Decoding International Relations Theory: Theories and Their Impact

"The real world begins here…. What we think about these events and possibilities [e.g., in places like Bosnia and Rwanda, world wars, and the prospects for world politics in the twenty-first century], and what we think we can do about them, depends in a fundamental sense on how we think about them. In short, our thinking about the ‘real’ world, and hence our practices, is directly related to our theories, so as people interested in and concerned about the real world, we must be interested in and concerned about theory: What are the legacies of past theories? Whose facts have been most important in shaping our ideas? Whose voices are overlooked? Can we know and how can we know it? Where is theory going? Who are we? The real world is constituted by the dominant answers to these and other theoretical questions". So writes Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski in the introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond." This assertion intricately ties the study of international relations theory to the very fabric of our global reality. It claims that our understanding and interactions with the world are not independent of theoretical frameworks; rather, they are deeply intertwined. It is through the prism of these theories that we interpret events like the conflicts in Bosnia and Rwanda or contemplate the shape of twenty-first-century world politics.

The authors stress that our thoughts on these events and the possible actions we take are shaped by our theoretical standpoint. They argue that theory is not abstract but rather a practical tool that informs and influences our understanding and actions. They compel us to acknowledge the importance of theory in the real world and recognize that theories are not just academic constructs but are essential for shaping our perception of global events and our responses to them. The authors also challenge us to consider the historical legacy of IR theories. By examining the past, we can understand how previous ideas have influenced current international norms and policies. They urge us to take a critical look at whose facts have historically shaped dominant ideas and to question whose voices have been marginalized in this process. This call for inclusivity and critical inquiry is paramount in their argument, advocating for a more comprehensive approach that incorporates diverse voices and perspectives, especially those that have been historically overlooked.

Delving further into the nature of theory itself, Smith, Booth, and Zalewski ask us to confront the foundations of knowledge and being in international relations. They present a challenge to the standard epistemological and ontological assumptions, forcing us to grapple with questions of truth, reality, and the construction of knowledge in the field of international relations. Looking to the future, they question the direction of IR theory and reflect on the identity and purpose of those involved in the field. They encourage a forward-looking and reflective stance on the role of theorists and practitioners in shaping international discourse. Finally, they propose that the 'real world' is constituted by the answers to theoretical questions. This suggests that theory is not merely descriptive or explanatory but constitutive—it is involved in the creation of the world it describes. In this sense, theory and practice are not separate; they are interwoven, with theory actively participating in the construction of international reality.

In essence, this quotation from Smith, Booth, and Zalewski is not only a profound opening statement for a course on IR theory but also a comprehensive declaration of the imperative role that theory plays in our understanding and practice of international relations. It is an invitation to embark on a journey that explores the intricate relationship between theory and practice, and it sets the stage for an exhaustive exploration of the complex world of international politics.

What IR Theory is (not)

International Relations (upper case) and international relations (lower case)

In the context of the quote from Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski's introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond," the differentiation between 'International Relations' with uppercase letters and 'international relations' with lowercase letters is significant. 'International Relations' (uppercase) refers to the academic discipline that studies the relationships between countries, including the roles of states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. It is a field of study within political science or a related discipline that encompasses a variety of theoretical frameworks used to analyze and understand the behaviors and interactions on a global scale. On the other hand, 'international relations' (lowercase) refers to the actual political, economic, social, and cultural interactions that occur between sovereign states and other actors on the international stage. These are the real-world events and practices that the field of International Relations seeks to understand and explain.

The distinction is made to differentiate between the theoretical study and analysis of global interactions (International Relations) and the practical occurrences and actions that take place between actors on the world stage (international relations). This is an important separation because it allows for clarity when discussing the impact of theory on the interpretation and understanding of real-world events and vice versa. Understanding both the abstract and concrete aspects of these terms is crucial for a deep engagement with the subject matter, especially in the context of a course aimed at decoding International Relations theory and its impact.

Current affairs’ and ‘contemporary history

Understanding the nuances between 'current affairs' and 'contemporary history' is crucial for grasping the complexities of our world. Current affairs are the immediate events and issues that capture our attention on a daily basis. They are what we see on news channels, read about in newspapers, and discuss with colleagues. These are the happenings that political analysts like Fareed Zakaria comment on, providing insight into their immediate implications and potential outcomes. For instance, the ongoing discussions about climate change negotiations, the latest decisions of the United Nations Security Council, or the immediate economic impacts of a decision by OPEC are all examples of current affairs. They demand constant vigilance and adaptation as they shape the policy decisions and public opinions of the moment. In contrast, contemporary history looks at these same events with the advantage of some temporal distance. As historian Eric Hobsbawm might have articulated, it's about placing recent events within a broader narrative to understand their historical significance and long-term effects. An event such as the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is a prime example. During its occurrence, it was a current affair; now, it's a subject of contemporary history, offering insights into the end of the Cold War and the reconfiguration of global politics. Contemporary history seeks to analyze and interpret the causes and effects of such events, drawing on the benefit of hindsight and a wider array of sources that become available over time. This is where academic discourse plays a vital role, as scholars like Timothy Garton Ash have provided comprehensive accounts of the era, enriching our understanding of the period's historical context.

