Modification de American society in the 1920s

{{Infobox Lecture
 | image = 
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 | cours = [[The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries]]
 | faculté = [[Lettres]]
 | département = [[Département d’histoire générale]]
 | professeurs = [[Aline Helg]]<ref>[https://www.unige.ch/lettres/istge/unites/hco/anciens-collaborateurs/helg/ Aline Helg] - [https://www.unige.ch/ UNIGE]</ref><ref>[https://unige.academia.edu/AlineHelg Aline Helg] - [https://www.academia.edu/ Academia.edu]</ref><ref>[https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aline_Helg Aline Helg] - Wikipedia</ref><ref>[http://www.afrocubaweb.com/helg.htm Aline Helg] - [http://www.afrocubaweb.com/ Afrocubaweb.com]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aline_Helg Aline Helg] - [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aline_Helg Researchgate.net]</ref><ref>[https://www.cairn.info/publications-de-Aline-Helg--670782.htm Aline Helg] - [https://www.cairn.info Cairn.info]</ref><ref>[https://scholar.google.fr/citations?user=h3hUuPgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Aline Helg] - [https://scholar.google.fr/schhp?hl=en Google Scholar]</ref>
 | enregistrement = 
 | lectures = 
*[[The Americas on the eve of independence]]
*[[The independence of the United States]]
*[[The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society]]
*[[The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas]]
*[[The independence of Latin American nations]]
*[[Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies]]
*[[The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery]]
*[[The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877]]
*[[The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900]]
*[[Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910]]
*[[The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940]]
*[[American society in the 1920s]]
*[[The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940]]
*[[From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy]]
*[[Coups d'état and Latin American populisms]]
*[[The United States and World War II]]
*[[Latin America during the Second World War]]
*[[US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty]]
*[[The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution]]
*[[The Civil Rights Movement in the United States]]
}}

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties," was a decade of great social, cultural, and economic change in the United States. After the end of World War I, the country experienced a period of prosperity and optimism, as well as significant changes in social norms and values. The rise of the "flapper" culture, in which young women embraced new styles of dress and behavior, was one of the most notable social trends of the decade. The economy boomed, and new technologies, such as automobiles and radios, became widely available. However, the prosperity of the 1920s was not shared by all Americans, as many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality. Additionally, the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression.

At the end of the 19th century, the United States shifted its focus from annexing territories for settlement to occupying regions for political and economic control. The Spanish-American War in 1898 marked a significant turning point in American imperialism in the Americas. The United States emerged victorious and gained control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines, as well as gaining influence over Cuba. The subsequent construction of the Panama Canal solidified American control over the region and allowed for easier access to Central and South America. The United States then began to consider the Caribbean and Central America as its own sphere of influence and began to exert political and economic control over these regions through various means such as military intervention, economic aid, and diplomatic pressure.

The First World War, also known as World War I, did result in significant destruction and ruin in Europe, and it had a profound impact on the global balance of power. The war marked the end of European dominance and the rise of the United States as a major world power. The US entered the war in 1917 and its involvement was decisive in turning the tide against the Central Powers. The war also brought an end to the British Empire's status as the dominant global power, and the United States emerged as the world's leading economic and military power. With the end of the war, the United States took on a greater role in international affairs, and its economic and military strength allowed it to exert significant influence over global affairs. The idea of the white man's burden, a term used to describe the belief that it was the duty of the European powers and the United States to "civilize" the rest of the world, was also prevalent in the U.S foreign policy during the period.

There are similarities between the cultural and artistic developments in the United States in the 1920s and in Mexico at the same time. Both countries were undergoing a period of significant social and cultural change, and there were efforts to create a distinct national culture that was free from European influences. In the United States, the "Roaring Twenties" saw a rise in jazz music, the Harlem Renaissance, and the emergence of a new generation of writers, artists, and intellectuals who sought to create a distinct American culture. Similarly, in Mexico, the 1920s and 1930s were a time of cultural and artistic flowering known as the Mexican Renaissance, where Mexican artists and intellectuals sought to create a national culture that reflected Mexico's indigenous and mestizo heritage. They also rejected the European influence on the art and culture of Mexico. This movement was led by figures such as Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, who sought to promote a new, national identity through their art and literature.{{Translations
| fr = La société étasunienne des années 1920
| es = La sociedad americana en la década de 1920
}}
 
=The Second Industrial Revolution=

The first industrial revolution, which took place in the late 18th and early 19th century, was characterized by the development of new technologies and manufacturing processes in the textiles, metalworking, and transportation industries. These innovations led to an increase in productivity and a shift from manual labor to machine-based manufacturing, which in turn led to a significant increase in economic growth and prosperity. This industrial revolution also helped make the United States one of the world's wealthiest and most developed nations.

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, built upon the advancements of the first industrial revolution and brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. This period saw an acceleration in the pace of technological change, and new technologies such as the telegraph, telephone and internal-combustion engine. It also led to the rise of new industries such as the automobile and petrochemical industries, which further contributed to the economic growth and modernization of the United States and other developed countries. The Second Industrial Revolution also profoundly impacted society, leading to the growth of cities, the rise of new forms of transportation, and the creation of new forms of work and leisure.

The First World War, which ended in 1918, significantly impacted the global economy and the balance of power between nations. The war caused significant destruction and loss of life in Europe and left many of the European powers in economic and physical ruins. The United States, on the other hand, entered the war later and did not suffer the same level of destruction and loss of life. As a result, the country emerged from the war in a much stronger economic position than the European powers.

The Second Industrial Revolution was already underway before the war. Still, the war accelerated technological innovations, and the United States was uniquely positioned to take advantage of these new technologies and industries. The country's economy boomed in the 1920s, as the manufacturing and transportation industries expanded, and new industries such as automobiles and chemicals emerged. The country's economy was not affected by the war as much as Europe, and the US was able to take advantage of this situation to become the world's leading economic power.

The United States also had the advantage of having a large domestic market, abundant natural resources, and a well-developed infrastructure, which allowed it to become the world's leading producer of goods and services. This economic dominance, coupled with the political and military power that the United States had gained due to its role in the war, positioned the country as a major player in global affairs and established it as a superpower in the 20th century.

==Mass production of consumer goods==

[[Fichier:A-line1913.jpg|thumb|200px|upright=1.2|right|Ford T assembly line in 1913. A swing allows to present a sub-assembly coming from an upper floor to the workstation where it will be mounted on the vehicle.]]

The Second Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 19th century, brought new innovations in the areas of steel production, electricity, and chemicals. One of the most notable developments of this period was the advent of mass production techniques, which allowed for the manufacture of consumer goods on a large scale. This led to a significant increase in productivity and a decrease in the cost of goods, making them more affordable for the average consumer.

