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We will see how Weber thought about the structure and now how we see the structure in the light of Weberian light and according to the contributions of Crozier and psychosociological criticism. There are different types of administrative structures and organizations. We will try to see what their limitations and benefits are. The first two types can be described as ideal-typical or building blocks that will be used in the other three types. | |||
= | = Organization by function = | ||
[[Fichier:App1 organisation par fonction 1.png|vignette]] | [[Fichier:App1 organisation par fonction 1.png|vignette]] | ||
Two main ideas govern this type of organization: the idea of specialization[1], people need to concentrate on a task they master, and the idea of strict hierarchy[2] with a very centralized and pyramid-like view of the organization of public administration. Coordination between departments is done through hierarchical channels. The Directorate-General is responsible for coordinating between the various departments. Very often, it is a mode of organization used for the functional services of public administration: | |||
* | * personnel management; | ||
*information ; | * information; | ||
*finance ; | * finance; | ||
* | * accounting | ||
The organization by function is often found where functional services are found, but it is possible to imagine a public service organized solely by function with specialties that exercise competence in matters of concern to it. It is a model that is quite similar to the idea of a Weberian "steel cage" with specialized people, hierarchies and coordination through the summit. | |||
Advantages: | |||
* Take advantage of the specialization of tasks: skills, professionalization and standardization. The objective is to give a quality of service that is the same for everyone; | |||
* reduction of vertical coordination costs: centralisation of the decision by the Directorate-General. The question of coordination is resolved vertically. Consistency in public administration could be more easily guaranteed. In other words, consistency is guaranteed by the decision-making centre; | |||
* No duplication of work: there is one service that does not duplicate skills in each of the departments and departments. | |||
Disadvantages: | |||
* risk of compartmentalization between functional divisions:"baronnies", selfishness and esprit de corps, there is no overall vision. Everyone is concerned about his or her department and there is no overall view of what is happening in the administration; | |||
* slow decision-making processes, cumbersome coordination and bottlenecks at the top: especially if there are different points of view between divisions; | |||
* lack of autonomy and little clear accountability from the various divisions: the risk is that people behave passively and simply do what they are asked to do * lack of generalists; | |||
* no overall customer vision. | |||
Through this model, there is an attempt to deny the political responsibilities of public administration. Only one actor with a political function is the Directorate-General. The three political roles as presented by Bezes are not taken into account. It is a component found in almost all jurisdictions. | |||
= Organisation by product, operation or customer = | |||
= Organisation | |||
[[Fichier:App1 organisation par opération 1.png|vignette]] | [[Fichier:App1 organisation par opération 1.png|vignette]] | ||
A hierarchy remains unique, but below it, there is not more functional service, but on the contrary divisional directorates from which there will be much more autonomy given to managers through operational divisions. The executive management will define broad strategic objectives and within the division, the broad strategic objectives will be translated into more rational objectives. Political power is not confiscated by the Directorate-General, but can also be exercised at the level of the operational division, which can be articulated in four different ways: | |||
*division | *division by product: division by political object, there is an autonomy to define strategic objectives; | ||
*division | *division by client: we will create different divisions according to the clients of the public administration. Divisions are no longer organized around a political object, but around the public and public administration in particular; | ||
*division | *division by region: in some countries administrations, sections or services are available for certain regions; | ||
*division | *division by process: the divisions will set up a specific process. For example, the budget process must follow a certain number of steps and the division by process will allow the necessary skills to be focused on completing the budget process. | ||
The main difference with the organization by function is that there is a given autonomy at the divisional level. | |||
Advantages: | |||
* relieves management of operational tasks: it can concentrate on the overall policy strategy and leave the division's translation of strategic issues into the working method; | |||
* facilitates coordination and accelerates decision making within each division: this is a division-specific strategy; | |||
* flexibility for the division manager: adapting to changes in the environment, customer proximity; | |||
* promotes delegation and performance monitoring; | |||
* reorganizations without transforming the entire administration. | |||
Disadvantages: | |||
* risk of inconsistencies between divisions: too much empowerment of divisions; | |||
* risk of increased costs: duplication of functional skills, lack of synergies between divisions; | |||
* lack of consideration of general or transversal problems affecting the whole administration: risk of capture by clients or regional interests. The risk of capture is that the organization or division that is supposed to be working for the public interest, instead of working for the public interest, will work for the particular public it is supposed to be dealing with; | |||