While current affairs often rely on real-time reporting and immediate analyses, contemporary history utilizes methodologies to critically assess and contextualize recent events. For example, the ongoing analysis of the Arab Spring by academics like POMEPS director Marc Lynch has turned a series of current events into a rich field of historical inquiry, demonstrating the impact of these events on the political landscape of the Middle East. Both fields are dynamic; as time progresses, the line between them blurs. Today's current affairs become tomorrow's contemporary history. The analysis of current affairs, informed by the context provided by contemporary history, allows policymakers, scholars, and the general public to make sense of a rapidly changing world. As we witness events unfold, such as the development of the COVID-19 pandemic, we engage with them as current affairs. Yet, future historians will study these same events as part of contemporary history, examining their causes, the effectiveness of the global response, and their long-term impact on society. The interplay between current affairs and contemporary history is essential in shaping our collective understanding of where we stand in the flow of time and how we might influence the course of future events. They are two sides of the same coin, offering different lenses through which we can view and interpret the world around us.

IR as a ‘field of inquiry,’ but inquiry into what, exactly?

International Relations (IR) as a field of inquiry casts a wide and ever-expanding net over the myriad ways in which the world's political, economic, social, and cultural entities interact with one another. At its core, IR is concerned with the exercise of power, whether through the coercive might of military force, as examined by political scientists like Joseph Nye, or through the soft power of cultural influence and diplomacy. The field seeks to understand the intricacies of international law, the inner workings of diplomacy, and the role of international organizations in fostering cooperation or contention among states.

The economic dimension of IR can't be overstated. The field scrutinizes the flow of trade, the intricacies of international finance, and the globalization processes that weave economies together in complex interdependence—a concept explored by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye. Consider the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and its successor, the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), as real-life canvases where the theories of economic cooperation and conflict play out. When it comes to society and culture, IR explores how ideas and values cross borders, shaping and reshaping nations. The cultural exchange that accompanies global trade, immigration, and communication technologies falls within this purview. Scholars like Alexander Wendt have argued that the very identities and interests of states are constructed through these social and cultural interactions, which in turn influence their foreign policies and international engagements.

In the realm of security, IR addresses traditional concerns of warfare and peace, yet it also ventures into new domains such as cybersecurity, reflecting on how nations can protect themselves in the digital age. The proliferation of nuclear weapons, the strategic theories addressing deterrence, and the complex politics of disarmament negotiations are subjects here, drawing insights from the likes of security expert Barry Buzan. The environment is another critical area of inquiry within IR, especially as issues like climate change and resource scarcity press upon the global consciousness. International agreements like the Paris Climate Accord represent practical attempts to translate environmental concerns into international policy, an area where scholars like Jessica Green have provided analytical insights.

Ethical considerations also feature prominently in IR. The field grapples with questions of humanitarian intervention, human rights, and global justice. The debates that raged over the NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 provide a concrete example of the ethical dilemmas faced by states in the international system, dilemmas that theorists like John Vincent have sought to unpack. Finally, technology's role in reshaping international relations is an area of burgeoning interest. From the internet's influence on the Arab Spring to the use of drones in warfare, technology continuously redraws the map of international interactions and strategies.

In sum, IR is an expansive field that seeks to understand and explain the complex tapestry of global interactions. It examines historical events, current affairs, and predictive scenarios for the future, all while seeking to apply scholarly insights to real-world problems. From the halls of academia, where scholars theorize about the nature of international politics, to the corridors of power, where these theories are tested and applied, IR remains an essential area of inquiry for anyone looking to understand or influence the global order.

Why Does IR Theory exist? Why do we need IR theory?

Obama and missiles in Europe

IR theory serves as the intellectual scaffolding for understanding the complicated and interconnected world of international affairs. It exists because the realm of global interactions is vast and nuanced, and without a structured approach, the behavior of states and non-state actors can seem unpredictable and chaotic. Theories in International Relations distill these complexities into more comprehensible models and paradigms, allowing us to navigate a world filled with diverse political, economic, social, and cultural currents. The necessity of IR theory becomes evident when we consider its various applications. It equips scholars and practitioners with analytical frameworks to interpret the actions of countries and international organizations, shedding light on the underlying motives and probable outcomes of these actions. For instance, when Kenneth Waltz, a prominent figure in neorealist theory, discussed the balance of power, he provided a lens through which to view state behavior in terms of power dynamics and security concerns. Such a perspective is invaluable for policymakers who must often make decisions with significant international repercussions. Moreover, IR theory is indispensable in guiding policymaking. By predicting how states are likely to behave, theories can suggest the most effective policy responses. They can also offer insights into future trends, such as the rise of emerging powers or the impact of global economic shifts, allowing nations to prepare and adjust their strategies accordingly. The theoretical underpinnings of international relations are not just academic musings but have real-world implications, informing and sometimes cautioning against certain courses of action.

To illustrate the practical utility of IR theory, one can look at the case of missile deployment in Europe during Obama's presidency. Facing the decision of whether to continue with the planned missile defense system in Eastern Europe, the administration’s deliberations were influenced by a confluence of theoretical insights. A realist might argue for the deployment as a necessary measure for maintaining power equilibrium and deterring potential adversaries. A liberal might look at the situation differently, suggesting that strengthening international institutions and agreements could provide a more effective and less confrontational approach to security. Constructivist considerations would focus on the power of perceptions and narratives, examining how the deployment might affect the United States' identity as a global leader and its relationships with other countries, particularly Russia. Obama’s decision to revise the missile defense strategy exemplifies the influence of IR theory on real-life international policy. His administration's policy was a nuanced response that reflected an understanding of the multifaceted nature of international relations, informed by theoretical frameworks. It demonstrated a balancing act between the imperatives of national security and the desire to foster better relations with Russia and other international players.

