« Nationalism and regionalism » : différence entre les versions
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It is a broad topic because there is a long history behind these topics and they are analyzed by multiple disciplines. | |||
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= | = The conceptual uncertainty of nationalism
= | ||
Nationalism is a huge intellectual project. Nationalism has been studied in many disciplines not only in political science and international relations, but also in sociology, anthropology and economics. | |||
Nationalism has a powerful and ambiguous political force in the contemporary world because it can mobilize individuals towards collective goals, including protecting the nation from potential threats or fighting for an exclusive national territory. Nationalism is a conceptual uncertainty, Anderson speaks of "philosophical poverty" with an emancipatory side and a repressive capacity. | |||
The emancipatory element is the force behind liberation movements against colonial oppression. Only societies that developed a nationalism within themselves arrived at a more progressive state. It is among the philosophers of the Enlightenment that one finds the conception of a positive and negative nationalism with extremely nationalisms that can be considered as aberrations. The repressive element is for example the extreme genocidal hate motive. | |||
Nationalism has a diversity in geographical and historical space, but also in time. Nationalism is not a southern phenomenon. Although there were nationalist movements that led to independence in Latin America in the 19th century and colonies in the 20th century from the 1960s onwards, this is a phenomenon that has been observed in northern countries. Many political geographers are interested in the techniques used by the state in northern countries. | |||
= Nation | = Nation - Nationalisme
= | ||
Nationalism is based on the idea of the nation. For Renan when the conference What is a nation? of 1882 proposes a definition of the nation: "A nation is a soul, a spiritual principle. Two things which, to tell the truth, make one, constitute this soul, this spiritual principle. One is in the past, the other in the present. One is the common possession of a rich legacy of memories; the other is the present consent, the desire to live together, the willingness to continue to value the inheritance one has received undivided. For Renan, national identity is a collective identity with a destiny constructed as a similar story. | |||
= Perspectives
= | = Perspectives
= | ||
== | == Primordial / essentialist perspective == | ||
The human being is considered as belonging to a nation. National identity is like a biological trait. It contains Ratzel's thought that binds the people to the ground with a perspective of the origin of the essentialist nations that is based on biological determinity naturalism. This is a perspective that has now been rejected, but which is present in a political perspective. Although present today, "primordialism" is widely rejected in scientific research. National identity is linked to the emergence of the modern state in Western Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. | |||
== | == Ethno-symbolist perspective == | ||
This perspective is based on the fact that most nations are based on ethnic ties and traditions that will become resources for the formation of nations. The idea is that at some point there is a tradition on the basis of which the nation was formed. Nationalism is a discourse and a construction. It is the historical context that determines how these traditions are used. | |||
For Anthony Smith, the "ethnic" connotation is a discursive construction. National identities are formed around ethnic identities, under particular social, economic or political conditions. Today's nations draw their existence from links with earlier communities, namely "ethnic groups". There are several characteristics of an ethnic group: collective proper name; myth of a common ancestry; shared historical memories; one or more differentiating elements of a common culture; association with a territory/country; a feeling of solidarity. | |||
== Perspectives | == Modernist Perspectives == | ||
It is in this perspective that most geographers, especially political geographers, work today. Nations emerged after the formation of states. The emphasis is placed on the production of national identity through spaces and scales, hence the interest of political geography. Researchers from this perspective focus on processes. | |||
Ernest Gellner's research (1925 - 1995) focuses on the transition from agrarian society to industrial society, the role of mass education and the creation of the nation by necessity. Eric Hobsbawm's (1917-2012) are about the post-revolutionary era in France, the rise of capitalism, the creation of national allegiances by rich elites. According to him, intentional social manipulations ("false consciousness", "invented traditions"). | |||
= Benedict Anderson : Imagined Communities (1983)
= | = Benedict Anderson: Imagined Communities (1983)
= | ||
== Imagined Communities (1983) == | == Imagined Communities (1983) == | ||
A nation is an imagined community, not an imaginary community opposing Gellner and Hobsbawm, there are real communities juxtaposed with nations. On the other hand, the limited and sovereign nation. For Anderson, what shapes human communities is not that they are authentic or false, but the ways in which they are imagined. | |||
Nationalism is a cultural artifact that occurs through a complex crossing of discrete historical forces towards the end of the 18th century. Once created, these artifacts become "modular", capable of being transplanted into very diverse social terrains and adapted to diverse political and ideological constellations. Emphasis is placed on regular cultural practices producing and reproducing the relevance of the national identity such as the census, the map, the museum. | |||
For Anderson, the origin of national consciousness is the emergence of print media and capitalist development. The revolutionary vernacularization marks the decline of Latin. The impact of the Reformation and the diffusion of particular vernaculars was an instrument of administrative centralisation beginning before the 16th century. It is an "explosive" interaction of a production system, a technology, and the "fatal" diversity of languages. There is a causal association between the emergence of state sovereignty and national identity from a historical context, but this questions evolution "after history". | |||
== Le nationalisme comme mouvement social == | == Le nationalisme comme mouvement social == | ||
Version du 17 mai 2018 à 10:32
It is a broad topic because there is a long history behind these topics and they are analyzed by multiple disciplines.