One of the pioneers of mass production techniques was Henry Ford, who introduced the assembly line to the automobile industry. Ford's Model T was the first car to be produced on a large scale using the assembly line, and this greatly reduced the cost of production and made cars more affordable for the average consumer. This innovation revolutionised the automobile industry and significantly impacted American society, as the car became an essential part of everyday life.

Mass production techniques were also applied to other consumer goods, such as household appliances, cigarettes, and clothing. This led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. The assembly line and mass production techniques became a standard in the manufacturing industry and are still widely used today.

The main aim of the Second Industrial Revolution was to increase productivity, efficiency and lower production costs. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line, interchangeable parts, and electricity use, were all designed to achieve this goal.

The assembly line, for example, allowing for the efficient division of labour, where workers were assigned specific tasks, which increased the speed and volume of production. Interchangeable parts allowed for the mass production of goods, and the use of electricity allowed for the mechanisation of many manufacturing processes, further increasing productivity and efficiency.

The goal of producing more, faster, and cheaper was also reflected in the marketing and selling strategies of the companies. Mass production allowed for economies of scale, which made goods cheaper, which was a key to the success of many companies. This in turn led to an increase in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also had an impact on the labour market, as it led to the increase in the number of jobs in the manufacturing sector and the rise of the working class, but also led to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working-class labour unions.

To produce more, faster, and cheaper, Henry Ford set up large, highly efficient factories that employed the latest technologies and innovations. One of the key innovations Ford introduced was the assembly line, which revolutionised the automobile industry.

On the assembly line, each worker was assigned a specific task and was responsible for performing that task repeatedly as the car moved down the line. This division of labour greatly increased the speed and volume of production, as each worker became an expert in their specific task. This was a significant departure from the traditional manufacturing method, where each worker would complete the entire process of building a car, which was slow and inefficient.

Ford also standardised the components and accessories of the Model T, which allowed for the mass production of the car. This made it possible to produce cars at a much lower cost, making them more affordable for the average consumer. Using interchangeable parts made it possible to repair and maintain the cars more easily.

The assembly line and mass production techniques led to the creation of large, highly efficient factories that employed a large number of workers. This led to the rise of the working class, but also to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working-class labour unions. The assembly line also led to the creation of a new type of worker, the semi-skilled worker, who was only responsible for one task in the long production chain. This production method also led to the creation of the first industrial robots, which were designed to perform repetitive tasks and increased the efficiency of the production process.

The assembly line, which Henry Ford first introduced in the automobile industry, soon became the standard for many other industries as well. The success of the assembly line in the automobile industry demonstrated that mass-production techniques could also be applied to other consumer goods. This led to the widespread adoption of the assembly line in many other industries, such as appliances, electronics, and clothing.

The widespread adoption of the assembly line also led to a significant increase in the availability of consumer goods, which in turn contributed to the growth of consumer culture and the rise of a consumer-based economy. Companies began to focus on marketing and advertising to promote their products and create a demand for them. They tried to present new products as indispensable to every American and to make them believe that the model they already had was obsolete and needed to be replaced.

This marketing and advertising strategy, combined with the availability of cheap consumer goods, led to a significant increase in consumer spending, which contributed to the economy's growth. The emphasis on mass production and efficiency also led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing sector and the exploitation of labour and the rise of the working-class labour unions.

The rise of consumer culture and the emphasis on mass production also significantly impacted American society and values, as people began to place a greater emphasis on material possessions and the acquisition of goods. This led to the rise of consumerism, which continues to be a significant aspect of American culture today.

==Boom of the US economy==

The Second Industrial Revolution led to a spectacular boom in the American economy in the 1920s. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, leading to a significant increase in economic growth.

During this period, the United States experienced a significant increase in industrial production and a rise in gross national product (GNP) of 40%. This economic growth also led to an increase in per capita income, with the average annual income per person increasing by 30% and reaching 680 dollars per person in 1929. The population of the United States also grew significantly during this period, increasing from 100 million people in 1923 to 120 million people just ten years later.

This economic boom also led to an increase in consumer spending, which contributed to the economy's growth. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

The boom was not sustainable and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and the country entered a period of economic hardship that lasted until the end of the 1930s.

The economic boom of the 1920s led to an increase in wages for industrial workers in the United States, making them some of the highest-paid workers in the world. The increase in productivity and efficiency brought about by the Second Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the demand for labour, which in turn led to an increase in wages for industrial workers.

This wage increase also meant that industrial workers could afford to purchase some of the consumer goods they were manufacturing. This led to a rise in consumer spending and the growth of a consumer-based economy. The availability of cheap consumer goods, combined with the rise of consumer culture, led to a significant increase in demand for goods and services, which in turn led to the creation of jobs in the manufacturing and service sectors.

However, the benefits of this economic boom were not evenly distributed among all Americans. Many people, particularly African Americans and immigrants, continued to face discrimination and inequality and did not have the same access to these higher wages and the ability to purchase consumer goods.

The prosperity of the 1920s was not sustainable and the stock market crash of 1929 marked the end of the decade's prosperity and ushered in the Great Depression. The economic conditions deteriorated rapidly, and many Americans found themselves out of work and unable to afford the consumer goods they once could.

[[Image:Gdp20-40.jpg|thumb|centre|300px|Chart 1: USA GDP annual patterns and long-term trend, 1920-40, in billions of constant dollars<ref>based on data in Susan Carter, ed. ''Historical Statistics of the US: Millennial Edition'' (2006) series Ca9</ref>]]

==Price of this revolution==

The Second Industrial Revolution, which brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, had a significant impact on the country's rural areas. The focus on mass production and efficiency led to the growth of manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas. Many people, particularly farmers, left the countryside to search for work in the cities.

The growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas led to higher wages and a higher standard of living for many Americans, but this prosperity was not evenly distributed. The average annual income for industrial workers in urban areas was $680 per year, while the average annual income for farmers and rural workers was only $273 per year.

This income disparity leads to a significant migration of people from rural to urban areas in search of work. Millions of small farmers left the countryside, searching for better opportunities in the cities. This migration led to the growth of urban areas and the decline of rural areas, significantly impacting society and culture.

The focus on mass production and efficiency also had a negative impact on the environment and natural resources, as the overuse of resources and the pollution of the environment were not considered in the production process. This had a long-term impact on the environment, and it's something that is still being addressed today.

Although the Second Industrial Revolution brought about significant economic growth and prosperity in the United States during the 1920s, it also had negative consequences. One of the most significant negative consequences was the rise of unemployment. Despite the growth of the manufacturing and service sectors in urban areas, the focus on mass production and efficiency led to the displacement of many workers.

