Standard Arabic, is universally understood and used in writing and formal speech, but in everyday life people speak in a range of dialects that can be so different from each other that speakers from distant regions sometimes find it difficult to understand each other. These dialects reflect not only the geographical region but also historical influences such as those of the Ottomans, the Persians and the French in the Levant. Kurdish, too, is divided into several main dialects, such as Kurmandji, Sorani, and Pehlewani, each with its own regional variants. The differences between these Kurdish dialects are so great that they have sometimes led to claims for separate language status. As for Armenian, although there is a standard Armenian language, Armenians around the world also speak different dialects, often influenced by the languages of the regions to which they have emigrated or dispersed over time. In addition to these main languages, there are around 20 minority languages in the Middle East, reflecting a complex human history of exchange, migration and adaptation. These languages may be spoken by small communities, but they carry with them a history and culture that deserve to be recognised and preserved. Their existence in such a linguistically rich context is further evidence of how languages evolve and adapt to the contexts in which they are spoken, often in parallel with the dominant languages of the region.
Languages and National Identity: Between Politics and Culture
Population movements and religion have been powerful vectors in the spread and evolution of languages in the Middle East, as in the rest of the world. Historically, migration has played a crucial role in the dispersion of languages. For example, the Arab invasions of the seventh century, driven by the expansion of Islam, spread the Arabic language across the Middle East and North Africa. This expansion not only spread the Arabic language, but also integrated and influenced local languages, giving rise to a multitude of distinct Arabic dialects. Similarly, the expansion of the Turkic empires, in particular the Ottoman Empire, extended the Turkic languages and established Ottoman Turkish (a form of Turkish influenced by Persian and Arabic) as an administrative and literary language throughout the Middle East, the Balkans and North Africa. Religions also facilitated the adoption and standardisation of languages. Arabic, as the language of the Koran, became a linguistic link between Muslims around the world, extending its use beyond traditional Arabic-speaking borders. Similarly, Judaic and Christian religious texts helped to preserve Hebrew and Aramaic, even when these languages were no longer spoken on a daily basis. The languages of the Middle East are not static; they are the result of constant interaction between peoples, their beliefs and their histories. Languages have been spread through trade, conquest, colonisation and conversion, shaping the complex linguistic landscape we see today.
The formation of nation-states in the modern Middle East has had a considerable impact on linguistic practices. By establishing one or more official languages, states have often sought to promote a unified national identity and to facilitate communication and administration within their borders. This language policy can lead to a heightened sense of nationalism, where the official language becomes a symbol of national unity and a key factor in collective identity. For example, the promotion of standard Turkish in Turkey after the fall of the Ottoman Empire and the creation of the Turkish Republic in 1923 aimed to unify the country's diverse populations under a single Turkish national identity. Similarly, the adoption of Modern Standard Arabic in Arabic-speaking countries has often been associated with pan-Arab nationalist movements. However, standardisation and the promotion of a state language can also have unintended consequences, notably by marginalising regional or minority languages and dialects. This can lead to a decline in their public use and sometimes to an erosion of their long-term viability, or even to their disappearance. For example, many Kurdish minority languages and dialects have been suppressed in various countries in an effort to achieve cultural assimilation.
Paradoxically, the banning or repression of certain languages can also lead to renewed interest in these languages and dialects, which are often seen as essential elements of a community's cultural identity. In some cases, this can lead to linguistic and cultural protest movements. The suppression of the public use of Armenian in Turkey for many years has, for example, led to increased awareness and appreciation of the language among Armenian communities around the world. Ultimately, language policies in the Middle East reflect the tension between the construction of national identities and the preservation of cultural and linguistic diversity. Responses to these policies are diverse and can range from enthusiastic adoption of the state language to resistance and maintenance of traditional languages as an act of cultural preservation and political resistance.
Panorama of Religious Beliefs
The Middle East is often defined broadly to include regions such as Anatolia (the Asian part of modern Turkey), Egypt (although geographically located in North Africa, it is culturally and historically linked to the Middle East), and Mesopotamia (corresponding to the territories of modern Iraq and Syria, as well as parts of Iran and Turkey). This region, rich in cultural and historical diversity, is recognised as the cradle of several of the world's major religions.
Judaism, one of the first monotheistic religions, emerged in the Levant, particularly in the historic region of Canaan, which is now divided between Israel and the Palestinian territories. With its roots dating back more than 3,000 years, Judaism has played a central role in the religious and cultural development of the region. Christianity, which grew out of Judaism in the 1st century AD, also has its origins in the Middle East, specifically in the historic region of Judea. It spread rapidly throughout the Roman Empire and beyond, becoming a major world religion. Islam, the most recent of the three great Abrahamic religions, was revealed to the prophet Mohammed in the early 7th century in the Arabian city of Mecca. It spread rapidly across the Arabian Peninsula and, through conquest and trade, to vast areas of Asia, Africa and Europe. In addition to these Abrahamic religions, the Middle East is also the birthplace of Zoroastrianism, which was founded by the prophet Zarathustra (or Zoroaster) in ancient Persia, modern-day Iran. Zoroastrianism, which was one of the dominant religions of Persia before Islamisation, is often considered to be one of the oldest monotheistic religions and has influenced other religious traditions through its dualistic concepts of the struggle between good and evil.
Each of these religions has contributed to the rich cultural and historical tapestry of the region and continues to profoundly influence the lives, cultures and politics of the modern Middle East. Religious diversity and historical depth make the Middle East a place of particular importance to scholars, believers and visitors from all over the world.
The Foundations and Evolution of Judaism
Early Judaism and Monotheism
Judaism is recognised as one of the first monotheistic religions in history. Emerging in the region of the Levant, which today corresponds to Israel and the surrounding area, Judaism has played a crucial role in the religious and cultural development of humanity. The origins of Judaism date back to around 2000 BC, with the biblical figures of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, considered to be the patriarchs of the religion. Judaism is centred on belief in a single God, YHWH (Yahweh), and a series of laws and ethical principles expressed in the Torah, part of the larger collection of sacred texts known as the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. What distinguishes Judaism from the other religious traditions of its time is its strict monotheism. While many ancient cultures adhered to polytheism, Judaism affirmed the existence of a single sovereign God, creator of the universe and moral guide of humanity.
In addition to its religious dimension, Judaism also has a strong ethnic and cultural dimension. Jews see themselves not only as adherents of a faith, but also as members of a people or nation, bound together by a shared history and traditions. Over the centuries, Judaism has significantly influenced many other religious beliefs and practices, in particular Christianity and Islam, which share certain roots with Judaism and recognise many Jewish biblical figures as prophets or important teachers.
Abraham and the Jewish line of patriarchs
Abraham, often regarded as the father of monotheism, is a central figure in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was born in Ur in Mesopotamia, not Edessa in Greece. Edessa is a historic city in Turkey, known as Urfa, but it is not linked to the story of Abraham in the biblical texts. The biblical account describes his journey from Mesopotamia to Canaan at the behest of God, who promised to make of his descendants a great nation. Abraham's complex relationship with his wife Sarah and her slave Hagar is a crucial element of the story. Sarah, unable to have children, gives Hagar to Abraham, from whom Ishmael is born. Sara later gave birth to Isaac. In Jewish tradition, Isaac is the son of promise, and Jews consider themselves to be his descendants. In Islamic tradition, it is Ishmael who is often seen as the son of promise, although Islam also recognises the importance of Isaac. Isaac's son Jacob is also a key figure. According to tradition, he had 12 sons, whose descendants became the Twelve Tribes of Israel, marking the formation of the Hebrew people.
The Egyptian Exodus and the Revelation at Mount Sinai
The story of slavery in Egypt is another fundamental part of Jewish history. After living in Egypt, the Hebrews were enslaved and, centuries later, freed under the leadership of Moses, another central figure in Jewish tradition. This exit from Egypt, known as the Exodus, is a key event in Jewish history and is celebrated every year at Pesach (Passover). These stories are not only religious narratives, but have also shaped the cultural and historical identity of the Jewish people. They underline the ongoing relationship between the Jewish people, their land and their faith, a relationship that remains central to the understanding of Jewish culture and history.
The figure of Moses and the event of revelation at Mount Sinai are among the most significant in Jewish tradition and have a profound importance in the history and identity of the Jewish people. According to the biblical account, Moses, a Hebrew brought up in Pharaoh's house in Egypt, is chosen by God to free the Israelites from slavery. After a series of miraculous events, including the ten plagues of Egypt, Moses leads the Israelites out of Egypt, an event known as the Exodus. The Exodus represents not only the physical liberation of the Jewish people, but also their emergence as a united nation under God.
The most crucial moment of their journey is the revelation at Mount Sinai, where, according to tradition, God (Yahweh) gives Moses the Torah, including the Ten Commandments. This moment is seen as the fundamental covenant between God and the Israelites, where they receive a set of laws and instructions to guide their spiritual and social lives. The Torah, which is the heart of Judaism, includes not only the laws and teachings, but also the history of the Jewish people since the creation of the world. The Ten Commandments are particularly significant because they establish fundamental moral and ethical principles, not only for Judaism, but also for Christianity and, indirectly, for Islam. They are considered the cornerstone of law and ethics in the Judeo-Christian tradition. The importance of these events in Judaism cannot be underestimated. Not only are they at the heart of the Jewish faith, but they have also shaped the values, practices and identity of the Jewish people. The commemoration of the Exodus on Pesach and the reception of the Torah on Shavuot are examples of how these historical events are integrated into the annual cycle of Jewish festivals and celebrations, constantly reminding the Jewish people of their history and their commitments to God.