* possible difficulties linked to the lack of centralisation of the decision: for example, if there is no willingness to cooperate between the divisions and the Directorate-General. | |||
What solutions are being discussed to get out of each of these two types of organization and to reconcile and combine the benefits? How can the advantages of hierarchy be combined with the advantages of autonomy, specialization and a global vision? How can we promote equal treatment by ensuring that public administration is not captured by vested interests in a context where cost and efficiency control is important? We are in a context where the emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency is dominant. Solutions have been proposed to meet this challenge. | |||
= | = Functional and operational organization = | ||
[[Fichier:App1 structure fonctionnelle-opérationnelle 1.png|vignette]] | [[Fichier:App1 structure fonctionnelle-opérationnelle 1.png|vignette]] | ||
It is a type of organization that we find regularly, it is the most frequent. The idea is to say that we are going to introduce central agencies into the public administration that will be in charge of so-called "functional" services. One centralized unit will deal with human resources management, another unit will deal with information, etc. managing all the crosscutting elements found in all departments of the public administration. | |||
Central services also called "staff agencies" will help to provide the necessary support so that people who are closer to the field and can perform their duties. These are services which will ensure cooperation between services which will also be more operational. Staff agencies make sure that the different divisions pull well together, that there is no conflict and that they follow the same objectives. Two functions are important: providing central and necessary services[1] and avoiding operational duplication[2]. A third function is that of "adviser to the Prince"[3], adviser to the General Administration. There will also be a business planning function[4]. These functions have been assigned within the framework of this structure assigned to the staff agencies. | |||
The operational level is responsible for delivering benefits and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the public service. Staff agencies have a "back office" role and those in the field are the line agencies, i. e. those who are in contact with the public. The risk is that everything at the operational division level will be designed according to the business unit model. | |||
The risk is that "staff agencies" become operational service controllers and will monitor what is happening at the operational level, which could create a barrier to autonomy that should be left to the operational division. There is a risk of significant conflict between staff agencies and line agencies in the field. This risk of conflict arises in the following way: very often,"staff agencies" will assume that the operational level resists coordination in line with their own interests, and "line agencies" would be captive of the public interest. There would be a natural tendency to be spendthrift, to have a corporatist vision of an administration and to be concerned only with its interests. Line agencies that tend to see functional services as being in a form of "ivory tower". The "line agencies" will call into question the skills of "staff agencies" and they will denounce the tendency of "staff agencies" to confiscate power. | |||
This structure can have drawbacks and limitations in the way public administration structures are managed. Political power is largely reserved for staff management and line agencies. We are in an implementation where operational autonomy is highly regulated. | |||
= Organisation matricielle = | = Organisation matricielle = | ||
| Ligne 146 : | Ligne 141 : | ||
= References = | = References = | ||
<references/> | <references /> | ||
[[Category:science-politique]] | [[Category:science-politique]] | ||
Version du 20 février 2018 à 19:38
We will see how Weber thought about the structure and now how we see the structure in the light of Weberian light and according to the contributions of Crozier and psychosociological criticism. There are different types of administrative structures and organizations. We will try to see what their limitations and benefits are. The first two types can be described as ideal-typical or building blocks that will be used in the other three types.
Organization by function
Two main ideas govern this type of organization: the idea of specialization[1], people need to concentrate on a task they master, and the idea of strict hierarchy[2] with a very centralized and pyramid-like view of the organization of public administration. Coordination between departments is done through hierarchical channels. The Directorate-General is responsible for coordinating between the various departments. Very often, it is a mode of organization used for the functional services of public administration:
- personnel management;
- information;
- finance;
- accounting
The organization by function is often found where functional services are found, but it is possible to imagine a public service organized solely by function with specialties that exercise competence in matters of concern to it. It is a model that is quite similar to the idea of a Weberian "steel cage" with specialized people, hierarchies and coordination through the summit.
Advantages:
- Take advantage of the specialization of tasks: skills, professionalization and standardization. The objective is to give a quality of service that is the same for everyone;
- reduction of vertical coordination costs: centralisation of the decision by the Directorate-General. The question of coordination is resolved vertically. Consistency in public administration could be more easily guaranteed. In other words, consistency is guaranteed by the decision-making centre;
- No duplication of work: there is one service that does not duplicate skills in each of the departments and departments.