During the 1920s, there were several economic downturns, including a recession in 1921. This recession increased unemployment, with an estimated 5 million workers out of the labour force. This economic downturn should have been a warning sign for the country, but it was not taken seriously, and the economy continued to grow.

The Great Depression, which began in 1929, was a much more severe economic downturn that lasted until the end of the 1930s. The depression was caused by a combination of factors, including the stock market crash of 1929, the decline in consumer spending, and the collapse of the banking system. The depression led to a significant increase in unemployment, with an estimated 15 million people out of work. The unemployment rate reached 25% by 1933. The Great Depression was only ended with the Second World War, which led to a significant increase in government spending, particularly on defence, which helped stimulate the economy and create jobs.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the growth of large, highly-efficient factories and the rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses. These large businesses, also known as oligopolies, had a significant advantage over small businesses in terms of economies of scale and resource access. They could produce goods at a much lower cost than small businesses, making it difficult for small businesses to compete.

These oligopolies also benefited from government aid, which helped to suppress the labour movement and protect their businesses from competition. High tariffs and customs barriers were also imposed on imports from Europe and other countries, which further protected these large businesses from foreign competition.

This led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses and the decline of small businesses and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses, but also led to the exploitation of labour, and the rise of the working class labour unions.

The rise of these large oligopolies also significantly impacted American society, as they exerted significant influence over the political process and government policies. This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person.

The rise of large, shareholder-owned businesses, or oligopolies, during the Second Industrial Revolution, led to a decline in the power of the independent labour movement. The labour movement had grown very strong in 1918 and 1919, as workers organised and formed unions to demand better wages and working conditions.

However, the large, powerful businesses could neutralise the labour movement by using various tactics, such as creating company-controlled unions, offering company-provided welfare programs, and using government policies to suppress the labour movement.

One of the tactics used by these large corporations was the establishment of "welfare capitalism" programs, which were contracts that promised various benefits to workers, such as better wages and working conditions, and even pension programs for the remaining workers in the company. These programs were intended to pacify the workers and reduce the need for independent labour unions.

However, these programs were not always effective, and many workers continued to organise and form independent unions, despite the efforts of large corporations to suppress the labour movement. The labour movement continued to grow and evolve and significantly shaped American society and politics in the 20th century.

The Second Industrial Revolution, and the focus on mass production and efficiency, led to the decline of craft work and the rise of assembly line work. The new technologies and innovations that emerged during this period, such as the assembly line and mass production techniques, greatly increased productivity and efficiency, but it also led to the displacement of many skilled craft workers.

The process of eliminating small businesses and craft work was also seen in the retail sector, where small stores and independent merchants were replaceable distribution chains. During the Second Industrial Revolution, department stores replaced small stores and independent merchants, or oligopolies, which led to a concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses and the decline of small businesses and competition in the market. This also led to a decline in the number of jobs in small businesses and an increase in the number of jobs in large businesses.

This concentration of economic power in the hands of a few large businesses also led to a decline in the standard of living for many Americans, as the availability of cheap consumer goods made them more affordable for the average person. The decline of small businesses and craft work also had a significant impact on American society, as it led to a decline in the number of small businesses and independent merchants, which significantly impacted the communities they served.

=The new urban culture=

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties," was a decade of significant social, cultural, and economic change in the United States. The period was characterized by a shift away from rural life and traditional values towards urbanization and modernity. The rise of the "New Woman" and the "flapper" symbolized the changing social norms and attitudes of the time. Americans became increasingly interested in consumerism and the pursuit of pleasure, and the country saw a proliferation of new technologies and forms of entertainment, such as automobiles, radio, and jazz music. This new urban culture was particularly prevalent in major cities like New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles.

The mass production of goods during the 1920s led to a standardization of products, which in turn created a sense of uniformity among consumers. Additionally, the economic boom of the decade was largely driven by consumer spending, and, the number of consumers may not have been able to keep pace with the rapid growth in production. This ultimately led to an overproduction of goods and a decrease in sales, which contributed to the economic downturn that began in 1929. The stock market crash of October 1929, which marked the beginning of the Great Depression, further exacerbated the economic problems caused by overproduction.

==Mass consumption==

[[image:publicité de 1922.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Advertising is an agent of economic development. Advertising for Palmolive soap in 1922.]]

During the 1920s, the elite and middle class were the main beneficiaries of the consumer boom. With rising incomes and access to new forms of credit, they were able to purchase a wide range of consumer goods, including automobiles, appliances, and homes in the suburbs. These new consumer goods not only improved their standard of living but also helped to fuel economic growth. However, once these groups had acquired most of the durable goods they needed, their demand for consumer goods began to taper off, which contributed to the eventual economic downturn.

Furthermore, mass consumption also led to a significant increase in consumer debt, as many Americans were buying goods on credit, which was a new phenomenon of that time. This also contributed to the economic downturn and the stock market crash.

The benefits of the consumer boom of the 1920s were not evenly distributed. Many industrial workers and farmers were not able to participate in the mass consumption of the era. Many of these groups were still recovering from the economic difficulties of World War I, and they did not have the disposable income or access to credit to purchase the new consumer goods that were becoming available. This economic divide between the elite and middle class, who were able to participate in the consumer boom, and the working and rural classes, who were not, contributed to the growing social and economic inequalities of the time.

Furthermore, many of the goods that were produced during the 1920s through the credit or hire-purchase system were not affordable for these groups, which further reinforced the gap between those who could participate in the consumer boom and those who could not.

While the consumer boom of the 1920s brought economic growth and improved living standards for many Americans, it also reinforced existing social and economic inequalities, as many working and rural classes were not able to participate in the mass consumption of the era.

The increasing wealth inequality in the 1920s, combined with the saturation of the consumer market, was a significant factor contributing to the Great Crash of 1929 and the subsequent Great Depression. As you mentioned, the consumer boom of the 1920s was largely driven by the purchasing power of the elite and middle class, who were able to buy a wide range of consumer goods. However, as the market for consumer goods became saturated, these groups were no longer able to maintain their high levels of consumption, which in turn led to a decrease in demand for goods and a decline in economic activity.

The increasingly unequal distribution of wealth also played a role in the crash of 1929, as the wealthy had a disproportionate amount of money invested in the stock market, and when the market crashed, they were the ones who lost the most. Additionally, the fact that many people were buying stocks on margin, using loans to invest in the stock market, further exacerbated the stock market crash as the market crashed, many investors were unable to pay back their loans, which led to more widespread financial losses.

the 1920s was a decade of significant social, cultural, and economic change in the United States, and many of the major milestones of American culture were set during this time. The rise of the automobile, the proliferation of individual homes in the suburbs, the expansion of department stores and skyscrapers, and the growth of new forms of entertainment, such as radio and jazz music, all played a role in shaping the new urban culture of the era.