The Conquest of Canaan and the Age of the Prophets
After their Exodus from Egypt and their journey through the desert, the Israelites, led by Joshua, entered Canaan, a land which, according to the Bible, had been promised by God to their ancestors. This process, described in the biblical texts, involves a series of battles and conquests to establish the Israelite presence in the region. However, it is important to note that the historical accuracy of these events as described in the Bible is a matter of debate among historians and archaeologists.
King David, who reigned in the 10th century BC, is a central figure in the history of the Jewish people. According to tradition, he united the tribes of Israel, conquered Jerusalem and made it the capital of his kingdom. Jerusalem acquired central importance in Jewish tradition, not only as a political centre, but also as a spiritual one. His son, King Solomon, is famous for having built the First Temple in Jerusalem. This temple became the centre of Jewish worship and was supposed to house the Ark of the Covenant, which contained the tablets of the Law (the Ten Commandments) given to Moses on Mount Sinai. Solomon's Temple is not only a symbol of the sovereignty and unity of the Kingdom of Israel, but also a place of great religious significance for the Jews.
The period of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was also marked by the activity of prophets, important figures in Jewish tradition. These prophets, such as Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, played a crucial role in advising kings, criticising social and moral injustices and reminding people of God's commandments. Their message and writings form an important part of the biblical texts and continue to influence Jewish religious thought. This period was fundamental in shaping Jewish identity and faith. It established Jerusalem as the spiritual heart of Judaism and laid the foundations for many of the practices and beliefs that are still central to contemporary Judaism.
After the death of Solomon, around 926 BC, the unified kingdom of Israel split into two: the northern kingdom, called Israel, with Samaria as its capital, and the southern kingdom, called Judah, with Jerusalem as its capital. This division reflected not only political and economic tensions, but also religious and cultural differences between the two kingdoms. The northern kingdom, Israel, was larger in terms of territory and population, but it was also more vulnerable to outside influences and invasions because of its geographical position.
The northern kingdom finally suffered a devastating defeat in 722 BC, when the Assyrians, a powerful empire at the time, invaded and conquered Samaria. This event marked the end of the kingdom of Israel, with a large part of its population deported and dispersed, a phenomenon often referred to as the "Lost Ten Tribes of Israel". This deportation and dispersion had profound consequences, not only politically and militarily, but also in terms of cultural and religious identity. The southern kingdom, Judah, survived this period but became vassals of various empires, including the Neo-Babylonian Empire. However, Judah too eventually fell, with the conquest of Jerusalem and the destruction of the First Temple by the Babylonians in 586 BC, followed by the Babylonian exile of the Judean elite. These events are of major importance in Jewish history. They mark not only political and military turning points, but also crucial moments of cultural and religious transformation. The experiences of conquest, exile and return had a profound influence on Jewish thought and literature, notably with the writing of numerous biblical texts and the strengthening of Jewish identity and faith around the Torah and the religious community.
The Dislocation of the Kingdoms and the Dawn of the Diaspora
The destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians in 722 BC represented the first major catastrophe (or "Churban" in Hebrew) for the Israelites. This invasion led to the dispersion of the ten tribes of the northern kingdom, an event often referred to in the context of the "Lost Ten Tribes of Israel". This dispersion had a profound impact on the collective identity and historical memory of the Jewish people. In response to these hardships and the challenges of living in exile and under foreign domination, Jewish rabbis and scholars played an essential role in preserving and interpreting Jewish tradition. However, it is important to note that the Mishna, which is a major compilation of Jewish oral law, was written later, towards the end of the 2nd century AD, well after the time of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Mishna, combined with the Gemara (a commentary on the Mishna), forms the Talmud, a central text in rabbinic Judaism.
The Tanakh comprises the Torah (the five books of Moses), the Nevi'im (the Prophets) and the Ketuvim (the Writings, including the Psalms). Prophets such as Elijah, Isaiah and Jeremiah, who lived at different times, played a crucial role in the religious and social life of the Israelites, sending messages of reform, social justice and faithfulness to God. These prophets often acted during periods of crisis and change, their teachings and actions reflecting the challenges facing the Jewish people. Their writings, which form part of the Nevi'im, are fundamental to understanding Judaism, Jewish spirituality and the history of the Jewish people. These texts have played a crucial role in preserving Jewish identity and have been a source of strength and inspiration, particularly during periods of persecution and dispersion.
The destruction of the First Temple in Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II, king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, in 587 BC was a major catastrophe for the Jewish people. This destruction, accompanied by the deportation of a large part of the Jewish population to Mesopotamia, was a devastating event that deeply marked the Jewish collective consciousness. The Babylonian Exile symbolised not only a territorial and political loss, but also a profound spiritual and identity crisis, forcing the Jews to rethink their relationship with God, their history and their identity as a people. The return of the Jews to Judea began with the rise of Cyrus the Great, king of the Persian Empire, who conquered Babylon in 539 BC. Cyrus is known for his policy of tolerance and restoration of displaced peoples, including the Jews. According to the Book of Ezra in the Bible, Cyrus issued an edict allowing the Jews to return to Judea and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. This return began around 538 BC and marked a moment of renewal for the Jewish community.
The Second Temple was rebuilt, but construction did not begin under Herod the Great. The process of rebuilding the Temple began much earlier, around 516 BC, thus completing the 70-year period of exile prophesied in the Scriptures. The Second Temple remained a major religious and community centre for the Jews until its destruction by the Romans in 70 AD. Herod the Great, who reigned much later (37-4 BC), is known to have undertaken a major renovation and expansion of the Second Temple, giving it even greater splendour and magnificence. It was this version of the Temple, enlarged and embellished by Herod, that was present at the time of Jesus and is often referred to in the New Testament.
The Evolution of Post-Temple Judaism and Jewish Communities
Palestine came under Roman rule after the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC. In 332 BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia conquered the region, marking the beginning of the Hellenistic period. After Alexander's death, the region came under the control of various Hellenistic dynasties, notably the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. It was not until the 1st century BC that Judea became a client kingdom of the Roman Empire. Under Roman rule, the Jews experienced periods of repression, exacerbated by religious and cultural tensions and heavy taxation. The destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 AD, under the command of the future emperor Titus, was a devastating event for the Jewish people. This destruction followed the Great Jewish Revolt against Roman domination. The loss of the Temple, regarded as the spiritual and national centre of Judaism, had profound consequences for Jewish religious identity and practice. Following the destruction of the Temple, the dispersion (or "Diaspora") of the Jews accelerated. Although there were already dispersed Jewish communities throughout the ancient world before the destruction of the Temple (for example in Egypt, Babylonia, Greece and Italy), this event marked the beginning of a wider and more systematic period of dispersion. Many Jews fled or were deported from Judea and settled in different parts of the Roman Empire and beyond. This dispersion had a lasting impact on Judaism. Without the Temple as a centre of worship, Judaism evolved, with an increased emphasis on prayer, the study of sacred texts and religious practice in the synagogues. The Jewish diaspora became a central element of Jewish identity, with the notion of a people united by faith and history, despite geographical dispersion.
The transition of identity from "Hebrews" to "Jews" is an important aspect of Jewish history, and is linked to a number of factors, including the loss of territory and political changes. The term "Hebrews" (Ivrim in Hebrew) was originally used in the Hebrew Bible to refer to the ancestors of the Israelites, particularly in the context of their relations with other peoples. The term is often associated with earlier periods of Jewish history, in particular the time of the patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob) and the Exodus from Egypt. The term "Jews" (Yehudim in Hebrew), on the other hand, comes from "Judah" (Yehuda), one of the twelve sons of Jacob and one of the twelve tribes of Israel. After the division of the united kingdom into two distinct kingdoms, Israel (to the north) and Judah (to the south), and the fall of the kingdom of Israel to the Assyrians, the kingdom of Judah became the centre of Israelite identity. When the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple and exiled a large part of the population of Judah, these people were referred to as the "Yehudim" or "Jews".
With the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 AD and the subsequent dispersion of the Jews, Jewish identity became even more centred on religion and culture, rather than on a specific territory or political sovereignty. The term 'Jew' thus became synonymous with a religious and cultural affiliation, rather than simply an ethnic or national one. The loss of territory and political changes undoubtedly played a part in this evolution, but the transition from "Hebrews" to "Jews" also reflects an internal evolution in the people's understanding and self-identification. Thus, the term 'Jew' encompasses a religious, cultural and ethnic identity, transcending geographical and political boundaries.