Disadvantages:
- risk of compartmentalization between functional divisions:"baronnies", selfishness and esprit de corps, there is no overall vision. Everyone is concerned about his or her department and there is no overall view of what is happening in the administration;
- slow decision-making processes, cumbersome coordination and bottlenecks at the top: especially if there are different points of view between divisions;
- lack of autonomy and little clear accountability from the various divisions: the risk is that people behave passively and simply do what they are asked to do * lack of generalists;
- no overall customer vision.
Through this model, there is an attempt to deny the political responsibilities of public administration. Only one actor with a political function is the Directorate-General. The three political roles as presented by Bezes are not taken into account. It is a component found in almost all jurisdictions.
Organisation by product, operation or customer
A hierarchy remains unique, but below it, there is not more functional service, but on the contrary divisional directorates from which there will be much more autonomy given to managers through operational divisions. The executive management will define broad strategic objectives and within the division, the broad strategic objectives will be translated into more rational objectives. Political power is not confiscated by the Directorate-General, but can also be exercised at the level of the operational division, which can be articulated in four different ways:
- division by product: division by political object, there is an autonomy to define strategic objectives;
- division by client: we will create different divisions according to the clients of the public administration. Divisions are no longer organized around a political object, but around the public and public administration in particular;
- division by region: in some countries administrations, sections or services are available for certain regions;
- division by process: the divisions will set up a specific process. For example, the budget process must follow a certain number of steps and the division by process will allow the necessary skills to be focused on completing the budget process.
The main difference with the organization by function is that there is a given autonomy at the divisional level.
Advantages:
- relieves management of operational tasks: it can concentrate on the overall policy strategy and leave the division's translation of strategic issues into the working method;
- facilitates coordination and accelerates decision making within each division: this is a division-specific strategy;
- flexibility for the division manager: adapting to changes in the environment, customer proximity;
- promotes delegation and performance monitoring;
- reorganizations without transforming the entire administration.
Disadvantages:
- risk of inconsistencies between divisions: too much empowerment of divisions;
- risk of increased costs: duplication of functional skills, lack of synergies between divisions;
- lack of consideration of general or transversal problems affecting the whole administration: risk of capture by clients or regional interests. The risk of capture is that the organization or division that is supposed to be working for the public interest, instead of working for the public interest, will work for the particular public it is supposed to be dealing with;
- possible difficulties linked to the lack of centralisation of the decision: for example, if there is no willingness to cooperate between the divisions and the Directorate-General.
What solutions are being discussed to get out of each of these two types of organization and to reconcile and combine the benefits? How can the advantages of hierarchy be combined with the advantages of autonomy, specialization and a global vision? How can we promote equal treatment by ensuring that public administration is not captured by vested interests in a context where cost and efficiency control is important? We are in a context where the emphasis on effectiveness and efficiency is dominant. Solutions have been proposed to meet this challenge.
Functional and operational organization
It is a type of organization that we find regularly, it is the most frequent. The idea is to say that we are going to introduce central agencies into the public administration that will be in charge of so-called "functional" services. One centralized unit will deal with human resources management, another unit will deal with information, etc. managing all the crosscutting elements found in all departments of the public administration.
Central services also called "staff agencies" will help to provide the necessary support so that people who are closer to the field and can perform their duties. These are services which will ensure cooperation between services which will also be more operational. Staff agencies make sure that the different divisions pull well together, that there is no conflict and that they follow the same objectives. Two functions are important: providing central and necessary services[1] and avoiding operational duplication[2]. A third function is that of "adviser to the Prince"[3], adviser to the General Administration. There will also be a business planning function[4]. These functions have been assigned within the framework of this structure assigned to the staff agencies.
The operational level is responsible for delivering benefits and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the public service. Staff agencies have a "back office" role and those in the field are the line agencies, i. e. those who are in contact with the public. The risk is that everything at the operational division level will be designed according to the business unit model.
The risk is that "staff agencies" become operational service controllers and will monitor what is happening at the operational level, which could create a barrier to autonomy that should be left to the operational division. There is a risk of significant conflict between staff agencies and line agencies in the field. This risk of conflict arises in the following way: very often,"staff agencies" will assume that the operational level resists coordination in line with their own interests, and "line agencies" would be captive of the public interest. There would be a natural tendency to be spendthrift, to have a corporatist vision of an administration and to be concerned only with its interests. Line agencies that tend to see functional services as being in a form of "ivory tower". The "line agencies" will call into question the skills of "staff agencies" and they will denounce the tendency of "staff agencies" to confiscate power.