The conceptual uncertainty of nationalism
Nationalism is a huge intellectual project. Nationalism has been studied in many disciplines not only in political science and international relations, but also in sociology, anthropology and economics.
Nationalism has a powerful and ambiguous political force in the contemporary world because it can mobilize individuals towards collective goals, including protecting the nation from potential threats or fighting for an exclusive national territory. Nationalism is a conceptual uncertainty, Anderson speaks of "philosophical poverty" with an emancipatory side and a repressive capacity.
The emancipatory element is the force behind liberation movements against colonial oppression. Only societies that developed a nationalism within themselves arrived at a more progressive state. It is among the philosophers of the Enlightenment that one finds the conception of a positive and negative nationalism with extremely nationalisms that can be considered as aberrations. The repressive element is for example the extreme genocidal hate motive.
Nationalism has a diversity in geographical and historical space, but also in time. Nationalism is not a southern phenomenon. Although there were nationalist movements that led to independence in Latin America in the 19th century and colonies in the 20th century from the 1960s onwards, this is a phenomenon that has been observed in northern countries. Many political geographers are interested in the techniques used by the state in northern countries.
Nation - Nationalisme
Nationalism is based on the idea of the nation. For Renan when the conference What is a nation? of 1882 proposes a definition of the nation: "A nation is a soul, a spiritual principle. Two things which, to tell the truth, make one, constitute this soul, this spiritual principle. One is in the past, the other in the present. One is the common possession of a rich legacy of memories; the other is the present consent, the desire to live together, the willingness to continue to value the inheritance one has received undivided. For Renan, national identity is a collective identity with a destiny constructed as a similar story.
Perspectives
Primordial / essentialist perspective
The human being is considered as belonging to a nation. National identity is like a biological trait. It contains Ratzel's thought that binds the people to the ground with a perspective of the origin of the essentialist nations that is based on biological determinity naturalism. This is a perspective that has now been rejected, but which is present in a political perspective. Although present today, "primordialism" is widely rejected in scientific research. National identity is linked to the emergence of the modern state in Western Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Ethno-symbolist perspective
This perspective is based on the fact that most nations are based on ethnic ties and traditions that will become resources for the formation of nations. The idea is that at some point there is a tradition on the basis of which the nation was formed. Nationalism is a discourse and a construction. It is the historical context that determines how these traditions are used.
For Anthony Smith, the "ethnic" connotation is a discursive construction. National identities are formed around ethnic identities, under particular social, economic or political conditions. Today's nations draw their existence from links with earlier communities, namely "ethnic groups". There are several characteristics of an ethnic group: collective proper name; myth of a common ancestry; shared historical memories; one or more differentiating elements of a common culture; association with a territory/country; a feeling of solidarity.
Modernist Perspectives
It is in this perspective that most geographers, especially political geographers, work today. Nations emerged after the formation of states. The emphasis is placed on the production of national identity through spaces and scales, hence the interest of political geography. Researchers from this perspective focus on processes.
Ernest Gellner's research (1925 - 1995) focuses on the transition from agrarian society to industrial society, the role of mass education and the creation of the nation by necessity. Eric Hobsbawm's (1917-2012) are about the post-revolutionary era in France, the rise of capitalism, the creation of national allegiances by rich elites. According to him, intentional social manipulations ("false consciousness", "invented traditions").
Benedict Anderson: Imagined Communities (1983)
Imagined Communities (1983)
A nation is an imagined community, not an imaginary community opposing Gellner and Hobsbawm, there are real communities juxtaposed with nations. On the other hand, the limited and sovereign nation. For Anderson, what shapes human communities is not that they are authentic or false, but the ways in which they are imagined.
Nationalism is a cultural artifact that occurs through a complex crossing of discrete historical forces towards the end of the 18th century. Once created, these artifacts become "modular", capable of being transplanted into very diverse social terrains and adapted to diverse political and ideological constellations. Emphasis is placed on regular cultural practices producing and reproducing the relevance of the national identity such as the census, the map, the museum.
For Anderson, the origin of national consciousness is the emergence of print media and capitalist development. The revolutionary vernacularization marks the decline of Latin. The impact of the Reformation and the diffusion of particular vernaculars was an instrument of administrative centralisation beginning before the 16th century. It is an "explosive" interaction of a production system, a technology, and the "fatal" diversity of languages. There is a causal association between the emergence of state sovereignty and national identity from a historical context, but this questions evolution "after history".