Jewish languages and cultures around the world
Ashkenazi Jews, originally from Central and Eastern Europe, developed a unique language and culture. Yiddish, their language, is a remarkable example of this distinctive culture. Yiddish is a Germanic language that incorporates elements of Hebrew and Slavic languages, reflecting the history and experiences of Ashkenazi Jews. This language was not only a tool of everyday communication, but also an important vehicle for Ashkenazi Jewish literature, theatre and poetry. On the other hand, Sephardic Jews, mainly from the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal), developed another hybrid language known as Ladino or Judeo-Spanish. Ladino, similar to Yiddish, blends Spanish with Hebrew and other languages such as Turkish and Arabic, reflecting the migrations and interactions of Sephardic Jews after their expulsion from Spain in 1492.
In terms of religious practices, Judaism is diverse. Orthodox practices adhere strictly to Jewish laws and traditions, while Reform or Liberal (also known as Progressive or Moderate) movements tend to adopt more flexible interpretations and practices. There are also conservative and reconstructionist movements, which seek a balance between adherence to tradition and adaptation to contemporary realities. This diversity reflects Judaism's ability to evolve and adapt while preserving its identity and fundamental values. Different Jewish communities around the world, whether Ashkenazi, Sephardic or of other origins, have contributed to the rich tapestry of Jewish culture and tradition, each bringing its own unique perspectives and experiences.
The Origins and Branches of Christianity
The expansion of Christianity in the Roman Empire
Christianity is centred on the figure of Jesus of Nazareth, whom Christians recognise as the Messiah (the Christ) and the Son of God. His birth, life, teaching, death and resurrection are at the heart of the Christian faith.
According to the New Testament, Jesus was born in Bethlehem, a small town in Judea. The accounts of his birth are recounted in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke, which mention the virgin birth of Mary, his mother, and the announcement of his birth by angels as an event of great importance. Jesus spent most of his life in the region of Galilee, preaching a message of love, compassion and repentance, calling for spiritual renewal and a personal relationship with God. He gathered a group of disciples around him and performed various miracles, according to the Gospel accounts.
His crucifixion in Jerusalem is a central moment in Christianity. Christians believe that through his death, Jesus offered the ultimate sacrifice for the forgiveness of humanity's sins, and that his resurrection three days later offers the promise of salvation and eternal life. This event is commemorated every year at the Christian Easter. Christianity began as a movement within Judaism in the 1st century, but quickly spread to other, mainly non-Jewish, populations throughout the Roman Empire and beyond. The figure of Jesus and his teachings have had a profound influence on human history, shaping not only the Christian religion but also many aspects of Western and world civilisation.
Legalisation and institutionalisation of Christianity
Under Emperor Constantine I, with the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire, putting an end to official persecution. Later, under Emperor Theodosius I in 380 AD, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica. This imperial recognition profoundly transformed Christianity, allowing it to spread and influence all aspects of Roman society. However, this integration of Christianity into imperial power structures also created tensions and divergences within the Christian community. Some Christian communities sought to distance themselves from the official Church and the Empire, either because of theological differences or in response to what they perceived as the corruption or politicisation of their faith. These groups, often labelled sects or heresies by the official Church, sought to preserve a form of Christianity that they considered more authentic or faithful to the original teachings of Jesus and the apostles.
Such differences led to various schisms and movements within Christianity, some of which persisted for centuries. These divisions were exacerbated by theological debates (such as the nature of the Trinity or the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus), cultural and linguistic differences, and political conflicts within the Empire. The integration of Christianity into the structure of the Roman Empire therefore had a complex impact: it enabled an unprecedented expansion and institutionalisation of the religion, but also sowed the seeds of internal divisions that would continue to shape the history of Christianity in the centuries that followed.
The debate over the nature of Jesus is one of the greatest and most significant in the history of Christianity. This theological question, which concerns the relationship between the divinity and humanity of Jesus, was at the heart of many controversies and led to several major councils in the early Church. The main question was how Jesus could be both fully divine and fully human. This issue was first significantly addressed at the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, where the doctrine of the Trinity began to take shape. The Nicene Creed, resulting from this Council, affirmed that Jesus was "of the same substance" (homoousios) as the Father, thus establishing his full divinity. However, this declaration did not put an end to the debate. Over the following centuries, different schools of thought emerged. Two of the most influential were Arianism, which held that Jesus, although divine, was not of the same substance as the Father, and was therefore inferior to him; and Nestorianism, which taught that the divine and human natures of Jesus were separate and distinct.
These debates reached their climax at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, which resulted in the formulation of the so-called "double nature" of Christ: Jesus was recognised as being both fully divine and fully human, the two natures being united in one person without being mixed, confused or separated. This doctrine is known as Chalcedonian Christology. This debate about the nature of Jesus was not just an abstract theological question; it had major political, social and cultural repercussions in the Roman Empire and beyond. Disagreements over these issues led to schisms within the Church and were even the cause of conflict and persecution. The way in which the various Christian communities responded to these issues significantly shaped the evolution of Christianity in the centuries that followed.
The Council of Nicaea and the Formation of Christian Doctrine
The Council of Nicaea, held in 325 AD, was a crucial moment in the history of Christianity for several reasons. It was the first ecumenical council, bringing together bishops from all over the Roman Empire to debate and decide on central theological issues. The main issue at stake was to respond to Arianism, a doctrine promoted by Arius, a priest from Alexandria, who maintained that Jesus was not of the same substance as God the Father, but was rather a creature created by God and inferior to him. The Council of Nicaea rejected Arianism and affirmed that Jesus was "consubstantial" (of the same substance) with the Father, thus affirming his full divinity. This decision was codified in the Nicene Creed, which became a fundamental statement of the Christian faith.
However, the Nicene decision did not resolve all the controversies. It led to the formation of different interpretations and churches, particularly between the Church of the East and the Church of the West. These differences were linked not only to theological issues, but also to linguistic, cultural and political ones. The Jacobites, for example, followed the teachings of James Baradai and were associated with the Syriac Orthodox Church. They rejected the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), which had elaborated further on the nature of Christ by affirming that he had two natures, divine and human, united in one person. The Jacobites and other groups, such as the Nestorians and Monophysites, formed their own distinct ecclesiastical communities, often in opposition to the doctrines established by the dominant imperial and ecclesiastical authorities.
These divisions and controversies within Christianity significantly shaped the evolution of the religion, leading to a complex mosaic of Christian traditions around the world. These different communities have maintained their own theological interpretations, liturgical practices and organisational structures, contributing to the rich and sometimes conflicting diversity of Christianity over the centuries.
The Council of Chalcedon and Dyophysite Christology
The Council of Chalcedon, held in 451 AD, is a major event in the history of Christianity, as it tackled head-on the complex question of the nature of Christ. This Council is often regarded as the culmination of the Christological debates that ran through the Christian Church for several centuries. The decision of the Council of Chalcedon established that Jesus Christ possesses two distinct natures - divine and human - united in a single person (hypostasis). This formulation is known as "Dyophysite Christology". According to this doctrine, the two natures of Christ coexist without confusion, without change, without division and without separation. This meant that, although Christ is fully God and fully man, his two natures do not mix, thus preserving both his complete divinity and his complete humanity.
This Council was crucial in establishing an orthodoxy accepted by the majority of Christians, but it also led to significant divisions. Several Churches, notably some Eastern Churches, rejected the decisions of Chalcedon. These churches are often called "non-Chalcedonian" or "pre-Chalcedonian" and include the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Armenian Apostolic Church and others. These communities maintained their own understanding of the nature of Christ, often focusing on the unity of his divine and human natures. The Council of Chalcedon thus marks a pivotal moment in the history of Christianity, establishing a fundamental doctrine for many Christian churches, while at the same time creating lasting schisms with other communities that did not accept its conclusions. These Christological divisions remain an important facet of the differences between the various Christian traditions to this day.
Emperor Constantine (centre), with the bishops of the Council of Nicaea (325), anachronistically holding the text of the "Nicaea-Constantinople symbol" in its Greek liturgical form, based on the text adopted at the first Council of Constantinople (381).
The separation of the Eastern (blue) and Western (orange) Churches from 1054.
Political and Cultural Implications of Theological Divergences
The Great Schism of 1054, marking the separation between the Church of the East, later known as the Orthodox Church, and the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, represented a historic turning point in Christianity. This rupture was not an isolated event, but rather the culmination of a long period of growing divergence between the two branches of Christianity. At the heart of these differences were profound theological and ecclesiastical disputes. One major point of contention concerned the question of papal authority. The Church of Rome, with figures such as Pope Leo IX, claimed supreme authority over all the Christian churches, a position contested by the Church of the East. The Patriarchate of Constantinople, under leaders such as Michael Cerularus, rejected the idea of centralised authority and advocated a more collegial approach.
Another key point of contention was the addition of the "Filioque" to the Nicene Creed by the Church of the West. This change, stating that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father "and from the Son", was seen by the Church of the East as an unacceptable alteration of a doctrine established at the first ecumenical councils. This debate reflected wider differences in understanding of the Trinity and the nature of God. Beyond theological issues, cultural and political differences also played a role. The collapse of the Western Roman Empire and the rise of the Byzantine Empire had created a gulf between the two regions. Linguistic differences, with Latin predominating in the West and Greek in the East, also contributed to a growing cultural divide.