The car, in particular, had a major impact on American culture and society during the 1920s. The widespread adoption of the automobile led to the development of new infrastructure, such as highways and gas stations, and new forms of commercial development, such as hotels and drive-through restaurants. The car also enabled Americans to travel more easily, which led to the growth of tourism and vacationing. Additionally, the car also played a role in the changing social norms of the time by giving women greater mobility and independence.[[image:Manhattan New York City 1932.jpg|thumb|right|The skyscrapers on the Manhattan peninsula in New York in 1932.]]
 
The arrival of mass production and advertising, as well as mass culture and leisure, were key factors that contributed to the changing urban culture of the 1920s. Mass production made it possible to produce goods on a large scale and at a lower cost, which made them more affordable for the average consumer. Advertising helped to create demand for these goods by promoting them to a wide audience through various mediums such as newspapers, magazines, billboards and radio.

The growth of mass culture and leisure also played a role in shaping the new urban culture of the 1920s. The rise of new forms of entertainment, such as jazz music, movies, and sports, created new opportunities for leisure and socializing. The growth of department stores and other commercial establishments also provided new venues for shopping, dining, and entertainment. These changes in urban culture led to the emergence of a new consumer culture, in which people were encouraged to buy more and to spend more time enjoying leisure activities.

radio emerged as a powerful new medium of mass communication, and it played a significant role in shaping the new urban culture of the era. One of the key factors in the development of radio during this time was the growth of commercial radio, which was financed largely by advertising. Companies such as NBC (National Broadcasting Company) began to build networks of radio stations across the country, and they used these networks to deliver a wide range of programming, including music, news, and entertainment, to a mass audience.

Advertising became a major source of revenue for these commercial radio networks, as companies paid to have their products and services promoted on the air. This helped to make radio more affordable for the average consumer, as the costs of programming were offset by the revenue from advertising.

In addition to providing a new source of entertainment and information, radio also played a role in shaping the new consumer culture of the 1920s by promoting new products and lifestyles. Advertisements on radio encouraged people to buy new consumer goods, and programs like soap operas and cooking shows helped to create demand for these products.<ref>Cox, Jim (2009). [https://books.google.fr/books?id=tpxGeViyuPwC&pg=PA91&lpg=PA91&dq=Blue+Network+becomes+ABC+on+June+15,+1945&source=bl&ots=b2VbqtpFWC&sig=5YRHdEGKUyVjoWI766BZ-Z-XP4M&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mBXnUpG-DuiMyAHg6IHICQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Blue%20Network%20becomes%20ABC%20on%20June%2015%2C%201945&f=false American Radio Networks: A History]. pp. 14–98. ISBN 978-0-7864-4192-1.</ref> 

the emergence of radio as a new medium of mass communication in the 1920s greatly increased the speed and reach of information, and it played a major role in shaping the way people received and consumed news and entertainment. Sports were also broadcast by radio, allowing them to become more popular and reach a national audience. This helped to grow the popularity of sports like baseball, football, and boxing, and made them an important part of American culture and society. The ability to listen to live broadcasts of games on the radio also allowed people who could not attend the games in person to follow them, and made sports more accessible to a wider audience.

However, despite the growth of these sports, they remained segregated, meaning that African-Americans were not allowed to participate in the same leagues as whites. This racial segregation was a reflection of the broader societal issues of racism and discrimination that existed in the United States during this time.

In addition to sports, Hollywood also became a major center of film production during the 1920s, and the growth of the movie industry helped to shape the new urban culture of the era. Many of the films produced in Hollywood during this time were aimed at a mass audience, and they helped to create a new form of mass culture that was accessible to people of all backgrounds. However, some of the films produced in Hollywood during this time were seen as controversial and went against the conservative values of American society, leading to a reaction against Hollywood's perceived moral decay.

This led to a more selective censorship of films and the growth of the number of cinemas. The rise of Hollywood as a major center of film production also helped to create a new form of entertainment that was accessible to people of all backgrounds, and it played a role in shaping the new consumer culture of the 1920s by promoting new products and lifestyles.

==Vote==

In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified, giving women the right to vote. This was a significant achievement for the women's suffrage movement, which had been fighting for the right to vote for decades. However, as you pointed out, the gain of suffrage by women did not change much in the country's politics in general, especially for Black women, as they continued to be excluded from voting due to the Black Codes and discriminatory practices in the Southern states.

Additionally, even though women now had the right to vote, their role in society did not change much as men still continued to be the main wage-earning economic breadwinners in the family. Women were still expected to fulfill traditional roles as homemakers and caretakers, and they were not encouraged to participate in the workforce or politics in the same way as men were.

It would take many more years and another wave of feminist movement for Women to have a real impact on the political and social landscape of America.

After the passage of the 19th Amendment, the feminist movement did become divided in its goals and priorities. Some feminists focused on achieving social and political goals, such as obtaining advances from the federal government in areas like equal pay, access to education and employment, and reproductive rights. These feminists worked to change laws and policies to promote gender equality and women's rights.

On the other hand, other feminists focused on challenging traditional societal expectations and norms, particularly those related to gender roles and sexual liberation. They sought to break free from the traditional "Victorian straitjacket" that imposed restrictive societal expectations on women, and instead, aimed for greater personal freedom and self-expression. This included advocating for sexual liberation and the right to make their own choices about their bodies and sexuality.

This division within the feminist movement would continue through the 1920s and 1930s, with different groups of feminists pursuing different goals and strategies. It was only in the 1960s and 1970s with the second wave of feminism that the different factions of the movement came together again and focused on a more comprehensive agenda for women's rights and equality.

the shift towards women's emancipation during the 1920s was facilitated by a number of factors, including the decline in birth rates and the advent of new household technologies.

The decline in birth rates during this period meant that women had fewer children to care for, which gave them more time and energy to pursue other interests and goals. This was particularly true for middle-class women, who were more likely to have access to birth control and to be able to afford to limit the size of their families.

Additionally, the advent of new household technologies, such as washing machines, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators, also played a role in facilitating women's emancipation. These technologies reduced the amount of time and effort that women needed to spend on domestic tasks, which freed them up to pursue other activities and interests.

This combination of factors contributed to a gradual shift in societal expectations and norms, and allowed women more time and freedom to pursue their goals and aspirations. However, it would take many more years for these changes to be reflected in the legislation and policies that would give women true equality and rights.