Le nationalisme comme mouvement social
Selon Gellner, les nationalistes cherchent la congruence entre l’unité nationale et l’unité politique. On peut différencier deux variations :
- nationalisme ethnique : évolution de la conviction de l’existence d’un groupe ethnique ou national au processus et à la pratique politique organisé autour de cette conviction comme, par exemple, le Pays basque ou le Tamil Eelam, mais encore des mouvements irrédentistes ;
- nationalisme civique : processus dirigé par l’État qui vise le développement de la nation ; forme de patriotisme ou citoyenneté qui célèbre l’existence d’un État comme, par exemple, les examens de citoyenneté.
Il faut faire attention, car il y a la tendance à voir ces deux variations comme distinguer géographiquement comme le phénomène « orientaliste » différenciant les nationalismes Sud et Nord, mais dans la pratique, les deux ne sont pas toujours différenciables.
Nationalisme – régionalisme
D’une certaine manière, il y a une logique similaire. Le régionalisme se retrouve dans différents points du monde, mais dans le contexte spécifique de l’Europe, cela à mené à l’émergence de régions plus prononcées en Europe qu’ailleurs. Beaucoup d’instruments financiers ont donné de l‘appui aux régions.
Qu’est-ce qu' une région ?
- perspective économique : les régions sont créés par le marché ;
- perspective politique : régions créées « top-down » par l’État ;
- perspective culturelle : régions « ethnosymboliste » qui se basent sur l’idée qu’il y a une histoire partagée et une solidarité des destins communs ;
- perspective écologique : régions définies par l’environnement.
La région, comme la nation est une construction, car chaque construction va créer un « nous » qui a une frontière avec des « autres ». Cela se retrouve dans les mouvements régionalistes. La géographie politique s’intéresse à la production des régions et aux luttes régionales, mais aussi aux divisions territoriales et aux raisons de ces divisions.
Ainsi, Paasi distingue trois approches pour comprendre les régions :
- approches préscientifiques : la région comme unité spatiale nécessaire pour la recherche empirique notamment à travers les statistiques comparés ;
- approches disciplinaires : la région comme objet ou résultat analytique émergent du processus de la recherche. Ces régions peuvent néanmoins influencer la politique (manuels scolaires, etc.) ;
- approches critiques : la région comme construction sociale, résultat de processus et luttes politiques. Ces approches analysent la régionalisation dans son contexte géographique et historique et dans le contexte plus large de la formation et transformation des États.
Le régionalisme alpin
Le régionalisme émerge des partis populistes dans des régions alpines comme la Lega Nord, la Ligue savoisienne ou encore le Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs avec une représentation à Bruxelles et des ambitions internationales. Ce sont des régions qui cherchent à s’émanciper des capitaux nationaux mobilisant l’identité régionale à des buts politiques. Il y a la construction d’une histoire à travers des notions de patrie, de tradition, de sentiments conservateurs ou encore autour de l’écologie. C’est la construction d’une région et d’un « espace vécu ».
Il y a plusieurs enjeux liés aux territoires dans les Alpes. La Convention Alpine néglige le niveau régional. En parallèle il y le programme « Espace Alpin » de l’Union européenne qui est un programme transfrontalier qui finance des projets. Dans ce programme, le périmètre de l’espace alpin est beaucoup plus large que la Convention Alpine. Il y a une stratégie macro-régionale lancée par les régions, mais portée par les États qui se base sur l’idée d’une macro-région alpine qui suit plus ou moins le périmètre de l’espace alpin.
L’analyse de Xavier Long traite du double paradoxe du régionalisme alpin avec des populismes dans les Alpes qui font référence à un espace supranational, non local et tirent profit de la constitution d’un espace européen, mais il y a « la mise en place d’un échelon de référence distant ne fait que renforcer le local élargi ». La territorialité est vue comme une « représentation idéelle […] sans nier la réalité de la montagne-objet, il est nécessaire de travailler en parallèle à la montagne-idée [...] Aujourd’hui, l’appartenance alpine est d’abord une construction intellectuelle […] les liens au territoire ne se décrètent pas, mais sous certaines conditions le discours peut fabriquer du territoire, si les populations l’intègrent et si le moment géographique est propice ». L’identité n’est jamais complète, c’est un processus en transformation autour des pratiques.
Résumé
La géographie politique s’intéresse au nationalisme et au régionalisme parce qu’on les trouve à l’origine de toute division territoriale et des luttes autour de ces divisions et y retrouve la mobilisation de l’espace à des fins politiques. Le nationalisme a un double visage avec la manifestation comme force émancipatoire ainsi que comme force répressive donne au concept une incertitude conceptuelle/philosophique.
L’identité nationale et le nationalisme émergent dans le contexte de la formation des États. Il y a de nombreux facteurs qui peuvent servir comme fondation pour un mouvement nationaliste, mais il n’est pas possible d’anticiper avec précision les facteurs qui seront déterminants. La région, comme la nation, est une construction sociale. L’analyse de la régionalisation constitue un domaine de recherche par excellence pour la géographie politique.