Events in international relations often present a multitude of challenges, one of the most significant being the difficulty in discerning the true motivations and intentions behind the actions of politicians and other political actors. This challenge stems from the complex nature of political communication and the strategic interests that nations and individuals must navigate.

Political actors frequently operate within a realm where their public statements and the reasons they offer for their actions may not fully align with their actual intentions or underlying motivations. This discrepancy can be due to a variety of factors, including the need to maintain a certain public image, the desire to appeal to different domestic or international audiences, or the pursuit of strategic objectives that may not be palatable if expressed openly. For example, consider the diplomatic rhetoric that often surrounds military interventions. A state might publicly justify its actions on humanitarian grounds, citing the responsibility to protect civilians from an oppressive regime. However, deeper analysis might reveal strategic interests, such as gaining influence in a geopolitically significant region or securing access to resources. Scholars like Mearsheimer, who advocate for the realist theory of international relations, suggest that the true driving forces behind state actions are often power and security interests, even when cloaked in the language of humanitarianism or international law.

The problems with events in international relations

Another aspect contributing to the difficulty in believing politicians and understanding the 'real' reasons for social action is the practice of secrecy and confidentiality in international affairs. States often classify information about their foreign policy decisions, negotiations, and intelligence assessments, citing national security concerns. This practice can lead to a significant gap between what is known to the public and the actual factors influencing decision-making. The challenge of getting at the 'real' reasons for social action in international relations is further complicated by the multiplicity of actors and interests involved. In addition to states, there are multinational corporations, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and other non-state actors, each with their own agendas and perspectives. This creates a dense web of interactions where true motives can be obscured by layers of complexity. This complexity necessitates a critical approach to the study of international relations, where scholars and analysts strive to look beyond surface explanations. They must consider a range of potential factors, from economic interests to political ideologies, from cultural biases to historical enmities, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of international events. The field of IR theory, therefore, not only serves to interpret and explain but also to question and scrutinize the narratives presented by political actors on the global stage.

In the realm of international relations, it’s a profound challenge to understand the motivations and reasons behind the actions of others, and this difficulty is compounded when we consider the complexity of our own motivations. When political actors make decisions or take actions on the international stage, they are often navigating a maze of competing interests, both personal and national, overt and covert. The intricate process of decision-making in international relations involves weighing various factors: national interest, political ideology, economic gains, personal beliefs, and ethical considerations. These factors can align or conflict with each other, creating a tapestry of motivations that are difficult to unravel. Furthermore, political actors must contend with public opinion, the influence of advisors and experts, the pressures of allies and adversaries, and the legacy of historical relationships.

The challenge of understanding these motivations is not exclusive to observers; even the actors themselves may struggle to articulate the full range of their reasons due to the subconscious influences or the confidential nature of certain information. Moreover, the reasons and motivations presented to the public are often simplified narratives that serve a particular political agenda or diplomatic strategy, masking the true complexity of the decision-making process. For example, a state leader might justify a military intervention on the grounds of protecting national security, but the decision could also be influenced by economic interests in the region, the leader’s personal desire to appear strong and decisive, or the strategic benefits of shifting regional power dynamics. The interplay between these factors makes it challenging to pinpoint a singular motivation.

The observation that it’s difficult to understand our own motivations, let alone those of others, is particularly pertinent in international relations. This is where IR theory becomes invaluable, offering models and frameworks to analyze actions and behaviors systematically. Realism, liberalism, constructivism, and other IR theories each provide different methodologies for unpacking the intricate web of motivations that drive international politics. Understanding motivations in international relations, therefore, requires a multifaceted approach that considers the possible range of influences on political actors. It is a task that necessitates not only keen analytical skills but also an appreciation for the depth and complexity of human behavior and the opaque nature of political decision-making.

International relations encompass both a social and a material world, intertwining tangible resources and power dynamics with intangible beliefs, ideas, and social constructs. The material world of international relations is rooted in the physical reality that states and actors operate within. This includes geographic territories, natural resources, military assets, and economic systems—elements that are often central to realist and liberal theories of IR. For realists, the material world is the stage on which power is exercised and security is sought. States, in their quest for power and survival, measure their capabilities in material terms, such as economic wealth and military strength. The distribution of these material capabilities informs the balance of power, which is a central concern of international politics.

The social world of international relations, on the other hand, is composed of the ideas, identities, norms, and values that define and shape the interactions between actors. Constructivist theorists, such as Alexander Wendt, argue that the social world is every bit as real as the material one, asserting that the meanings and understandings that actors ascribe to material resources actually constitute their power and influence. For example, the value of currency, the legitimacy of political borders, and the authority of international organizations are all socially constructed and maintained through collective belief and practice. In the social world, non-material forms of power, such as culture, ideology, and legitimacy, play crucial roles. The spread of democracy, the influence of international law, and the norms of human rights are all part of the social fabric of international relations. They shape expectations, behaviors, and outcomes in the international arena. An example of the interplay between the material and social worlds can be seen in the global response to climate change.