The decline in birth rates during the 1920s also had an impact on children's lives and the age at which they entered the labor market. With fewer children being born, families could afford to invest more resources into each child's education. As a result, more children began to attend high school and university, which lengthened the time they spent living with their parents.

This trend towards later entry into the labor market was also a consequence of the growing economy and the availability of more white-collar jobs, which required more education and training. With higher levels of education, young people were better prepared to enter the workforce in professional or technical roles rather than in manual labor.

This change in the age at which children entered the workforce also had a significant impact on society, as it meant that young people were spending more time in school and less time working. This allowed them to develop a more diverse set of skills and interests, which would have a positive impact on their future careers and lives.

=The artistic creation=

The 1920s, also known as the "Roaring Twenties" were a time of great cultural and artistic innovation in the United States. The decade was marked by a spirit of experimentation and rebellion against traditional norms and values.

In literature, the 1920s saw the emergence of a new generation of writers, who were influenced by the social and political changes of the time. The era was marked by the emergence of the "lost generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot, who were known for their disillusionment with traditional values and their exploration of themes of disillusionment, alienation, and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

In art, the 1920s saw the emergence of the modernist movement, which rejected the traditional styles and techniques of the past in favor of new and experimental forms of expression. The decade was marked by the emergence of the Art Deco style, which was characterized by its geometric shapes, bold colors, and stylized forms. The 1920s also saw the emergence of jazz and the Harlem Renaissance, which brought a new energy and vitality to American art and culture.

In addition, the 1920s was a time of great change in the film industry, Hollywood became the center of film production, the introduction of sound in movies, and the emergence of the star system.

Overall, the 1920s was a time of great cultural and artistic innovation, and it laid the foundations for many of the artistic and cultural movements that would define the 20th century.

==The literary flowering==

the literary flowering of the 1920s was closely tied to the growth of cities and the emergence of a new intellectual elite. The writers of the "lost generation" were often critical of the industrial revolution and the alienation it produced. They explored themes of disillusionment and alienation in their writing, as well as the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

In literature, the 1920s saw the emergence of a new generation of writers, who were influenced by the social and political changes of the time. The era was marked by the emergence of the "lost generation" of writers, including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and T.S. Eliot, who were known for their disillusionment with traditional values and their exploration of themes of disillusionment, alienation, and the search for meaning in a rapidly changing world.

The writers of the 1920s also reflected the social and political changes of the time, such as the cultural changes brought about by the influx of immigrants, the growth of urban areas, and the changing roles of women.

Many of the writers of the 1920s were shocked by the new materialism of American culture and the lack of spiritual values. They often wrote about the emptiness and superficiality of the American dream, and the disillusionment that came with it.

Ernest Hemingway, for example, went into exile in Europe, where he was influenced by the modernist literary movement and the cultural and political changes of the time. He wrote about the disillusionment of World War I veterans and the moral ambiguity of the modern world in his novels, such as "The Sun Also Rises" and "A Farewell to Arms".

F. Scott Fitzgerald, on the other hand, remained in the United States and criticized the emptiness and lack of humanity of the American elite. He wrote about the disillusionment of the American dream and the moral decay of the wealthy in his novels, such as "The Great Gatsby" and "Tender Is the Night".

Their criticism of the new materialism and empty lifestyle of the American culture came through their literature and it helped to expose the gap between the wealthy and the rest of society and the moral decay of the upper classes.

Additionally, the 1920s saw the emergence of the Harlem Renaissance, which was a cultural movement of African American artists and intellectuals in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem. This movement produced a wealth of literary, artistic, and musical work, which helped to challenge the racial barriers of the time and promote a new sense of cultural pride among African Americans.

==Harlem Renaissance==

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that emerged in the African American community in the 1920s, particularly in the neighborhood of Harlem in New York City. It was a time of great artistic and intellectual flourishing for African Americans, and it produced a wealth of literary, artistic, and musical work.

The Harlem Renaissance was a response to the racial barriers and discrimination that African Americans faced at the time. It helped to challenge the stereotypes and negative portrayal of African Americans in the mainstream culture, and promoted a new sense of cultural pride among African Americans.

During this time, many African American writers, artists, and intellectuals came together to create a new literary and artistic movement that was unique to the African American experience. They wrote about the themes of race, identity, and the search for equality and freedom in their work.

Some of the most prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance include writers Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and James Baldwin, artists Aaron Douglas, Jacob Lawrence, and Romare Bearden, and musicians Duke Ellington and Bessie Smith. Their works were not only influential in African American community but also in American culture as a whole and helped to shape the American artistic and intellectual landscape of the time.<ref>Buck, Christopher (2013). [http://bahai-library.com/buck_america-mosaic_harlem_renaissance Harlem Renaissance in: The American Mosaic: The African American Experience]. ABC-CLIO. Santa Barbara, California.</ref><ref>Huggins, Nathan. Harlem Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973. ISBN 0-19-501665-3</ref>

The Harlem Renaissance was a powerful assertion of African American culture and identity, and it helped to establish Harlem and Chicago as major cultural centers for African Americans. Through the development of jazz, the blues, and literature, African Americans were able to express their unique experiences and perspectives and to claim their place in American society.

Jazz and the blues, in particular, played a significant role in the Harlem Renaissance. Jazz was a form of music that was heavily influenced by African American culture, and it was embraced by the African American community as a way to express their identity and to challenge the dominant white culture. Many jazz musicians, such as Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, became major figures in the Harlem Renaissance and helped to establish jazz as a major genre of American music.

The Harlem Renaissance also saw the emergence of a new generation of African American writers, who were deeply interested in exploring the roots of African American culture and the African diaspora. They wrote about the themes of race, identity, and the search for equality and freedom in their work. Their literature was published in magazines and journals, and it was widely read by African Americans and white audiences alike, it helped to shape the American literary landscape and increased the visibility of the African American experience in American society.<gallery mode="packed" widths="150" heights="150">
Fichier:WEB DuBois 1918 1.jpg|W. E. B. Du Bois.
Fichier:Naacplogo.png|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Fichier:Marcus Garvey 1924 08 05.jpg|Marcus Garvey in 1924
Fichier:Flag of the UNIA.svg|The red, black and green flag created by the UNIA in 1920.
</gallery>
 
 

W.E.B. Du Bois was one of the most prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance and the broader African American civil rights movement of the early 20th century. He was a sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist who wrote extensively about the African American experience, particularly the issues of race and racism. He was a leading voice in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was founded in 1909 and aimed to fight for the rights of African Americans.