This structure can have drawbacks and limitations in the way public administration structures are managed. Political power is largely reserved for staff management and line agencies. We are in an implementation where operational autonomy is highly regulated.
Organisation matricielle
L’idée est de dire qu’on ne va pas mettre de lien hiérarchique entre les « staff agencies » et les « line agencies », on les met au même niveau. On va créer une matrice organisationnelle, à chaque croisement, cela va donner lieu à des collaborations entre les services concernés. Le point important est l’absence de hiérarchie entre les services qui sont amenés à collaborer à l’intersection entre une ligne et une colonne. On essaie de supprimer la question de la hiérarchie qui était le problème dans l’organisation fonctionnelle et opérationnelle. La structure matricielle propose une organisation moins hiérarchique en entrecroisant les services.
Avantages :
- vision plus globale des problèmes en raison de la prise en compte de points de vue diversifiés : c’est un système qui permet de diminuer la tendance au cloisonnement de l’administration publique ;
- fluidité de la structure : évite le cloisonnement entre les directions et les services et permet d’inventer des solutions innovantes ;
- capacité de s’adapter aux exigences des clients et de la concurrence ;
- développement, motivation du personnel, collaboration interne au sein des équipes, mobilité du personnel : participation des collaborateurs à la décision ;
- décisions qui se basent sur le savoir des spécialistes plutôt que sur l’autorité formelle du centre décisionnel : déchargement de la direction centrale.
Les avantages découlent très largement de l’idée de promotion de l’idée d’autonomie et de décloisonnement de l’administration publique. Les désavantages découlent de la même source que les avantages.
Inconvénients :
- flux bidimensionnel de l’autorité : à un croisement, le risque est d’avoir deux chefs, il n’y aura pas de responsabilité décisionnelle clairement établit entre ces deux services, on obéit à deux chefs. Cela va à l’encontre totale des principes de Fayol. Dans l’approche matricielle, il y a une approche bidimensionnelle de l’autorité alors que dans les autres types de structures, il n’y a qu’une seule direction. Ainsi, il peut y avoir des instructions contradictoires et des luttes de pouvoir possibles ;
- conflits entre les responsables fonctionnels et les responsables par opération, par région et par projet : rejet des responsabilités en cas d’échec ;
- processus de décision plus lent en raison du nombre de personnes impliquées ;
- tendance (paradoxale) à plus de bureaucratisation pour mettre sur pied les projets et régler les conflits : l’organisation matricielle, lorsqu’elle échoue, peut paradoxalement entrainer une rebureaucratisation de l’organisation.
Organisation par processus
Ce modèle a été mis en avant par deux auteurs suisses, Thom et Ritz dans Public Management: innovative Konzepte zur Führung im öffentlichen Sektor publié en 2006 qui essaient de trouver un mode raffiné et élaboré afin de répondre aux précédentes questions. On entre dans un modèle qui est compliqué. L’idée est de trouver un organigramme qui permette de répondre à l’ensemble des problèmes combinés pour en exploiter les avantages et en écarter les désavantages. Ce modèle à inspiré un certain nombre de réformes dans l’administration fédérale suisse.
Au-delà de l’organisation fonctionnelle, opérationnelle, fonctionnelle-opérationnelle ou matricielle : Thom et Ritz vont parler de l’organisation par processus. Il faut reformer l’administration publique pour concentrer les forces en identifiant des processus centraux (Kernprozesse). Les processus centraux sont des chaînes d’activités qui découlent des choix, des objectifs et des missions stratégiques de l’administration. D’autre part, ils tiennent compte de l’ensemble des acteurs impliqués (des fournisseurs [en amont] aux clients [en aval]) et définissent ainsi que délimitent les responsabilités claires de chaque acteur de la chaîne.
Similitudes avec la direction par objectifs (DPO)
La direction par objectif est une idée reprise du management. Dans The Practice of Management publié en 1954, Drucker montre que l’organisation par processus va intégrer l’idée d’organisation par objectifs. On va organiser la gestion de l’organisation à partir de l’attribution d’objectifs en fournissant des cibles (quantifiées) à atteindre, en donnant aux employés la possibilité de contribuer à la définition des objectifs, en évaluant les résultats par rapport aux objectifs fixés. L’idée d’organisation par processus a des similitudes très fortes avec l’idée de direction par objectifs. Cela veut dire donner plus d’autonomie opérationnelle aux gens sur le terrain.