Materially, climate change is a challenge involving physical changes to the environment, requiring tangible responses such as the reduction of emissions and the transition to renewable energy sources. Socially, however, the issue is embedded in a complex network of beliefs, interests, and norms that shape policies and negotiations, such as the Paris Climate Agreement. The success of international environmental policies hinges not just on material capabilities, but also on the social willingness of states and non-state actors to cooperate and honor commitments. International relations can thus be viewed through the lens of both the material and the social. The material aspects provide the concrete foundation upon which states and actors build their power and interact, while the social aspects provide the context, meaning, and norms that guide and give significance to those interactions. Both dimensions are integral to a comprehensive understanding of how international relations function and evolve.

The link between empirical and normative theories in the context of international relations is indeed inevitable and intrinsic. Empirical theories aim to describe, explain, and predict the world as it is, based on observable and measurable phenomena. They are concerned with facts, patterns, and causal relationships. Normative theories, on the other hand, deal with the world as it ought to be. They are focused on ethical judgments, values, and the principles that should guide behavior and policy. This link is inevitable because our understanding of the world (empirical) invariably influences and shapes our judgments about how the world should be (normative), and vice versa. Empirical theories can inform normative theories by providing a reality check on what is practically achievable, ensuring that ethical principles are grounded in the realm of the possible. Conversely, normative theories can challenge and inspire empirical research by questioning existing conditions and proposing new visions for the future that empirical research can then investigate and assess. For instance, the empirical observation of the balance of power among states can lead to a normative theory about the importance of maintaining such a balance to prevent war. Similarly, the normative principle of human rights can lead to empirical research into the conditions under which human rights are most likely to be respected or violated.

The empirical study of how international institutions work and their effects on state behavior can inform normative theories about global governance and the design of better institutions. Conversely, normative ideas about justice can inform empirical studies on the distribution of wealth and power in the international system. A concrete example of this interplay can be seen in debates over humanitarian intervention. Empirical theories might analyze past interventions to determine patterns of success and failure, which states are most likely to intervene, and under what circumstances. Normative theories would then take these findings and apply ethical reasoning to argue for or against future interventions, considering the empirical evidence of what is likely to lead to positive outcomes. Empirical research can set the parameters for normative debate by clarifying what is possible, while normative theory can broaden the scope of empirical research by questioning existing paradigms and suggesting new areas of study. The two are entwined in a continuous dialogue, each pushing the other forward. In the study and practice of international relations, recognizing and embracing the link between empirical and normative theories is essential for a holistic understanding of the field.

What is IR theory, what are IR theories for, and who benefits from different conceptions of theory

IR theory examines the larger, underlying conceptual problems that underlay real world current events

The role of the state in international relations (i.e. the state and non-state actors)

IR theory delves into the foundational conceptual issues that inform and often drive the real-world events we observe. At the heart of these conceptual problems is the role of the state in international relations and how it interacts with an array of non-state actors. The state has traditionally been viewed as the primary actor in IR theory, especially from the perspective of classical realism, where the state is considered a rational unitary actor seeking power and security in an anarchic international system. Realists like Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz have underscored the state's sovereignty and its pursuit of national interests as central to understanding international dynamics. However, the role of the state and its interactions with non-state actors have become increasingly complex and significant. Non-state actors, including international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and even terrorist networks, have emerged as influential players on the international stage. These entities can support, challenge, or bypass the traditional power of states, and they operate within and across national borders in ways that traditional state-centric theories did not fully anticipate.

Liberal theories, for example, posit that the increasing interconnectedness of states and the rise of non-state actors contribute to a more cooperative international order, facilitated by institutions and mutual interests. Theories of complex interdependence, proposed by Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye, suggest that states are not the only significant actors and that military force is not the sole or even the most effective form of power in all circumstances. Constructivist theorists like Alexander Wendt have further broadened the conceptualization of the state's role by emphasizing the importance of ideas, identities, and norms. They argue that the state's behavior is not only a result of material power but is also shaped by social structures and collective meanings. For constructivists, understanding the role of the state requires examining how state identities are constructed through interactions with both other states and non-state actors.

The rise of transnational issues such as climate change, terrorism, and global pandemics also illustrates the necessity of considering non-state actors. These issues often require cooperation between states and non-state actors, as seen in the global response to climate change where international coalitions of states, NGOs, and businesses work together to address a common challenge. In this broader context, current events cannot be fully understood without recognizing the larger, underlying conceptual problems that IR theory seeks to clarify. The role of the state remains central, but it is now seen as part of a larger tapestry of actors and influences that must be understood in their interrelation to make sense of contemporary international relations.

The problem of international order in the absence of  supreme authority in the international system (‘international anarchy’)

The problem of international order without a supreme authority represents a central conceptual challenge in International Relations theory and reflects a condition often described as 'international anarchy.' In the absence of a global sovereign or overarching legal authority with the power to enforce rules and resolve disputes authoritatively, IR theory questions how order is established and maintained among sovereign states.

Classical realists, such as Hans Morgenthau, and neorealists like Kenneth Waltz, have posited that in this anarchic system, states are primarily concerned with their survival and security. They argue that without a higher power to provide security, states must rely on self-help, leading to a security dilemma where the actions taken by states to ensure their own security—such as increasing military capabilities—can inadvertently threaten other states and increase overall instability. Neoliberal institutionalists, such as Robert Keohane, challenge this somewhat pessimistic view by arguing that even in an anarchic international system, states can create order through cooperation and the formation of international institutions and regimes. These structures facilitate the establishment of norms and rules that guide state behavior, reduce uncertainty, and manage cooperation on issues of common interest. The existence of the United Nations and various other international bodies supports the idea that a degree of international order is achievable even in the absence of a world government. Constructivist theorists, including Alexander Wendt, offer a different perspective, suggesting that the meaning of anarchy is not fixed but socially constructed. They argue that the nature of international order, or disorder, is determined by the shared beliefs, cultures, and identities of states. If states view the international system as a realm of conflict and competition, they will act accordingly. However, if they see it as a space for cooperation, this can lead to more peaceful and stable international relations.