During the Harlem Renaissance, Du Bois was a major intellectual voice in the African American community, he wrote and edited the NAACP's magazine The Crisis, which became a platform for many of the major figures of the Harlem Renaissance to express their views and ideas. He was also a major advocate for the rights of African Americans, and he played a significant role in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

Du Bois was also one of the main leaders in the movement of the NAACP to Harlem. In the 1920s, Harlem was a rapidly growing African American community, and it was becoming an important center of African American culture and politics. The move of the NAACP to Harlem was an important step in recognizing the importance of Harlem as a cultural and political center for African Americans, and it helped to further solidify the connection between the civil rights movement and the cultural movement of the Harlem Renaissance.

During the early 20th century, many African Americans migrated from the rural South to the North in search of better economic opportunities and to escape the racial discrimination and segregation of the South. This migration, known as the Great Migration, resulted in a significant increase in the black population in Northern cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Philadelphia.

In these cities, African Americans faced new forms of discrimination and racism, but they also found more opportunities for economic advancement and political activism. The black population of Detroit, for example, grew from about 6,000 in 1910 to around 120,000 by 1930. As a result, Detroit became an important center of African American culture, politics, and economic activity.

Black communities in the North also became important centers of mobilization against the segregated South and for civil rights. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other civil rights organizations were active in these cities and they helped to build a strong base of support for the civil rights movement. The migration of African Americans to the North also led to the development of a strong black middle class and the growth of black-owned businesses, which helped to strengthen the economic and political power of African Americans.

While the North was not as overtly racist or segregationist as the South, there was still significant racial discrimination and segregation in the North. Many Northern cities, including those with large black populations, had de facto segregation in housing, education, and employment. African Americans were often confined to specific neighborhoods and faced discrimination in access to jobs, housing, and other opportunities. This de facto segregation was often enforced by discriminatory practices such as redlining, which made it difficult for African Americans to obtain mortgages and buy homes in certain neighborhoods.

In addition, you also highlighted that US foreign policy was extremely racist, particularly with regard to Central America and the Caribbean. This can be seen in the US involvement in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba after the Spanish-American War, in the repeated interventions and invasions in Central America, and in the racist policies towards Asian immigrants in the West Coast, among other examples.

the massive migration of African Americans from the South to Northern and Western cities during the 1920s, known as the Great Migration, did lead to tensions and conflicts between black and white residents. The influx of black migrants led to competition for jobs, housing, and other resources, and there were many instances of racial violence, including riots and lynchings, in Northern and Western cities.

In response to these challenges and the ongoing discrimination, many African Americans joined black nationalist movements during this period. These movements sought to promote self-reliance and self-determination for African Americans, and many advocated for the creation of separate black communities, businesses, and institutions. Black nationalist movements such as Marcus Garvey's Universal Negro Improvement Association and the Nation of Islam, led by Elijah Muhammad, gained significant followings during this time.

The era of nationalism in Europe also had an influence on the rise of black nationalist movements in the US. Indeed, the idea of national self-determination and the right of people to govern themselves, which was being championed in Europe, also resonated with many African Americans who were seeking autonomy and freedom from racial oppression in the US.

the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) founded by Marcus Garvey in 1914 was a major black nationalist movement during the 1920s and 1930s. Garvey believed that the way for African Americans to achieve freedom and equality was through the creation of their own nation and the promotion of black capitalism. He advocated for the establishment of black-owned businesses and institutions, and for the creation of a separate black economy.

Garvey also promoted the idea of "racial pride" and encouraged African Americans to embrace their African heritage, and he rejected the idea of racial integration. He believed that the only way for African Americans to achieve true freedom and equality was through the creation of their own separate nation.

UNIA's message resonated with many African Americans, particularly those in the North, who were facing discrimination and poverty. At its height, the organization had millions of members and a wide network of businesses and institutions. However, Garvey's ideas were controversial and he faced opposition from other black leaders, such as W.E.B. Du Bois, who believed that the best way to achieve equality was through integration and political action.

This movement, however, faced significant opposition from other black leaders and organizations, such as the NAACP and the National Urban League, who saw Garvey's ideas as divisive and unrealistic. Additionally, the FBI and other government agencies targeted the UNIA, which led to Garvey's arrest and eventual deportation in 1927. Despite this, the ideas of the UNIA and the Harlem Renaissance had a lasting impact on the civil rights movement and the development of black nationalism ideologies in the United States.
 
Yes, the idea of the "New Negro" emerged during the Harlem Renaissance, and it represented a new generation of African Americans who were educated, cultured, and politically aware. They rejected the negative stereotypes of the past and sought to assert their dignity and worth through their art, literature, and political activism. The term "New Negro" was popularized by the writer and intellectual Alain Locke in his anthology "The New Negro: An Interpretation" (1925), which featured the work of many prominent figures of the Harlem Renaissance such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Countee Cullen. The New Negro movement played a vital role in challenging the dominant narrative of black inferiority and promoting a new image of black people as strong, capable, and proud.<ref>Jeffrey B. Perry, Hubert Harrison: The Voice of Harlem Radicalism, 1883-1918. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.</ref><ref>Shannon King, Whose Harlem Is This? Community Politics and Grassroots Activism During the New Negro Era. New York: New York University Press, 2015.</ref>

=The Protestant and Anglo-Saxon reaction=     

==Non-WASP Americans==

The 1920s in the United States were a period of economic prosperity, often referred to as the "Roaring Twenties." The Republican Party held the presidency for the entire decade, with Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover serving as presidents. These presidents pursued a policy of protectionism, implementing tariffs to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. However, they did not address the economic and political issues facing post-World War I Europe, which was experiencing a rise in dangerous political movements.

<gallery mode="packed" widths="150" heights="150">
Fichier:Wharding.jpeg|Official portrait of the President of the United States by President Warren G. Harding 1921-1923.
Fichier:Calvin Coolidge.jpg|Official portrait of the President of the United States by Charles S. Coolidge. Hopinknson.
Fichier:HardingCoolidge.jpg|President Harding and Vice President Coolidge with their wives.
Fichier:HerbertClarkHoover.jpg|Herbert Hoover in 1925.
</gallery>
 
The presidents of the 1920s did pursue policies of "absolute liberalism," also known as laissez-faire, which emphasized minimal government intervention in the economy. As part of this approach, they did cut taxes heavily for corporations and the wealthy, which contributed to the economic prosperity of the decade. However, this also led to increased income inequality and a concentration of wealth among the upper class. This economic policies also had negative impacts on the agricultural and labor sectors, as well as on the African American population.

During the 1920s, the number of small farmers in the United States decreased dramatically, with an estimated 6 million farmers leaving their land to seek work in the cities. This was a result of a combination of factors, including the mechanization of farming, overproduction, and the decline in prices for agricultural products. The policies of "absolute liberalism" and tax cuts for the wealthy, which were pursued by the Republican presidents of the decade, did not address these issues and offered little support for farmers struggling to make a living. This trend led to an increase in poverty and inequality, particularly in rural areas, where poverty rates were higher than in urban areas.