The symbolic event that marked the culmination of these tensions was the mutual excommunication of 1054. Legates sent by Pope Leo IX to Constantinople excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularus, who responded by excommunicating the legates. Although this excommunication was the most dramatic gesture, it represented the culmination of a long series of disagreements and misunderstandings. The Great Schism had profound repercussions on the subsequent development of Christianity, solidifying the division between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church. This division, rooted in theological, cultural and political differences, has shaped not only religious history but also the political and cultural trajectories of Europe and the surrounding regions. Efforts have been made in modern times towards dialogue and reconciliation, but the divisions of the Schism of 1054 continue to influence the world's religious and cultural landscape.
Protestantism and the Reformation: Transforming Christianity
In the 16th century, Christianity was profoundly transformed by the emergence of Protestantism, a movement that challenged the doctrines and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and led to the Protestant Reformation. This period marked a crucial turning point in Europe's religious history and had lasting global repercussions. The genesis of Protestantism is often attributed to Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian. In 1517, Luther posted his "95 Theses" on the door of the church in Wittenberg, criticising various aspects of the Catholic Church, including the sale of indulgences. His writings circulated rapidly, fuelled by the recent invention of the printing press, and resonated with a public increasingly dissatisfied with certain Church practices.
Luther challenged key doctrines of the Catholic Church, such as the authority of the Pope and the efficacy of works for salvation, advocating instead justification by faith alone ('sola fide') and the authority of Scripture alone ('sola scriptura'). These ideas challenged the foundations of the Catholic Church and initiated a series of religious reforms across Europe. Other key figures in the Protestant Reformation included Jean Calvin in Geneva, who developed a theological system known as Calvinism, and Huldrych Zwingli in Zurich. Each of these reformers helped shape various strands of Protestantism, which then spawned a multitude of denominations, including Lutherans, Reformed, Presbyterians and Anabaptists, among others.
The Reformation brought about profound changes not only in the religious sphere, but also in the political, cultural and social spheres. It led to religious wars throughout Europe, changes in political power structures, and had an influence on education, literature and the arts. The Protestant Reformation also paved the way for the expansion of Christianity around the world, particularly through missionary activities in the European colonies. Thus, the 16th century was a period of major transformation for Christianity, with Protestantism challenging the established structures of the Church and redefining the way in which many Christians understood their faith and practised their religion.
Throughout the complex history of Christianity, there have been times when some Eastern Churches have established links with the Roman Catholic Church, leading to Christian communities that combine elements of Eastern and Western traditions. These Churches, often called Eastern Catholic Churches or Uniate Churches, have retained their liturgical rites and Eastern cultural heritage while accepting the authority of the Pope and certain Roman Catholic doctrines. This movement towards union with Rome has been motivated by various factors, including political considerations, desires for support in the face of external pressure, and theological and ecclesiastical interests. A notable example is the Union of Brest in 1596, when certain bishops of the Orthodox Church in Poland-Lithuania agreed to union with the Roman Catholic Church, forming the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church. Similarly, the Maronite Catholic Church in Lebanon has long maintained communion with Rome while preserving its Eastern liturgical and spiritual traditions.
As far as Christian demographics over the centuries are concerned, it is true that in some regions, particularly in the Middle East and North Africa, the proportion of Christians to the total population has declined over time. This decline can be attributed to various factors, such as conversions, migrations, political changes, and social and economic pressures. For example, after the Muslim conquest of the Middle East, many Christians gradually adopted the Islamic language and religion, although Christian communities continued to exist in the region. However, on a global scale, Christianity expanded significantly, largely as a result of missionary movements and European colonisation between the 16th and 20th centuries. Today, Christianity remains one of the world's major religions, with a substantial presence on every continent. It is important to note that, despite the challenges and changes, Christian communities have continued to preserve their faith and traditions, often in very diverse cultural and political contexts. Christianity's ability to adapt and transform while preserving its core beliefs is a notable aspect of its history.
Les Principes et les Courants de l'Islam
Mahomet : Prophète et Fondation de l'Islam
L'islam est centré sur la figure de Mahomet (Muhammad en arabe), considéré par les musulmans comme le dernier prophète envoyé par Dieu pour guider l'humanité. La vie et les enseignements de Mahomet jouent un rôle fondamental dans l'islam et ont profondément influencé le développement de cette religion. Né à La Mecque en 570 après J.-C., Mahomet grandit dans un contexte où la péninsule arabique est dominée par des pratiques polythéistes et un système social tribal. Sa jeunesse est marquée par l'orphelinat et la pauvreté, mais il acquiert plus tard une réputation de confiance et d'intégrité dans son travail en tant que marchand. Ces expériences lui donnent une perspective unique sur les divers aspects sociaux, économiques et religieux de sa société. Selon la tradition islamique, à l'âge de 40 ans, Mahomet commence à recevoir des révélations de Dieu (Allah en arabe) par l'intermédiaire de l'ange Gabriel. Ces révélations, qui se poursuivent pendant 23 ans, forment le Coran, le texte sacré de l'islam.
Le message de Mahomet met l'accent sur le monothéisme strict (Tawhid), la justice sociale, la responsabilité morale et l'égalité devant Dieu. Conscient des inégalités et des injustices de la société mecquoise, ses enseignements appellent à un changement radical des structures sociales et religieuses de l'époque. Cependant, ses prédications rencontrent une forte opposition de la part des leaders mecquois, principalement en raison des implications économiques et sociales de son message, qui remet en question les structures de pouvoir et les pratiques religieuses établies à La Mecque. Ces tensions aboutissent finalement à l'Hégire (la migration) de Mahomet et de ses premiers disciples de La Mecque à Médine en 622 après J.-C., un événement si significatif qu'il marque le début du calendrier islamique.
L'Hégire : Un Tournant dans l'Histoire Islamique
À Médine, Mahomet établit une communauté (Ummah) basée sur les principes islamiques, où il joue un rôle de leader spirituel, politique et militaire. Les années suivantes voient l'expansion rapide de l'islam à travers la péninsule arabique, ainsi que la consolidation des diverses tribus arabes sous la bannière de la nouvelle foi. Après la mort de Mahomet en 632 après J.-C., ses enseignements et son exemple continuent de guider les musulmans. L'islam se propage rapidement au-delà de la péninsule arabique, devenant une force majeure religieuse, culturelle et politique dans le monde. La vie et les enseignements de Mahomet restent au cœur de la foi musulmane, influençant profondément les croyances, les pratiques et la culture des musulmans dans le monde entier.
La période suivant le décès de Mahomet en 632 après J.-C. est cruciale dans l'histoire de l'islam, car elle a posé les fondations de sa structuration politique et de ses divisions internes. L'Hégire, la migration de Mahomet de La Mecque à Médine en 622, est un moment fondateur de l'islam, marquant le début du calendrier islamique et l'établissement d'une communauté musulmane unie sous son leadership.
À sa mort en 632, Mahomet n'a pas désigné explicitement un successeur pour le guider, ce qui a conduit à une question cruciale : qui devrait diriger la communauté musulmane (Ummah)? Cette question a donné naissance aux deux principales branches de l'islam : le sunnisme et le chiisme. Les sunnites, représentant la majorité des musulmans, croient que le successeur de Mahomet doit être élu parmi les membres de la communauté musulmane et suivent la "Sunna" (tradition basée sur les enseignements et les pratiques de Mahomet). Le premier calife élu selon cette tradition fut Abou Bakr, un compagnon proche et beau-père de Mahomet. Les chiites, en revanche, croient que le leadership de la communauté musulmane doit rester au sein de la famille de Mahomet. Ils soutiennent que Ali, le cousin et gendre de Mahomet, était son successeur désigné. Les chiites utilisent le terme "Ahl al-Bayt" (gens de la maison) pour désigner la famille de Mahomet et leurs descendants.
La période de 632 à 661 après J.-C., connue sous le nom de période des "Califes bien guidés" ou "Rachidoune", a vu les successeurs d'Abou Bakr, Omar et Othman, devenir califes. Chacun de ces califes a été élu par consensus ou par conseil parmi les compagnons de Mahomet. Cependant, les tensions et les désaccords sur la question de la succession ont conduit à des divisions et des conflits, culminant dans la Fitna, une série de guerres civiles qui ont profondément affecté la communauté musulmane. Cette période a établi les bases du califat, la structure politique de l'empire musulman, qui allait se développer et changer de formes à travers les siècles. Les divisions initiales entre sunnites et chiites, bien que principalement théologiques et politiques à leurs débuts, ont façonné de manière significative l'histoire, la politique et la culture du monde musulman.