The idea of international anarchy also raises questions about the role of international law and norms in creating a semblance of order. While international law lacks the coercive enforcement found within sovereign states, it often shapes state behavior through a combination of legal obligations, moral authority, and mutual interests. States typically adhere to international law not only because it is in their self-interest to do so, but also because it contributes to the predictability and stability of international relations. Real-world events continually test the theories that seek to explain how order is—or is not—achieved in the international system. Conflicts, alliances, trade agreements, international treaties, and the evolution of international norms all reflect the ongoing struggle to establish a stable order in the absence of a global authority. The problem of international anarchy remains a foundational concern of IR theory, as it seeks to understand the dynamics that govern state behavior in a system where there is no higher power to enforce rules and resolve disputes.

The relationship between power and security

The relationship between power and security is one of the most scrutinized subjects in International Relations (IR) theory. At its core, this relationship revolves around the notion that power, whether in terms of military might, economic capabilities, or diplomatic influence, is essential to a state's security. However, the interplay between power and security is multifaceted and complex.

Realist theorists, such as Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz, emphasize that power is the primary currency in international politics. In their view, states seek power to secure their survival in an anarchic international system where no central authority can protect them from potential threats. This quest for power often leads to an arms race or alliance-building, as states try to balance against the power of others, thus contributing to the security dilemma — the paradox where measures by a state to increase its security can make others feel less secure, prompting them to respond in kind, potentially leading to an escalation of tensions. Neorealists, building on this foundation, have developed the concept of the balance of power as a mechanism that contributes to security. They argue that an equilibrium of power among states can lead to stability and peace, as no single state is able to dominate the others completely. This balance can be naturally occurring, or it can result from deliberate actions by states through policies like containment and deterrence.

Liberal theorists challenge the realist association of power with military capabilities. They propose that security can be achieved through economic interdependence and international institutions, which can mitigate the anarchic nature of the international system by encouraging cooperation and creating predictable and stable relations among states. From this perspective, power is not just about coercion but also about the ability to shape the international agenda and create norms that define legitimate actions.

Constructivists offer a more nuanced view, suggesting that power and security are not just material but also social constructs. Theories advocated by scholars like Alexander Wendt propose that the way states view each other, their intentions, and their identities can influence their sense of security. For instance, if states view each other as partners rather than adversaries, they can achieve security without necessarily increasing their power.

Feminist IR theory brings a critical lens to the discussion of power and security, questioning whose security is prioritized and how power is gendered in international politics. Feminist theorists like Cynthia Enloe have highlighted that state-centric notions of security often overlook the security of individuals, particularly women, and other marginalized groups.

In practice, the relationship between power and security can be observed in various international dynamics. The Cold War's arms race, the formation of NATO, the strategic partnerships and rivalries in the Asia-Pacific region, and the development of the European Union all exemplify different aspects of how power and security are intertwined. Power and security are thus interconnected in the international arena, with power perceived as a means to achieve security. Yet, the nature of this relationship is complex and varies according to different theoretical perspectives, reflecting a spectrum of beliefs about how states can best ensure their survival and prosperity in a world where threats are a constant concern.

The causes of conflict - war, civil war, terrorism

The causes of conflict, including war, civil war, and terrorism, are diverse and multifaceted, encompassing a range of political, economic, social, and psychological factors. IR theory provides various lenses through which to understand these causes.

Realist theories of IR, rooted in the works of scholars such as Thucydides and later Hans Morgenthau, often cite the anarchic nature of the international system as a primary cause of conflict. In this view, the lack of a central authority leads states to act in a self-interested manner to secure their survival, which can result in power struggles and wars. Realists argue that conflicts arise when states seek to maximize their power or when a rising power threatens the position of an established power, potentially leading to a hegemonic war.

Liberal theories, influenced by the ideas of Immanuel Kant and others, point to the lack of democratic governance, economic interdependence, and international institutions as causes of conflict. Liberals contend that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other (the democratic peace theory), that states with strong economic ties will find war unattractive due to the high costs (liberal commercialism), and that robust international organizations can provide forums for peaceful dispute resolution.

Marxist and critical theories look at conflict through the prism of inequality and class struggle. They suggest that wars are often a result of capitalist expansion and the competition for control of resources and markets. Marxist theorists like Vladimir Lenin believed that imperialism, driven by capitalist states' need to find new markets and resources, is a fundamental cause of war.

Constructivist theorists, such as Alexander Wendt, emphasize the role of social constructs, identities, and norms in causing conflicts. For them, wars are not inevitable but are the result of how states perceive each other and their intentions. If states construct an identity of enmity towards others, conflict is more likely; if they construct an identity of peaceful coexistence, war can be avoided.

When it comes to civil wars, scholars like Ted Gurr have examined the role of relative deprivation — the perception of inequality and injustice within a state — which can lead to internal conflicts. Grievances related to identity, ethnicity, and access to power and resources can fuel civil wars, especially in the absence of strong institutions and inclusive governance.