Overproduction was a significant factor in the decline of small farmers during the 1920s. The rise of mechanization and new technologies allowed for increased productivity in farming, which led to a surplus of agricultural products and a fall in prices. This made it difficult for small farmers to compete with larger, more efficient operations and many were unable to make a profit. Additionally, the government's focus on promoting economic growth and prosperity through "absolute liberalism" and tax cuts for the wealthy, rather than addressing the issues facing small farmers, made it even more difficult for them to survive. This overproduction of agricultural products and fall in prices led to the displacement of millions of small farmers and contributed to the pockets of poverty and inequality that were forming in the country, particularly in rural areas.

<youtube>nGQaAddwjxg</youtube>
 
In the face of these accumulating problems, the reaction of deep Anglo-Saxon America does not turn towards the government, large corporations, or the wealthy, but rather against weak and easily resignable scapegoats. This approach which is often called "scapegoating" is a way to redirect the blame and anger of the population to a certain group of people that are perceived as different, weaker or less fortunate. It allows to avoid addressing the real issues and structural problems, and often leads to discrimination, prejudice and social unrest. This phenomenon has been observed throughout the history in different countries and societies, it is a way to avoid taking responsibility and finding real solutions.
 
During the 1920s, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) experienced a resurgence in popularity. The organization, which had originally formed in the aftermath of the Civil War to intimidate and terrorize African Americans, had largely fallen out of existence by the end of the 19th century. However, in 1915, the release of the film "The Birth of a Nation" helped to reignite interest in the organization. The film, which depicted the Ku Klux Klan as heroic defenders of the South during the Civil War, was widely seen and praised, and helped to promote a racist and white supremacist agenda. The film was used as a recruitment tool and the Klan started to grow rapidly and by the 1920s, the organization had millions of members and was active in many parts of the country. The Klan used violence and intimidation to assert white dominance and to oppose the civil rights of Black Americans, immigrants and other minority groups.<ref>The Birth of a Nation de D. W. Griffith, 1915. Movie available here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MQe5ShxM2DI</ref>
 
In 1925, the Ku Klux Klan claimed to have 5 million active members, making it one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the country at the time. The resurgence of the Klan was accompanied by a rise in violent and racist incidents, including lynchings, across the country. These were not limited to just the southern states, but also spread to the West and in some northern states as well, targeting just African Americans, but also targeted other minority groups, including Mexican Americans, Italian Americans, Jewish Americans, Catholic Americans, and others. However, it is true that African Americans were disproportionately affected by this violence, and paid a particularly terrible price. The Klan and other white supremacist groups targeted African Americans with lynchings, bombings, and other forms of violence, as well as intimidation and discrimination. This violence was often met with little to no intervention from law enforcement and government officials, which further exacerbated the situation. The legacy of this violence and racism would have a lasting impact on African Americans and other minority groups, shaping the country's social, political, and economic landscape for decades to come.
 
The Klan's actions were met with little opposition from the government and law enforcement, allowing the Klan to operate with impunity. The Klan's influence would decline by the end of the 1920s, but the legacy of its racism and violence would have long lasting impacts on American society.
 
As the 1920s came to a close, the Ku Klux Klan began to lose power and influence. This was due to a number of factors, including internal divisions and conflicts, as well as a series of scandals that exposed corruption and criminal activity within the organization. In addition, the growing public awareness and opposition to the Klan's racist and violent activities, as well as the efforts of civil rights activists and organizations, helped to weaken the Klan's power and influence. By the early 1930s, the Klan's membership had significantly declined and its influence had greatly diminished. However, the Klan's legacy of racism and violence would continue to be felt in American society for many years to come.

==Immigrants==

Immigrants are also the scapegoat, this anti-immigrant feeling spreads quite quickly; already in 1917 there are demonstrations and riots against emigrants. It was the first government that passed laws against emigrants; in 1917 the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917 literacy law] was passed to give emigrants a reading test.<ref>The Text of the Act ([http://library.uwb.edu/Static/USimmigration/39%20stat%20874.pdf PDF])</ref><ref>Bromberg, Howard (2015). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20151122000936/http://immigrationtounitedstates.org/588-immigration-act-of-1917.html Immigration Act of 1917]". Immigration to the United States. Archived from the [https://immigrationtounitedstates.org/588-immigration-act-of-1917.html original] on 22 November 2015.</ref><ref>Powell, John (2009). [https://books.google.be/books?id=VNCX6UsdZYkC&pg=PA137&redir_esc=y Encyclopedia of North American Immigration]. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-1012-7.</ref><ref>Sohi, Seema (2013). "Immigration Act of 1917 and the 'Barred Zone'". In Zhao, Xiaojian; Park, Edward J.W. (eds.). [https://books.google.be/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA534&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false <nowiki>Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History [3 volumes]: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History</nowiki>]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 534–535. ISBN 978-1-59884-240-1.</ref> In the 1920s a quota law was passed limiting the number of immigrants according to their origins. Pseudo-scientific theories were used to establish a hierarchy of immigrants according to race, with the Anglo-Saxons at the top.<ref>Van Nuys, Frank (2002). Americanizing the West: Race, Immigrants, and Citizenship, 1890-1930. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1206-8.</ref><ref>Koven, Steven G.; Götzke, Frank (2010). American Immigration Policy: Confronting the Nation's Challenges. New York, New York: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-95940-5.</ref>
 
These laws do not currently affect migrants from the Americas. In this period there is a whole press against immigrants.

This emigration is limited for Europeans, but is open for Mexicans and Puerto Ricans.

==The "Reds"==

[[Image:Come unto me, ye opprest.jpg|thumb|200px|Illustration from 1919 depicting a "European anarchist" attacking the Statue of Liberty.]]

This anti-immigrant feeling also takes a political form with the fear of the Reds, communists, anarchists and socialists.

It is interesting to see that the rise of this feeling increases a lot during the First World War and especially at the end because there are many strikes. After the First World War, American nationalism found a new enemy in Bolshevik Russia, which found a leader in the strikes of 1918 and 1919.

<youtube>nh_6hq1h5jU</youtube>
 
Communism is worrying while some attacks favour collective hysteria against emigrants consisting of mass deportations, but also lynchings.