Étapes à suivre pour une organisation par processus : Thom et Ritz
Il faut suivre trois étapes afin de trouver la solution la plus adéquate possible aux problèmes identifiés.
Définition des processus de l’administration en fonction de leur utilité pour les clients
Les clients peuvent être internes à l’administration publique, mais la plupart du temps ce sont des clients externes. Lorsqu’on cherche à définir les processus d’administration, il faut tenter de définir trois types de processus :
- processus de direction : activités stratégiques et opérationnelles. On va s’interroger sur la manière de mettre en œuvre les processus de direction et comment les piloter. Une mission générale va être définie au niveau politique et des activités opérationnelles vont dire comment on doit atteindre cet objectif général et quels sont les instruments à mettre en œuvre pour piloter. La mission doit être établie par des conventions objectives qui vont être signées avec les gens chargés de mettre en œuvre les conventions objectives.
- processus centraux: quels sont les processus que l’on va identifier comme étant indispensables ? Cela suit des règles avec comme premier critère est l’utilité sociale [1], le deuxième est la non-substituabilité [2], le troisième critère est l’idée de non-imitabilité [3]. Il ne s’agit pas de démultiplier les processus centraux, mais il faut se limiter à maximum cinq processus centraux. Il s’agit d’analyser le travail accompli dans l’administration publique et de se concentrer sur l’accomplissement des processus centraux.
- processus de soutien : ce sont les soutiens dont vont avoir besoin les processus centraux pour qu’ils soient appliqués correctement comme l’informatique, le droit, etc.
Structuration organisationnelle des processus
Selon les fonctions, la complexité et, ou les clients, ils réfléchissent à la manière dont on va structurer les processus centraux. Les processus partiels peuvent être organisés de différentes manières selon les clients, le degré de complexité de ce qu’on a à faire, la fonctionnalité et la complexité des tâches.
Responsables de la gestion des processus centraux : managers et leurs équipes
Il y a deux caractéristiques centrales : la proximité du client [1] et la marge de manœuvre étendue [2]. Le schéma décrit la manière dont les processus partiels devraient être organisés. Pour chacun des processus partiels, l’idée est de mettre en place des équipes qui vont permettre d’atteindre le mieux possible les objectifs visés. Ce qui devient important au niveau des processus partiels n’est plus la structure, n’est plus l’organigramme, mais les gens et les personnes qui doivent être disponible pour coopérer, être polyvalente, prêtes à mettre en commun avec les autres et dans les équipes, il n’y a pas de hiérarchie qui peut être mise en place. Il va y avoir un gestionnaire d’équipe, mais pas de hiérarchie à proprement parlé. Il y a le « job enlargement » car on élargie les compétences et les missions et le « job enrichment » est le fait de donner des compétences de décision aux gens dans l’équipe concernée, et l’ « autocontrôle », ces gens seraient motivés et vont forcement agir et donner le meilleur d’eux-mêmes pour accomplir ces objectifs.
Avantages :
- rapidité des processus : enchaînement direct de toutes les tâches ;
- réduction de la complexité : par le nombre limité de processus centraux :
- orientation client (de l’administration) : plus stratégique et plus focalisée sur les clients ;
- réduction des coûts : par la suppression de tâches qui ne sont pas essentielles pour les processus ;
- amélioration de la qualité et de l’innovation : grâce à l’orientation vers les clients.
Inconvénients :
- risque de sous-estimer le besoin de savoir et de connaissances spécialisées, ainsi que la nécessité d’un personnel compétent pour certaines fonctions ;
- risque de conflit entre plusieurs (équipes de) processus qui concernent les mêmes clients ;
- risque de surpilotage des processus : avec fiction de l’optimisation continue jusque dans les plus petits détails ;
- réduction trop importante de la hiérarchie : peut faire émerger de nouveaux conflits.
Conclusion
La recherche de la structure d’une administration idéale doit faire face à trois obstacles qui entravent la constitution d’une science administrative ou d’une structure administrative idéale selon Dahl dans The Science of Public Administration: Three Problems publié en 1947 :
- « Writers on public administration often assume that they are snugly insulated from the storms of clashing values [...] The doctrine of efficiency is a case in point » ;
- « The field of organizational theory serves as an extreme example, for it is there particularly that the nature of man is often lost sight of in the interminable discussions over idealized and abstract organizational forms » ;
- « There should be no reason for supposing, then, that a principle of public administration has equal validity in every nation-state, or that successful public administration in one country will necessary prove successful in a different social, economic, and political environment ».