Terrorism is another complex phenomenon with varied causes, including ideological motivations, political grievances, and socio-economic factors. Scholars like Martha Crenshaw have argued that terrorism is often a strategy chosen by non-state actors who feel that they lack other means of pursuing their political objectives. Factors such as radical ideologies, perceived injustices, foreign occupation, and the desire for self-determination are frequently cited as causes of terrorism.

In practice, the causes of conflict are often a combination of these factors. The outbreak of World War I, for instance, can be attributed to a mix of power politics, nationalistic fervor, and entangled alliances. Civil wars, such as the Syrian conflict, can be traced back to a combination of authoritarian governance, ethnic divisions, and external interventions. The rise of terrorist groups like ISIS relates to ideological extremism, state fragility, and regional power vacuums. The causes of conflict in international relations are complex and often interlinked, requiring a comprehensive analysis that incorporates various theoretical perspectives to fully understand their origins and dynamics.

The interaction between economic and military power, and how technology relates to power

The interaction between economic and military power and the role of technology in power dynamics are critical considerations in International Relations (IR). Economic power is the foundation upon which military power is often built; a strong economy can sustain large defense expenditures and advanced military capabilities. Military power, in turn, can protect and extend a state's economic interests by securing trade routes and access to vital resources.

Realist theorists like Morgenthau and Mearsheimer emphasize that states seek to balance economic and military power to maintain their security and position in the international hierarchy. From this perspective, economic strength is necessary to support military capabilities, which are essential for deterrence and defense. Conversely, military power can be used to safeguard economic interests and exert influence on the global stage.

Liberal theorists, following in the tradition of Adam Smith and later figures like Keohane and Nye, highlight the interdependence between states in economic matters, suggesting that economic power can be more effectively leveraged through cooperative frameworks rather than coercive military might. They argue that economic interdependence reduces the likelihood of conflict and that soft power, including economic influence, can be as significant as hard military power in achieving a state's objectives.

Marxist perspectives, informed by the works of Marx and Lenin, view the interplay between economic and military power through the lens of imperialism and class struggle, positing that economic elites can drive states towards military conflict to secure economic dominance and access to resources.

Technology plays a pivotal role in this nexus of power. It can be a force multiplier for military capabilities, giving states with advanced technological resources an edge over their rivals. For instance, the development of nuclear weapons changed the nature of military power and deterrence. Similarly, advancements in cyber technology have introduced new arenas for both economic and military competition and conflict. The impact of technology on economic power is equally profound. Technological innovation is a key driver of economic growth, enabling states to develop new industries, increase efficiency, and gain a competitive advantage in the global market. The digital economy, artificial intelligence, and advances in communication have reshaped the way economic power is accumulated and projected. In the contemporary world, technology has blurred the lines between economic and military power. Cyber warfare capabilities, for instance, can disrupt a state's economy as effectively as traditional military action, if not more so, without firing a single shot. The use of drones and autonomous weapons systems in conflict zones demonstrates how technological superiority can translate into military and strategic advantages.

An example of these dynamics can be seen in the rise of China as a global power. China's economic boom has enabled significant investment in military modernization, positioning it as a competitor to the United States' military hegemony. At the same time, China's focus on technology, particularly in areas such as telecommunications (e.g., Huawei's 5G infrastructure), artificial intelligence, and space exploration, illustrates the interconnection between economic development, military power, and technological advancement.

Economic and military power are in sum intrinsically linked, with technology acting as a crucial bridge and amplifier between the two. Understanding the interactions between these forms of power is essential for analyzing state behavior and the evolving dynamics of international relations.

The bases of international cooperation - various peace plans, leagues, etc

International cooperation has been a central pursuit in global relations, seeking to bring order and peace in a world where no single authority reigns supreme. The creation of various peace plans and leagues, such as the United Nations and the European Union, stems from a collective desire to address shared challenges and prevent the recurrence of conflict. These entities provide a platform for states to deliberate, negotiate, and resolve disputes, embodying the principles of diplomacy and dialogue that are essential for peaceful coexistence. Historically, the devastation of war has often precipitated the drive for cooperation. The Treaty of Versailles, while punitive and controversial, represented an early attempt to bring about lasting peace after the horrors of World War I. Similarly, the Geneva Conventions established rules for the humane treatment of combatants and civilians, reflecting a consensus on the standards of conduct in war. The intertwining of economies and the mutual benefits of trade have also served as strong incentives for peaceful relations. Economic integration efforts, like the European Coal and Steel Community, which laid the groundwork for the European Union, are based on the understanding that economic ties can act as a deterrent to conflict. The principle here is clear: when states are economically interdependent, the costs of war far outweigh the benefits, thus fostering peace through shared prosperity.

Security alliances, such as NATO, represent another dimension of cooperation, based on the concept of collective defense. Such alliances operate on the premise that an attack against one is an attack against all, thereby deterring potential aggressors and providing a security umbrella under which member states can prosper. Beyond institutions and economic ties, shared norms and values have become an increasingly important foundation for cooperation. Human rights norms, for example, have transcended borders, and international efforts to combat climate change, such as the Paris Climate Agreement, have rallied states around common environmental goals. These shared values form a cultural and normative bedrock upon which cooperation is built. Moreover, the presence of common threats, such as nuclear proliferation, terrorism, and global pandemics, has united states in their efforts to protect their citizens and maintain international stability. The global response to the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, has shown how cooperation can be galvanized when faced with a universal threat that no single country can combat alone.