La Bataille de Nehavend et la Chute de l'Empire Sassanide
La bataille de Nehavend, survenue aux alentours de 641-642 après J.-C., est un jalon historique de première importance dans l'expansion de l'islam et la chute de l'Empire sassanide. Cette confrontation militaire, qui a eu lieu dans la région qui correspond aujourd'hui au nord-ouest de l'Iran, a opposé les forces musulmanes arabes, alors en pleine ascension, à l'armée de l'Empire sassanide, un empire autrefois puissant mais affaibli par des conflits prolongés et des troubles internes. Avant cette bataille, l'Empire sassanide, sous le règne de Yazdgard III, avait déjà subi de lourdes pertes face aux conquêtes musulmanes. La bataille de Nehavend est souvent considérée comme le coup de grâce à la résistance sassanide. La victoire musulmane dans cette bataille a été décisive : elle a non seulement marqué la fin de la résistance organisée de l'Empire sassanide, mais a également ouvert la voie à l'expansion rapide de l'islam dans la région. Cette victoire, surnommée par les musulmans "la victoire des victoires", a eu des conséquences profondes sur le cours de l'histoire régionale. Avec la défaite de l'armée sassanide, Yazdgard III a été contraint de fuir vers l'est, cherchant désespérément des alliés pour reconquérir son empire. Cependant, ses efforts se sont avérés infructueux, et l'Empire sassanide, autrefois un rival de l'Empire byzantin, a disparu de l'histoire.
L'impact de cette bataille va bien au-delà du champ de bataille. Elle a marqué le début d'une transformation culturelle et religieuse majeure en Perse. Avec la conquête musulmane, la région a commencé à se convertir progressivement de la religion zoroastrienne à l'islam. Cette transition ne s'est pas limitée aux aspects religieux ; elle a également entraîné d'importants changements linguistiques et culturels. L'arabe est devenu la langue principale de l'administration et de la culture savante, bien que la langue et la culture persanes aient continué à jouer un rôle significatif dans la région. La bataille de Nehavend illustre donc comment les conquêtes militaires peuvent avoir des implications durables sur l'identité culturelle et religieuse d'une région. En transformant la Perse de l'Empire sassanide en un territoire clé du monde islamique, cette bataille a non seulement redessiné la carte politique de la région, mais a également posé les bases pour les développements culturels et religieux qui ont suivi.
Les Chiites et leur Vision du Leadership Islamique
Les chiites, dont le nom signifie littéralement "partisans d'Ali", soutiennent que Ali, le cousin et gendre du prophète Mahomet, était le successeur légitime de Mahomet. Ils croient qu'Ali et ses descendants, les Imams, sont les véritables leaders spirituels et politiques de la communauté musulmane. Le chiisme repose sur l'idée de la légitimité divine de la lignée d'Ali, et ses adeptes se concentrent particulièrement sur les aspects spirituels et mystiques de l'islam. Les sunnites, quant à eux, représentent la majorité des musulmans et soutiennent que le calife doit être élu pour ses compétences et sa piété. Muawiya, le gouverneur de la Syrie, est devenu un personnage clé dans l'histoire sunnite lorsqu'il s'est opposé à Ali lors de la bataille de Siffin en 657. Cette bataille, qui s'est soldée par un impasse et a conduit à un arbitrage controversé, a été un moment décisif, exacerbant les divisions au sein de la communauté musulmane. L'acceptation par Ali de l'arbitrage à Siffin a causé une rupture avec certains de ses partisans, qui ont estimé qu'en acceptant l'arbitrage, il trahissait les principes de l'islam. Ces dissidents sont devenus connus sous le nom de Kharijites, un groupe qui prônait une interprétation stricte et parfois extrême de l'islam, et qui s'est opposé à la fois à Ali et à Muawiya.
Après l'assassinat d'Ali en 661, souvent attribué aux Kharijites, Muawiya établit le califat omeyyade, marquant le début d'une dynastie où la succession devient héréditaire. Cette période a été marquée par des tensions et des conflits continus entre les partisans d'Ali et les dirigeants omeyyades. Le fils de Muawiya, Yazid, est particulièrement mal vu dans la tradition chiite pour son rôle dans le massacre de Husayn, le fils d'Ali, lors de la bataille de Kerbala en 680. Ce tragique événement est au cœur de la commémoration chiite d'Achoura et symbolise la lutte contre l'injustice et l'oppression. Ces premières divisions et conflits au sein de l'islam ont jeté les bases des différences doctrinales, politiques et culturelles qui caractérisent les relations entre sunnites, chiites et kharijites jusqu'à nos jours. Ces événements ont non seulement façonné l'histoire du monde musulman, mais ont également eu un impact profond sur la politique, la société et la culture dans les régions où l'islam est pratiqué.
La Bataille de Kerbala et son Impact sur le Chiisme
La bataille de Kerbala, survenue en 680 après J.-C. en Irak, est l'un des événements les plus tragiques et significatifs de l'histoire de l'islam, en particulier pour les chiites. Cette bataille oppose Husayn ibn Ali, le petit-fils de Mahomet et figure centrale du chiisme, aux forces du calife omeyyade Yazid Ier. Husayn, avec un petit groupe de partisans et de membres de sa famille, s'est rendu à Kerbala dans le but de contester la légitimité du califat omeyyade, que les chiites considéraient comme illégitime et corrompu. Les forces de Yazid, largement supérieures en nombre, ont encerclé Husayn et ses partisans. Malgré les offres de reddition, Husayn a choisi de résister, ce qui a conduit à une bataille inégale où lui et presque tous ses compagnons ont été tués. La mort de Husayn à Kerbala est devenue un symbole puissant de résistance à l'oppression et de sacrifice pour la justice dans la tradition chiite. Sa mort est commémorée chaque année lors du mois de Muharram, en particulier le jour d'Achoura, où les chiites du monde entier se souviennent de son martyre par des rituels de deuil et de commémoration.
La carte historique présentée illustre le monde méditerranéen aux alentours de l'année 750 après J.-C., mettant en évidence l'étendue territoriale du califat omeyyade à son apogée, ainsi que les autres entités politiques majeures de cette période.
La zone en vert représente le califat omeyyade, qui s'étend de la péninsule ibérique (Al-Andalus) à l'est jusqu'aux frontières de l'Inde, englobant le Maghreb, l'Égypte, la péninsule arabique, et de vastes régions du Moyen-Orient. Le califat omeyyade, avec Damas comme capitale, a connu une expansion rapide suite aux conquêtes musulmanes qui ont débuté au 7ème siècle. L'inclusion de villes telles que Cordoue, Séville, et Tolède montre l'étendue de leur pouvoir en Europe, tandis que des villes comme Kairouan en Afrique du Nord et Fustat en Égypte soulignent leur présence en Afrique. En rouge, on observe le Royaume franc sous le règne de Pépin le Bref. Les Francs, sous la direction de Charles Martel, ont stoppé l'avancée omeyyade en Europe lors de la bataille de Poitiers en 732, ce qui est souvent considéré comme un moment déterminant dans la retenue de l'expansion islamique en Europe occidentale. La couleur bleue indique l'Empire byzantin, également connu sous le nom de l'Empire romain d'Orient, qui a maintenu sa capitale à Constantinople (l'actuelle Istanbul). Malgré la perte de territoires au profit des Arabes, l'Empire byzantin a réussi à résister et à conserver des régions clés telles que l'Anatolie, les Balkans et certaines parties de l'Italie, comme en témoigne la présence de Syracuse et de Ravenne sur la carte. Le Royaume lombard, non souligné sur la carte mais présent dans la région de l'Italie du Nord, est une autre entité politique de cette époque qui a finalement été conquise par les Francs. Enfin, le petit territoire en brun clair représente le Royaume des Asturies, situé dans la région nord-ouest de la péninsule ibérique. C'est l'un des premiers royaumes chrétiens établis après le début de la conquête musulmane de l'Espagne et il est considéré comme un prédécesseur des royaumes chrétiens qui ont plus tard reconquis les territoires sous contrôle musulman lors de la Reconquista. La carte reflète donc une période de transitions géopolitiques importantes, avec des échanges dynamiques de pouvoir entre les royaumes et les empires, et représente les délimitations territoriales à une époque où l'Europe et le Moyen-Orient étaient profondément influencés par les conflits et les échanges entre chrétiens et musulmans.
L'Émergence et le Déclin du Califat Omeyyade
La dynastie omeyyade, fondée par Muawiya après la mort d'Ali, a établi sa capitale à Damas et a régné sur un vaste empire qui s'étendait de l'Espagne à l'Inde. Sous les Omeyyades, l'empire musulman a connu une expansion considérable et une certaine unification, bien que leur règne ait été marqué par des tensions internes, en particulier avec les partisans d'Ali et les communautés chiites. Le califat omeyyade a finalement pris fin en 750 après J.-C., renversé par la révolution abbasside. Les Abbassides, qui ont déplacé la capitale de l'empire à Bagdad, ont établi une nouvelle dynastie qui a marqué un tournant dans l'histoire islamique, avec un renouveau culturel, scientifique et politique. La chute des Omeyyades a également marqué une nouvelle phase dans la division sunnite-chiite, avec les chiites continuant à se développer en tant que communauté distincte avec ses propres doctrines et pratiques religieuses.