The most symbolic case is that of two Italian anarchists, [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola_Sacco Nicola Sacco] and [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolomeo_Vanzetti Venzetti], who were arrested in 1905 after two hold-ups in Boston. These two men have always claimed their innocence, yet they were tried by a xenophobic extreme right-wing jury at the same time as an election campaign in Massachusetts.<gallery mode="packed" widths="150" heights="150">
Fichier:Sacvan.jpg|Nicola Sacco (droite) and Bartolomeo Vanzetti (gauche)
Fichier:Sacco.png|Nicola Sacco
Fichier:Vanzetti.png|Bartolomeo Venzetti
</gallery>
 
This verdict aroused an outrage that went beyond the United States and spread throughout the world, becoming symbols of American class justice. Arrested in 1920, many years of litigation were conducted with evidence exonerating them, but in 1926 the Massachusetts Supreme Court upheld their conviction and in 1927 the state governor refused to grant them a pardon despite interventions from the Vatican and the left.<ref>"[https://www.mydigitalchalkboard.org/portal/default/Resources/Viewer/ResourceViewer?action=2&resid=42906 Sacco and Vanzetti Put to Death Early This Morning]". New York Times. August 23, 1927.</ref><ref>Waxman, Olivia B. “Sacco and Vanzetti Case 90 Years Later: What to Know.” Time, Time, 22 Aug. 2017, time.com/4895701/sacco-vanzetti-90th-anniversary/</ref><ref>Michael A. Musmano (January 1961). [https://books.google.be/books?id=0L78-cCVnDkC&pg=PA29&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false The Sacco-Vanzetti Case: A Miscarriage of Justice]. 47 No. 1. American Bar Association. p. 29,30.</ref><ref>Avrich, Paul (1996). [https://books.google.be/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC&redir_esc=y Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]. Princeton University Press. pp. 13, 31. ISBN 9780691026046.</ref>
 
Before being executed Venzetti says:
<blockquote>« not only have I never committed this crime, but I have never committed violence in all my life, but I am actually convinced that I am being condemned for things of which I am guilty: radical and Italian; and if I could be reborn after my execution I would be radical and Italian again and I would do again what I have done with my life and you would execute me a second time for what I have done<ref>Extrait de ses dernières paroles au juge Webster Thayer, prononcées le 9 avril 1927</ref> ».</blockquote>

==The Prohibition==

[[Image:Raid at elk lake.jpg|thumb|A police raid in 1925 in Elk Lake, Ontario.]] 

It must be seen that Anglo-Saxon America's reaction will also be a rural reaction against the debauchery of the cities, which is attributed in large part to the consumption of alcoholic beverages manifested by Prohibition.

Between 1903 and 1918, 32 states passed laws condemning the consumption of alcohol; in 1919, the 18th Amendment to the Constitution prohibited the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquor within the United States and its dominions.<ref>Kyvig, David E. [https://books.google.fr/books/about/Law_alcohol_and_order.html?id=yGXBAAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y Law, Alcohol, and Order: Perspectives on National Prohibition] Greenwood Press, 1985.</ref><ref>Behr, Edward. (1996). Prohibition: Thirteen Years That Changed America. New York: Arcade Publishing. ISBN 1-55970-356-3.</ref><ref>Burns, Eric. (2003). The Spirits of America: A Social History of Alcohol. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1-59213-214-6.</ref><ref>Kobler, John. (1973). Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-11209-X.</ref><ref>McGirr, Lisa. (2015). The War on Alcohol: Prohibition and the Rise of the American State. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-06695-9.</ref><ref>Okrent, Daniel. (2010). Last Call: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-7432-7702-3. OCLC 419812305</ref>

It is the prohibition that encourages smuggling and clandestine consumption that will strengthen crime and in particular the power of the mafias with [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Capone Al Capone]; it will also encourage government corruption.<ref>
Kobler, John. [https://books.google.fr/books?id=rk1ZtOnz8SgC&dq=Capone%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Al+Capone&focus=searchwithinvolume&q= Capone: The Life and Times of Al Capone]. New York: Da Capo Press, 2003. ISBN 0-306-81285-1</ref><ref>Deirdre Bair. [https://books.google.fr/books?id=WXJ_CwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Capone:+The+Life+and+Times+of+Al+Capone&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiBj8fyibDmAhVQzoUKHefPB7oQ6AEINzAC#v=onepage&q=Capone%3A%20The%20Life%20and%20Times%20of%20Al%20Capone&f=false Al Capone: His Life, Legacy, and Legend]. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, Oct 25, 2016 </ref>

==Christian fundamentalism==

[[Fichier:Grant DeVolson Wood - American Gothic.jpg|thumb|200px|Grant Wood, ''American Gothic'' (1930), Art Institute of Chicago. Une représentation symbolique de l’Amérique « puritaine »]]

Finally the Anglo-Saxon reaction manifests itself in Christian fundamentalism; men and women brandish the Pioneer Bible against atheists, Catholics, Jews and socialists; the most notorious case is the conviction in 1925 of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopes_Trial a biology teacher who had violated a law banning the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution] being sentenced, but to a penalty that will be minimal.<ref>Supreme Court of Tennessee [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/statcase.htm John Thomas Scopes v. The State]</ref><ref>"[https://www.tn.gov/tsla/exhibits/scopes/index.htm A Monkey on Tennessee's Back: The Scopes Trial in Dayton]". Tennessee State Library and Archives.</ref><ref>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/evolut.htm An introduction to the John Scopes (Monkey) Trial] by Douglas Linder. UMKC Law.</ref>

Shortly afterwards it was also during this period that more aggressive cults such as Jehova's witnesses recruited not only in the countryside but also in the cities.

=Conclusion=

The 1920s saw in the United States a rapid growth of industrial production and consumption by the upper and middle classes, which gave rise to great optimism and a blind belief by the governments in liberalism, which was in fact distorted by the protectionists who shielded US production from international competition.

At the same time all these governments ignore the dysfunctions, the growing gap between the rich and the great majority, all of which will contribute to the great [[Dark history for the world economy: 1930 - 1945|crash of 1929]].

=Annexes= 

*[http://www.naacp.org/ NAACP | National Association for the Advancement of Colored People].
*[http://www.usherbrooke.ca/sodrus/fileadmin/sites/sodrus/documents/Catholicisme/catho15.pdf Édition du 23 août 1927 du journal Le Devoir, Montréal - "La fin de Sacco et Venzetti"].
*[http://www.positiveatheism.org/tochmenk.htm Articles de H.L. Mencken relatifs au procès Scopes].
*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/scopes/scopes.htm Tennessee vs. John Scopes: The "Monkey Trial"], site sur le procès du singe.
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/monkeytrial/index.html Monkey Trial] sur PBS.
*Foreign Affairs,. (2015). The Great Depression. Retrieved 29 October 2015, from https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/1932-07-01/great-depression

=References= 

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