Cooperation is also facilitated by the ongoing processes of diplomacy. Constant diplomatic engagement, whether through high-profile summits or discreet channels of communication, allows states to articulate their interests, understand the positions of others, and forge agreements that benefit all parties involved. The history of international cooperation is marked by both successes and failures. The League of Nations, for example, failed to prevent World War II, but it paved the way for the creation of the United Nations, which has since played a pivotal role in maintaining international peace and security. The successes of international cooperation, thus, are built on the lessons learned from past experiences, the alignment of interests, and the commitment of states to work together for the common good. In essence, the pursuit of international cooperation is a response to the complex dynamics of global relations, where the absence of a supreme authority compels states to seek out ways to coexist, collaborate, and confront shared challenges together. Through the establishment of international institutions, treaties, economic partnerships, and security alliances, as well as the cultivation of shared norms and the practice of diplomacy, states strive to create a world that is stable, prosperous, and peaceful.

The role of culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, nationalism in international society

The role of culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism in international society is profoundly significant, influencing the behavior of states and other actors in a myriad of ways. These elements often shape the underlying values, beliefs, and motivations that drive international interactions.

Culture, which encompasses the shared values, norms, and practices of a society, can deeply influence a state's foreign policy and diplomatic interactions. Cultural understandings and misinterpretations can either facilitate or hinder international cooperation. For instance, the concept of "face-saving" in East Asian cultures plays a critical role in diplomatic negotiations, requiring a nuanced approach that respects the cultural context. Religion, too, has been a potent force in international relations. It can be a source of conflict, as seen in various sectarian or religious conflicts around the world, but it can also be a powerful force for peace and reconciliation, as religious leaders and organizations often play key roles in peacebuilding and humanitarian efforts. The role of the Catholic Church in the Polish Solidarity movement of the 1980s, for example, illustrates how religious institutions can influence political change.

Identity and ethnicity are central to understanding many international conflicts, particularly in areas where national borders do not align with ethnic or cultural boundaries. Ethnic tensions have been a driving force behind numerous conflicts, including the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s. Ethnic identity can also influence state policies in more subtle ways, such as the preferential treatment of certain diaspora communities. Nationalism, or the belief in the superiority and interests of one's nation, often shapes a state's foreign policy. It can be a unifying force, fostering cohesion and collective identity, but it can also be exclusionary and lead to conflict with other nations. The rise of nationalism in various countries in recent years has had significant implications for international politics, affecting trade policies, immigration laws, and international cooperation.

The interplay between these factors and international politics is complex. Constructivist theorists like Alexander Wendt argue that these social and cultural factors are not merely background conditions but actively shape state interests and identities. They can determine who is considered a friend or foe, what actions are deemed legitimate or illegitimate, and how states define their goals and interests. In practice, these cultural and social factors often intersect with more material aspects of international relations. For example, disputes over resources can be exacerbated by ethnic or religious differences, and cultural ties can influence economic partnerships. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, is not only an economic project but also reflects the cultural and political affinity between China and Pakistan. In conclusion, culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism are integral to the fabric of international society. They shape the perceptions, behaviors, and policies of states and non-state actors, influencing the course of international relations in profound and sometimes unpredictable ways. Understanding these elements is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of global affairs.

IR theory exists to examine the broader, larger,   enduring ethical or normative questions

International Relations (IR) theory serves a vital role in examining the broader, larger, and enduring ethical or normative questions that underpin global interactions and policies. These questions delve into what ought to be rather than what is, challenging scholars and practitioners to consider the moral implications and values that should guide international conduct and decision-making.

One of the central ethical questions in IR is the issue of war and peace: under what circumstances, if any, is it justifiable for a state to go to war? Just War Theory, which has its roots in the works of philosophers like Augustine and Thomas Aquinas and has been developed further by contemporary thinkers like Michael Walzer, seeks to address this question. It provides criteria for judging when a war can be considered just and how it should be conducted to remain ethical. Another significant normative issue in IR is the responsibility of states towards their citizens and the international community. This encompasses questions of human rights, humanitarian intervention, and the responsibility to protect (R2P) doctrine. R2P, for instance, raises the question of whether and when it is appropriate for external actors to intervene in a state to prevent mass atrocities, balancing the principles of state sovereignty and the protection of human rights.

The equitable distribution of resources and wealth in the international system is also a profound ethical concern. Theories of global justice, such as those proposed by John Rawls and Thomas Pogge, explore how resources and opportunities should be distributed among states and individuals. These theories question the fairness of the current international economic system and suggest ways it could be reformed to achieve greater justice. Environmental issues, particularly climate change, present another area where ethical considerations are paramount. Debates over climate justice, including the responsibilities of developed versus developing nations in addressing environmental degradation, are deeply normative. They involve questions about intergenerational equity, the rights of nature, and the obligations of states and individuals to protect the global environment.

Furthermore, the rise of nationalism and populism in recent years has brought to the fore ethical questions about identity politics, the treatment of refugees and migrants, and the tension between globalism and localism. These issues challenge the traditional Westphalian notion of state sovereignty and require a rethinking of ethical obligations beyond borders. In essence, IR theory provides the tools and frameworks necessary to engage with these ethical and normative questions. It enables a critical examination of the principles that should govern international relations, encouraging a move beyond power politics to consider the moral dimensions of global interactions. This aspect of IR theory is crucial for developing policies and practices that are not only effective but also just and ethical.