La carte historique fournie représente l'Europe et le Moyen-Orient autour de l'année 880 après J.-C. Elle illustre la géopolitique complexe de l'époque, marquée par une mosaïque de royaumes, d'empires et de dynasties. La zone en vert représente le califat abbasside à son déclin, qui a succédé aux Omeyyades et dont la capitale était Bagdad. Cette entité a connu un âge d'or de développement scientifique, culturel et économique, mais à cette période, son influence politique commence à diminuer en raison des révoltes internes et de la pression des puissances émergentes. On remarque en Espagne plusieurs royaumes, y compris León, Navarre et Aragon, en plus de territoires encore sous contrôle musulman, tels que ceux gouvernés par l'émirat omeyyade de Cordoue, indiqué en damier vert. Ces régions musulmanes en Espagne, connues sous le nom d'Al-Andalus, étaient des centres de savoir et de culture où coexistaient musulmans, chrétiens et juifs. La zone rayée rouge et blanche indique les États pontificaux sous l'autorité du pape, centrés autour de Rome, symbolisant la puissance papale dans la péninsule italienne. Les territoires en orange et jaune représentent le Royaume franc divisé en Francie occidentale et orientale. À cette époque, l'empire carolingien, autrefois unifié sous Charlemagne, s'était fragmenté, ce qui a conduit à la formation de ce qui deviendrait plus tard la France et l'Allemagne. L'Empire byzantin, en bleu clair, avec Constantinople comme capitale, bien qu'affaibli par les luttes internes et les conflits externes, maintenait sa présence en Méditerranée orientale, comprenant des régions telles que l'Anatolie, les Balkans et des parties de l'Italie du Sud. En Afrique du Nord, les dynasties Aghlabides et Idrissides, ainsi que les Rustamides (en vert à rayures), tous issues de dissidences ou de branches du grand mouvement islamique, ont établi des règnes autonomes, avec des degrés variables d'allégeance ou d'indépendance par rapport au califat abbasside. Enfin, le Royaume bulgare, indiqué en violet, représente une autre puissance significative de cette période, ayant étendu son influence dans les Balkans et parfois contesté l'Empire byzantin. Cette carte révèle la fragmentation politique de l'époque, avec la montée de nouvelles puissances, la décentralisation du pouvoir et l'interaction complexe entre les différentes autorités religieuses et laïques. Elle dépeint une période de transition entre l'âge carolingien et les prémices de la formation des États-nations européens, tout en témoignant de l'affaiblissement progressif des califats islamiques face à des forces internes et externes montantes.
La Montée et le Déclin du Califat Abbasside
La transition de la dynastie omeyyade à la dynastie abbasside en 750 après J.-C. représente un tournant majeur dans l'histoire islamique. La révolte qui a conduit à la chute des Omeyyades était largement soutenue par les musulmans qui cherchaient un changement, notamment les chiites et les non-Arabes (comme les Perses), qui s'étaient sentis marginalisés sous le règne omeyyade. Avec l'ascension des Abbassides, qui prétendaient descendre de l'oncle de Mahomet, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, le centre de pouvoir a été déplacé de Damas à Bagdad. Cette période, souvent considérée comme l'âge d'or de l'islam, a été marquée par des avancées significatives dans les domaines de la science, de la culture, de la philosophie, de la médecine et du droit. Les Abbassides ont favorisé le mécénat des sciences et des arts, attirant des savants, des artistes et des penseurs de tout l'empire et même au-delà.
Cependant, le califat abbasside a commencé à décliner vers la fin du 11ème siècle, en grande partie à cause des croisades. Ces guerres menées par les puissances chrétiennes européennes visaient à reprendre le contrôle des lieux saints en Terre Sainte. Bien que les croisades n'aient pas directement renversé les Abbassides, elles ont affaibli le califat en drainant ses ressources et en exacerbant les divisions internes. En parallèle, à partir du milieu du 13ème siècle, les invasions mongoles ont représenté une menace encore plus grande pour le monde islamique. Les Mongols, sous la conduite de chefs comme Gengis Khan et ses successeurs, ont conquis de vastes territoires en Asie, y compris des régions musulmanes.
Le point culminant de cette période de crise pour les Abbassides fut la prise de Bagdad par les Mongols en 1258, dirigée par Hulagu Khan. Cette conquête a non seulement marqué la fin du califat abbasside, mais a également entraîné une destruction massive et des pertes de vies humaines, mettant fin à l'âge d'or de la civilisation islamique. Ainsi, vers la fin du 13ème siècle, le monde islamique était profondément transformé, pris en étau entre les croisades à l'ouest et les invasions mongoles à l'est. Ces événements ont non seulement changé la structure politique de l'islam, mais ont également eu un impact durable sur son développement culturel, scientifique et religieux.
Entre 1258 et 1500, le monde musulman reste très fragile entre les croisades et les Mongoles. La création de l’Empire ottoman et l’empire Séfévides (1501-1736) vont le stabiliser.
La carte représente la répartition géographique des trois grands empires musulmans du 16ème au 18ème siècle, souvent désignés comme les "Empires de la poudre à canon" en raison de leur utilisation innovante de la poudre à canon dans l'expansion militaire et la consolidation de leur pouvoir. Ces empires sont l'Empire ottoman, l'Empire safavide et l'Empire moghol. L'Empire ottoman, en vert, avec sa capitale à Constantinople (actuelle Istanbul), s'étendait sur l'Anatolie, le Moyen-Orient, une partie de l'Afrique du Nord et des Balkans en Europe. C'était un empire qui non seulement a utilisé la poudre à canon de manière révolutionnaire, mais qui a également laissé un héritage durable dans la région en termes d'architecture, d'administration et de culture. Le territoire en orange représente l'Empire safavide, centré en Perse (actuel Iran). Les Safavides sont notables pour avoir établi le chiisme duodécimain comme religion officielle de l'Empire, ce qui a contribué à façonner l'identité religieuse de la région. La capitale safavide était Ispahan, célèbre pour sa splendide architecture et son rôle en tant que centre des arts et du commerce. En violet, l'Empire moghol couvre une grande partie du sous-continent indien. Fondé par Babur, descendant de Tamerlan et Gengis Khan, l'Empire moghol est connu pour sa richesse, son mécénat des arts et de l'architecture – comme le célèbre Taj Mahal – et son administration relativement progressiste et pluraliste sous des empereurs comme Akbar. Cette carte illustre une période où ces empires dominaient la politique mondiale et le commerce, grâce en partie à leurs avancées militaires et à leur puissance économique. Leur héritage se retrouve dans les frontières modernes, les langues, la religion et la culture des régions qu'ils gouvernaient. La période des Empires de la poudre à canon a également été marquée par des échanges culturels et scientifiques importants, des guerres territoriales fréquentes et un commerce intercontinental florissant.
La prise du Caire par les Ottomans en 1517 est un autre jalon important dans l'histoire islamique, marquant l'expansion de l'Empire ottoman et sa revendication du titre de califat. Cette période marque le début de l'hégémonie ottomane sur une grande partie du monde musulman, qui allait durer plusieurs siècles. Sous la direction de Selim Ier, les Ottomans ont vaincu le Sultanat mamelouk d'Égypte et de Syrie, étendant ainsi leur empire au Moyen-Orient, en Afrique du Nord, et dans certaines parties de l'Europe. Avec cette expansion, Selim Ier a revendiqué le titre de calife, affirmant ainsi non seulement un pouvoir politique, mais aussi une autorité religieuse sur les musulmans sunnites. Le transfert du centre du califat à Istanbul, la capitale ottomane, a renforcé la position de l'Empire ottoman comme une puissance majeure à la fois dans le monde islamique et sur la scène internationale. Cependant, à la fin du 19ème siècle, l'Empire ottoman était en déclin. Confronté à des défis internes et externes, y compris la montée du nationalisme parmi ses territoires, la concurrence des puissances européennes, et des problèmes économiques, l'empire a commencé à perdre son influence et son territoire.
Malgré ce déclin, l'Empire ottoman a conservé le titre de califat jusqu'à son abolition. Le titre de calife, bien qu'ayant perdu une grande partie de sa signification politique effective, conservait une importance symbolique et religieuse. Le calife était toujours considéré par de nombreux musulmans comme le chef spirituel de la communauté sunnite, même si cette position n'était plus soutenue par une puissance politique ou militaire substantielle. La fin de l'Empire ottoman et l'abolition du califat après la Première Guerre mondiale en 1924 par la République de Turquie, sous Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, ont marqué la fin d'une ère dans l'histoire islamique. Cela a laissé un vide en termes de leadership religieux sunnite qui continue d'influencer les dynamiques politiques et religieuses dans le monde musulman contemporain.
L'Abolition du Califat et la Modernisation de la Turquie
L'abolition du califat en 1924 par Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, le fondateur de la République de Turquie, représente un moment décisif dans l'histoire moderne du monde musulman. Cette décision a marqué la fin officielle de l'institution du califat, qui avait été une caractéristique centrale de la gouvernance islamique pendant près de treize siècles. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, un leader réformateur et visionnaire, était déterminé à moderniser et séculariser la Turquie dans le sillage de la chute de l'Empire ottoman après la Première Guerre mondiale. Dans le cadre de ses réformes radicales, il a cherché à transformer la Turquie en un État-nation laïc, s'éloignant des structures et des idéologies de l'Empire ottoman. L'abolition du califat était une étape clé dans ce processus. En mars 1924, l'Assemblée nationale turque a abrogé le califat, expulsant le dernier calife, Abdülmecid II, et marquant ainsi la fin de l'une des institutions les plus anciennes et les plus symboliques de l'islam. Cette décision a été motivée par le désir d'Atatürk de promouvoir une identité turque nationale et de réduire l'influence de l'islam sur la politique de l'État.