What, when, and to what degree to use force?

Determining when, what, and to what degree to use force in international relations is a question that has continually challenged nations, particularly in the context of conflicts like those in Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa, Bosnia, Libya, Syria, Zimbabwe, the Congo, and Liberia. Each of these situations presented unique challenges and considerations, testing the international community's ability to balance state sovereignty, human rights, and practical intervention concerns.

In the cases of white-ruled Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa, the world community largely leaned towards economic sanctions and diplomatic isolation rather than direct military intervention. These measures were aimed at pressuring these regimes to change their policies without resorting to force. In Rhodesia, this approach played a significant role in the transition to majority rule and the birth of Zimbabwe. Similarly, in South Africa, sustained international pressure contributed to the dismantling of the apartheid system.

The Bosnian conflict during the 1990s, part of the larger Yugoslav Wars, highlighted the complexities of military intervention. Initially, there was a reluctance to use force, but the turning point came with the horrific events of the Srebrenica massacre in 1995. This atrocity spurred a more decisive military action by NATO and the UN, aimed at protecting civilians and bringing the conflict to an end.

In Libya in 2011, the intervention authorized by the UN was a response to the threat of mass atrocities by the Gaddafi regime. This action, rooted in the Responsibility to Protect doctrine, was initially hailed for preventing widespread violence against civilians, particularly in Benghazi. However, the intervention also faced criticism for leading to prolonged instability and a lack of effective post-conflict reconstruction.

The Syrian Civil War presented a significant dilemma for international intervention. Despite egregious human rights violations and the use of chemical weapons, the international community was largely hesitant to intervene militarily. This was due to the conflict's complexity, the involvement of various external actors, and concerns over the potential for broader regional escalation.

In other African states like Zimbabwe, the Congo, and Liberia, the responses to crises varied. Zimbabwe saw international sanctions and diplomatic efforts in response to its political and economic turmoil. In the Congo, the deployment of UN peacekeeping forces aimed to stabilize conflict-affected regions. In Liberia, the civil war ended partly due to the military intervention by ECOWAS, followed by a UN peacekeeping mission to ensure stability and support the transition to peace.

These varied cases reflect the nuanced and often contentious nature of deciding to use force in international affairs. The decisions are influenced by a mix of factors, including the severity of the situation, the legal and ethical justifications for intervention, potential success rates, the intervening states' interests, and the broader implications for international stability. They illustrate the ongoing tension between respecting the sovereignty of states and the imperative to protect human rights, between pursuing national interests and adhering to international law and moral principles. These situations underscore the complex and multifaceted nature of using force in international relations, a decision that requires careful consideration of both the immediate and long-term consequences for all involved.

What is the place of morality in foreign policy or international relations?

The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is a subject of considerable debate and varied perspectives within the field of International Relations (IR). The incorporation of moral principles, such as human rights, religious freedom, and humanitarian concerns, into foreign policy reflects a significant shift from traditional views that prioritized state interests and power politics.

A human rights foreign policy involves a state's commitment to promote and protect human rights around the world. This approach often leads to diplomatic efforts, economic sanctions, or even military interventions aimed at preventing or responding to human rights abuses in other countries. The challenge here lies in balancing the moral imperative to defend human rights with respect for state sovereignty, as well as navigating the often competing interests within international politics. The promotion of international religious freedom is another aspect where morality intersects with foreign policy. States, particularly those with a strong commitment to religious liberty, may advocate for the protection and promotion of this right globally. This can involve diplomatic efforts to condemn religious persecution and support international initiatives that safeguard religious freedoms.

The United Nations' "responsibility to protect" (R2P) doctrine is a landmark in the moral evolution of international relations. Established to prevent mass atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity, R2P asserts that when a state fails to protect its citizens from such crimes, the international community has a moral obligation to intervene, potentially including military intervention. R2P was a significant factor in interventions like the one in Libya in 2011, yet its application has been inconsistent, raising questions about the international community's willingness and ability to uphold these moral commitments. "Saving strangers," a term popularized by Nicholas J. Wheeler in his book on humanitarian intervention, encapsulates the moral duty to assist people in other countries facing grave humanitarian crises, even at the cost of breaching state sovereignty. This principle has underpinned various humanitarian interventions, where states or coalitions have intervened in countries to stop widespread suffering, often without the host nation's consent.

Humanitarian intervention represents one of the most direct applications of morality in foreign policy, wherein states or international organizations use military force to alleviate human suffering, especially in situations of genocide, war crimes, or widespread human rights violations. The NATO intervention in Kosovo in 1999 is often cited as an example of humanitarian intervention motivated by moral considerations rather than traditional state interests. However, the incorporation of morality in foreign policy also faces criticism and challenges. Realists argue that the primary duty of a state is to its own citizens and that moral considerations should not override national interests and security concerns. Additionally, the selective application of moral principles, often influenced by strategic interests, can lead to accusations of hypocrisy and undermine the credibility of moral arguments in international politics.

The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is thus a dynamic and complex issue. It represents an ongoing struggle to align ethical imperatives with the practical realities of global politics, reflecting the tension between idealist aspirations and realist constraints. The pursuit of moral objectives in international relations underscores the evolving nature of the international system, one in which the traditional notions of state sovereignty and non-intervention are increasingly weighed against the global community's responsibility to uphold fundamental human rights and ethical principles.

What are the ‘obligations’ we owe to the state, and obligations not originating in our states - are their duties beyond state borders?

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