L'abolition du califat a eu un impact profond sur le monde musulman. Elle a laissé un vide en matière de leadership religieux dans l'islam sunnite et a soulevé des questions sur l'autorité religieuse et politique dans l'islam. De nombreux musulmans à travers le monde ont été choqués par cette décision, et elle a suscité des débats sur la nature du leadership dans l'islam et le rôle de la religion dans la société moderne. Depuis lors, aucun État ou mouvement n'a réussi à rétablir le califat de manière largement reconnue, bien que le concept de califat ait continué à occuper une place importante dans le discours islamique. L'abolition du califat par Atatürk reste un événement significatif dans l'histoire de l'islam et continue d'influencer les discussions sur la relation entre l'islam et l'État dans le monde musulman contemporain.
L'Émergence et la Chute de l'État Islamique de Daesh
Entre 2014 et 2019, un événement marquant a eu lieu dans le contexte contemporain de l'islam avec l'autoproclamation d'Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi en tant que calife. Al-Baghdadi, le leader de l'État islamique en Irak et en Syrie (EIIS), également connu sous le nom de Daesh, a déclaré la formation d'un califat sur les territoires sous contrôle de son organisation en Irak et en Syrie. Cette proclamation, faite en juin 2014, a été largement rejetée par la communauté musulmane mondiale, tant les dirigeants religieux que les gouvernements. Les actions et l'idéologie de Daesh ont été condamnées comme étant en contradiction flagrante avec les principes et les enseignements de l'islam. La brutalité et l'extrémisme de Daesh, notamment ses actes de violence, ses exécutions de masse, et ses violations des droits de l'homme, ont été universellement dénoncés.
Le prétendu califat de Daesh a tenté d'établir une gouvernance basée sur une interprétation extrême et littérale de la loi islamique, mais a suscité l'opposition et l'hostilité à la fois au niveau local et international. Une coalition internationale, comprenant de nombreux pays musulmans, a été formée pour combattre Daesh, aboutissant à la perte progressive de son territoire et à l'affaiblissement significatif de l'organisation. En octobre 2019, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi a été tué lors d'une opération militaire américaine en Syrie, un coup porté à la direction de Daesh et symbolisant la fin effective de son soi-disant califat. Cette période a mis en lumière les défis auxquels est confronté le monde musulman contemporain, notamment en ce qui concerne les questions d'extrémisme, de gouvernance et de l'identité islamique. La tentative d'Al-Baghdadi de revivifier le concept de califat a été perçue comme une distorsion des principes islamiques et a soulevé des questions importantes sur l'avenir de la gouvernance et de l'autorité religieuse dans l'islam.
Période Préislamique et l'Ère de l'Ignorance: "Jahiliya"
La notion de "Jahiliya" dans l'islam est un concept clé pour comprendre la perception musulmane de l'histoire et de la société. Jahiliya, qui se traduit littéralement par "période d'ignorance", fait référence à l'époque préislamique en Arabie, avant la révélation du Coran au prophète Mahomet au 7ème siècle. Cette période est souvent caractérisée, dans les sources islamiques, comme une époque de ténèbres morales et spirituelles. La Jahiliya est associée à des pratiques considérées incompatibles avec les enseignements de l'islam, telles que le polythéisme, l'injustice sociale, la décadence morale, et les conflits tribaux. Le message de l'islam, avec son accent sur le monothéisme, l'éthique, la justice sociale et la formation d'une communauté unie sous la foi en un seul Dieu, est donc vu comme une rupture radicale avec les traditions et les pratiques de la Jahiliya.
Dans le discours islamique contemporain, le terme Jahiliya est parfois utilisé pour décrire des situations ou des sociétés perçues comme étant éloignées des principes islamiques, même au-delà du contexte arabe préislamique. Certains intellectuels et penseurs musulmans ont utilisé le concept de Jahiliya pour critiquer ce qu'ils considèrent être des aspects corrompus ou non islamiques de la société moderne, y compris dans les sociétés musulmanes elles-mêmes. Cependant, cette utilisation du terme Jahiliya dans un contexte contemporain est souvent controversée et fait l'objet de débats au sein de la communauté musulmane. Pour la majorité des musulmans, la Jahiliya reste principalement un concept historique, se référant spécifiquement à l'Arabie préislamique et à ses traditions. La Jahiliya est une notion importante dans l'islam, car elle symbolise non seulement un passé historique, mais aussi un état d'être que l'islam cherche à transcender à travers ses enseignements sur la spiritualité, la morale, et la communauté. Sur le plan spatial, Dar al Islam (pays de l’Islam) et Dar al Harb (pays de guerre). Il existe aussi une différence entre les gens : ceux du livre (Al-Kithab), adhérant aux religions monothéistes et invité à adhérer à l’Islam et les autres (qui disparaissent).
Le Statut des Non-Musulmans en Islam: "Dhimmi"
Dans le contexte historique de l'islam classique, le concept de "Dhimmi" est une notion importante pour comprendre comment les sociétés musulmanes ont interagi avec les non-musulmans. Les Dhimmis sont les citoyens non-musulmans vivant dans un État islamique, bénéficiant d'une protection spéciale et de certains droits en vertu de la loi islamique, tout en étant soumis à certaines restrictions et obligations. Selon les principes de la Charia (loi islamique), les Dhimmis étaient principalement des adhérents de religions monothéistes telles que le christianisme et le judaïsme. Ils étaient autorisés à pratiquer leur religion, à administrer leurs propres affaires communautaires et étaient protégés par l'État musulman. En échange de cette protection et du droit de pratiquer leur religion, les Dhimmis devaient payer une taxe spéciale appelée "jizya". La jizya était perçue comme un symbole de la soumission des Dhimmis à l'autorité musulmane et en échange de l'exemption du service militaire, qui était obligatoire pour les citoyens musulmans.
Cette approche était en partie basée sur les enseignements du Coran et de la Sunna (tradition du Prophète Mahomet), qui préconisent la tolérance envers les "gens du Livre" (Ahl al-Kitab), terme utilisé pour désigner les juifs et les chrétiens, qui, comme les musulmans, adhèrent à des écritures révélées. Il est important de noter que l'application de ces principes a varié au fil du temps et selon les régions. Dans certaines périodes et régions, les Dhimmis jouissaient d'une liberté et d'une tolérance considérables, tandis que dans d'autres contextes, ils pouvaient être soumis à des restrictions plus strictes et à des discriminations.
Avec le déclin des empires traditionnels islamiques et la montée des États-nations modernes, le statut de Dhimmi a progressivement perdu son importance pratique. Dans le monde musulman contemporain, les principes de citoyenneté et de droits égaux, indépendamment de la religion, ont largement remplacé le système traditionnel de Dhimma. Cependant, le concept historique de Dhimma reste un sujet d'intérêt et de débat parmi les chercheurs et les penseurs, à la fois pour comprendre l'histoire de l'islam et pour ses implications sur les relations interreligieuses contemporaines.
Tolérance et Traitement des "Gens du Livre"
Le concept des "Gens du Livre" (Ahl al-Kitab) dans l'islam, qui fait référence principalement aux Juifs et aux Chrétiens, est centré sur la tolérance plutôt que sur l'égalité au sens moderne du terme. Dans les sociétés islamiques médiévales, ce statut était une manière de reconnaître et de respecter la présence de communautés religieuses non-musulmanes au sein de l'État islamique, tout en établissant un cadre légal spécifique pour leur intégration et leur interaction avec la majorité musulmane.
Les principes de la Charia (loi islamique) accordent aux Gens du Livre certains droits et protections en tant que communautés monothéistes possédant des écritures révélées. Ils étaient autorisés à pratiquer leur religion, à maintenir leurs lieux de culte, et à être jugés selon leurs propres lois en matière de mariage, de divorce et d'autres affaires personnelles. Cependant, ce statut n'impliquait pas l'égalité complète avec les musulmans dans le cadre politique et social de l'époque. Les Dhimmis (les non-musulmans vivant sous protection musulmane) devaient payer une taxe spéciale, la jizya, et étaient souvent soumis à certaines restrictions légales et sociales. Par exemple, ils pouvaient être limités dans la construction de nouveaux lieux de culte ou la manifestation publique de leur foi. Ils étaient également exemptés du service militaire, qui était obligatoire pour les musulmans.
Il est important de souligner que la mise en œuvre et l'interprétation de ces règles variaient considérablement selon les époques et les régions. Dans certains contextes historiques, les communautés des Gens du Livre ont prospéré sous la domination musulmane, contribuant de manière significative à la société, à la culture, et à l'économie. Dans d'autres cas, elles ont pu faire face à des restrictions plus sévères et à des discriminations. Dans le contexte contemporain, le concept des Gens du Livre et le statut de Dhimmi ont perdu une grande partie de leur pertinence pratique, les États musulmans modernes s'orientant généralement vers des principes de citoyenneté et d'égalité des droits, indépendamment de la religion. Néanmoins, ces concepts historiques restent importants pour comprendre la façon dont les sociétés islamiques médiévales géraient la diversité religieuse et les relations intercommunautaires.
Divergences et Points Communs: Sunnisme vs Chiisme
La Tradition Chiite et ses Différentes Interprétations
Pour les chiites, la légitimité du leadership après la mort de Mahomet repose sur le principe de la désignation divine et la lignée familiale du Prophète. Ils croient que le califat aurait dû revenir à Ali ibn Abi Talib, cousin et gendre de Mahomet, et à ses descendants, les imams. Les chiites considèrent que ces imams, issus de la lignée d'Ali et de Fatima (la fille de Mahomet), possèdent une autorité spirituelle et temporelle unique en raison de leur lien de sang avec Mahomet et leur désignation divine. Cette croyance a donné naissance à une forte culture du martyr au sein du chiisme, notamment en raison des tragédies et des persécutions subies par Ali et ses descendants, en particulier Husayn ibn Ali, tué lors de la bataille de Kerbala. Le martyr de Husayn est un élément central du chiisme, symbolisant la lutte contre l'injustice et la tyrannie.
D'un autre côté, la majorité sunnite de l'islam ne reconnaît pas l'autorité religieuse héréditaire des imams chiites. Pour les sunnites, le calife doit être choisi par consensus ou élection parmi la communauté musulmane (Ummah) et n'a pas besoin d'être un descendant direct de Mahomet. Les sunnites se concentrent sur la Sunna, les enseignements et les pratiques de Mahomet, comme source d'autorité religieuse, et rejettent l'idée qu'une autorité intermédiaire spécifique soit nécessaire entre Dieu et le croyant. Pour eux, les érudits religieux (oulémas) et juristes (fuqaha) jouent un rôle important dans l'interprétation du Coran et de la Sunna, mais ils ne sont pas considérés comme ayant une autorité divine ou infaillible. Ces différences entre chiites et sunnites en termes de leadership, d'autorité et d'interprétation religieuse sont à la base de nombreuses divergences théologiques, rituelles et politiques qui caractérisent ces deux principales branches de l'islam.
Le chiisme est subdivisé en plusieurs branches, chacune avec sa propre interprétation de la succession des imams après Ali ibn Abi Talib, le premier imam selon les chiites. Les Zaydites, principalement présents au Yémen, reconnaissent Zayd ibn Ali, le petit-fils de Husayn, comme leur cinquième imam. Ils diffèrent des autres chiites en n'exigeant pas que l'imam soit un descendant direct de Husayn par son fils aîné. Les Zaydites ont joué un rôle important dans l'histoire du Yémen et continuent d'influencer la politique yéménite. Les Ismaéliens, quant à eux, suivent la lignée des imams jusqu'au septième, Ismaïl ibn Jafar, d'où ils tirent leur nom. Ils divergent du chiisme duodécimain après le sixième imam, Jafar al-Sadiq, en reconnaissant Ismaïl comme l'imam légitime suivant. Les Ismaéliens sont connus pour leur interprétation ésotérique du Coran et leur riche tradition intellectuelle. Cette branche a donné naissance à l'ordre des Assassins au Moyen Âge et est aujourd'hui représentée par l'Aga Khan.
Le chiisme duodécimain, majoritaire parmi les chiites actuels, reconnaît une succession de douze imams, le dernier étant Muhammad al-Mahdi. Né en 868, le douzième imam, selon les croyances duodécimaines, est entré en occultation en 941. Les duodécimains croient qu'il reviendra à la fin des temps en tant que Mahdi, pour établir la justice et la paix. Cette croyance en l'Imam caché est un élément central de la théologie duodécimaine et joue un rôle important dans l'attente eschatologique des chiites. Ainsi, le chiisme, avec ses différentes branches, représente une riche et diverse tradition au sein de l'islam, caractérisée par une emphase particulière sur la figure de l'imam, la spiritualité, et l'attente du retour du Mahdi.
L’Islam sunnite: Écoles Juridiques et Théologiques
Dans l'islam sunnite, la diversité des interprétations jurisprudentielles et théologiques a donné naissance à plusieurs écoles de pensée, connues sous le nom de Madhahib. Ces écoles ne représentent pas des divisions sectaires, mais plutôt des approches méthodologiques différentes dans l'interprétation de la Charia, la loi islamique. Les quatre principales écoles sont les Hanafites, les Malékites, les Chaféites et les Hanbalites.
L'école Hanafite, fondée par Abu Hanifa au 8ème siècle, est renommée pour son approche rationnelle de la jurisprudence. Abu Hanifa, un pionnier dans le domaine de la fiqh (jurisprudence islamique), a souligné l'importance de la raison et de l'opinion personnelle (ra'y) dans l'interprétation des textes religieux. Cette école est particulièrement influente en Asie du Sud, en Turquie et dans les Balkans. La Malékite, établie par Malik ibn Anas, met l'accent sur les pratiques et les traditions de la communauté de Médine, considérée comme un modèle de société islamique, car c'est là que le prophète Mahomet a passé les dernières années de sa vie. Prédominante en Afrique du Nord et dans certaines régions d'Afrique subsaharienne, cette école se distingue par son adhésion aux hadiths, les récits des actes et paroles du prophète. Al-Chafii, fondateur de l'école Chaféite au début du 9ème siècle, a introduit un système rigoureux qui combinait la tradition (hadith) avec l'analogie (qiyas) et le consensus (ijma). Ses enseignements ont joué un rôle crucial dans la codification de la jurisprudence islamique. Cette école est largement suivie en Égypte, en Asie du Sud-Est et dans certaines parties de l'Afrique de l'Est. Enfin, l'école Hanbalite, initiée par Ahmad ibn Hanbal, est considérée comme la plus conservatrice des quatre. Ibn Hanbal était un ardent défenseur des hadiths comme source principale de la loi islamique, rejetant l'usage de la raison humaine dans l'interprétation des textes sacrés. Son école a eu une influence notable en Arabie Saoudite et dans les pays du Golfe.
Ces écoles juridiques reflètent la diversité et la richesse de la pensée islamique sunnite. Elles ont contribué à façonner la manière dont les musulmans comprennent et pratiquent leur foi à travers les siècles. Bien qu'il existe des différences entre ces écoles en termes de méthodologies et de conclusions jurisprudentielles, elles partagent un respect mutuel et sont toutes reconnues comme des interprétations valables de la loi islamique dans le monde sunnite. Cette diversité reflète la capacité de l'islam à s'adapter à différents contextes culturels et historiques, tout en maintenant un cadre cohérent de croyance et de pratique.
Le Moyen-Orient, riche en diversité culturelle et religieuse, abrite plusieurs groupes religieux qui, bien que partageant des racines avec l'islam chiite, ont développé des croyances et des pratiques distinctives. Ces groupes, souvent étiquetés comme syncrétiques ou hétérodoxes, comprennent les Alawites en Syrie, les Qizilbash en Iran et en Anatolie, les Druzes principalement au Liban, en Syrie et en Israël, et les Alévis en Turquie.
Les Alawites, concentrés en Syrie, ont évolué à partir du chiisme duodécimain et ont intégré des éléments du gnosticisme, du christianisme et d'autres traditions. Leur vénération d'Ali, qu'ils considèrent comme une manifestation divine, ainsi que d'autres aspects de leur théologie, les distinguent des courants principaux de l'islam. Cette croyance particulière en Ali a souvent été source de tensions avec les communautés sunnites et chiites traditionnelles. Les Qizilbash, originaires d'Anatolie et d'Iran, ont joué un rôle déterminant dans l'établissement de l'Empire safavide en Iran, et leur pratique du chiisme vénérait la famille royale safavide. Le terme "Qizilbash" a été utilisé historiquement pour désigner une variété de groupes chiites turcs, caractérisés par leur loyauté envers les Safavides. Les Druzes, dont la présence est notable au Liban, en Syrie et en Israël, ont émergé du chiisme ismaélien au 11ème siècle. Leur foi intègre la croyance en la réincarnation et d'autres doctrines uniques, et ils pratiquent un certain degré de secret religieux. Les Druzes ne cherchent pas à convertir d'autres personnes et se concentrent sur leur propre communauté. En Turquie, les Alévis forment un groupe distinct, mélangeant des éléments du chiisme, du soufisme et des traditions anatoliennes préislamiques. Ils valorisent l'amour, la tolérance et la spiritualité, et se distinguent des pratiques orthodoxes sunnites et chiites par leurs rites de culte et leurs croyances.
Ces communautés, avec leurs pratiques uniques et leurs interprétations théologiques, illustrent la richesse de la mosaïque religieuse du Moyen-Orient. Leurs traditions, souvent marquées par un syncrétisme de croyances et de pratiques, reflètent les influences historiques, culturelles et religieuses de la région. Bien que parfois considérées avec suspicion ou hostilité par les courants islamiques plus orthodoxes, ces communautés continuent de jouer un rôle important dans le tissu social et culturel de leurs pays respectifs, témoignant de la diversité et de la complexité des paysages religieux du Moyen-Orient.
Annexes
- Ayalon, Ami. Language and change in the Arab Middle East: the evolution of modern political discourse. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1987.
- Myhill, John. Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: a historical study. Vol. 21. John Benjamins Publishing, 2006.