Modification de Decoding International Relations Theory: Theories and Their Impact
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"The real world begins here…. What we think about these events and possibilities [e.g., in places like Bosnia and Rwanda, world wars, and the prospects for world politics in the twenty-first century], and what we think we can do about them, depends in a fundamental sense on how we think about them. In short, our thinking about the ‘real’ world, and hence our practices, is directly related to our theories, so as people interested in and concerned about the real world, we must be interested in and concerned about theory: What are the legacies of past theories? Whose facts have been most important in shaping our ideas? Whose voices are overlooked? Can we know and how can we know it? Where is theory going? Who are we? The real world is constituted by the dominant answers to these and other theoretical questions". So writes Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski in the introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond." This assertion intricately ties the study of international relations theory to the very fabric of our global reality. It claims that our understanding and interactions with the world are not independent of theoretical frameworks; rather, they are deeply intertwined. It is through the prism of these theories that we interpret events like the conflicts in Bosnia and Rwanda or contemplate the shape of twenty-first-century world politics. | "The real world begins here…. What we think about these events and possibilities [e.g., in places like Bosnia and Rwanda, world wars, and the prospects for world politics in the twenty-first century], and what we think we can do about them, depends in a fundamental sense on how we think about them. In short, our thinking about the ‘real’ world, and hence our practices, is directly related to our theories, so as people interested in and concerned about the real world, we must be interested in and concerned about theory: What are the legacies of past theories? Whose facts have been most important in shaping our ideas? Whose voices are overlooked? Can we know and how can we know it? Where is theory going? Who are we? The real world is constituted by the dominant answers to these and other theoretical questions". So writes Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski in the introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond." This assertion intricately ties the study of international relations theory to the very fabric of our global reality. It claims that our understanding and interactions with the world are not independent of theoretical frameworks; rather, they are deeply intertwined. It is through the prism of these theories that we interpret events like the conflicts in Bosnia and Rwanda or contemplate the shape of twenty-first-century world politics. | ||
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In essence, this quotation from Smith, Booth, and Zalewski is not only a profound opening statement for a course on IR theory but also a comprehensive declaration of the imperative role that theory plays in our understanding and practice of international relations. It is an invitation to embark on a journey that explores the intricate relationship between theory and practice, and it sets the stage for an exhaustive exploration of the complex world of international politics. | In essence, this quotation from Smith, Booth, and Zalewski is not only a profound opening statement for a course on IR theory but also a comprehensive declaration of the imperative role that theory plays in our understanding and practice of international relations. It is an invitation to embark on a journey that explores the intricate relationship between theory and practice, and it sets the stage for an exhaustive exploration of the complex world of international politics. | ||
= | = What IR Theory is (not) = | ||
=== | === International Relations (upper case) and international relations (lower case) === | ||
In the context of the quote from Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski's introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond," the differentiation between 'International Relations' with uppercase letters and 'international relations' with lowercase letters is significant. 'International Relations' (uppercase) refers to the academic discipline that studies the relationships between countries, including the roles of states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. It is a field of study within political science or a related discipline that encompasses a variety of theoretical frameworks used to analyze and understand the behaviors and interactions on a global scale. On the other hand, 'international relations' (lowercase) refers to the actual political, economic, social, and cultural interactions that occur between sovereign states and other actors on the international stage. These are the real-world events and practices that the field of International Relations seeks to understand and explain. | In the context of the quote from Steve Smith, Ken Booth, and Marysia Zalewski's introduction to "International theory: positivism & beyond," the differentiation between 'International Relations' with uppercase letters and 'international relations' with lowercase letters is significant. 'International Relations' (uppercase) refers to the academic discipline that studies the relationships between countries, including the roles of states, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations. It is a field of study within political science or a related discipline that encompasses a variety of theoretical frameworks used to analyze and understand the behaviors and interactions on a global scale. On the other hand, 'international relations' (lowercase) refers to the actual political, economic, social, and cultural interactions that occur between sovereign states and other actors on the international stage. These are the real-world events and practices that the field of International Relations seeks to understand and explain. | ||
The distinction is made to differentiate between the theoretical study and analysis of global interactions (International Relations) and the practical occurrences and actions that take place between actors on the world stage (international relations). This is an important separation because it allows for clarity when discussing the impact of theory on the interpretation and understanding of real-world events and vice versa. Understanding both the abstract and concrete aspects of these terms is crucial for a deep engagement with the subject matter, especially in the context of a course aimed at decoding International Relations theory and its impact. | The distinction is made to differentiate between the theoretical study and analysis of global interactions (International Relations) and the practical occurrences and actions that take place between actors on the world stage (international relations). This is an important separation because it allows for clarity when discussing the impact of theory on the interpretation and understanding of real-world events and vice versa. Understanding both the abstract and concrete aspects of these terms is crucial for a deep engagement with the subject matter, especially in the context of a course aimed at decoding International Relations theory and its impact. | ||
=== | === Current affairs’ and ‘contemporary history === | ||
Understanding the nuances between 'current affairs' and 'contemporary history' is crucial for grasping the complexities of our world. Current affairs are the immediate events and issues that capture our attention on a daily basis. They are what we see on news channels, read about in newspapers, and discuss with colleagues. These are the happenings that political analysts like Fareed Zakaria comment on, providing insight into their immediate implications and potential outcomes. For instance, the ongoing discussions about climate change negotiations, the latest decisions of the United Nations Security Council, or the immediate economic impacts of a decision by OPEC are all examples of current affairs. They demand constant vigilance and adaptation as they shape the policy decisions and public opinions of the moment. In contrast, contemporary history looks at these same events with the advantage of some temporal distance. As historian Eric Hobsbawm might have articulated, it's about placing recent events within a broader narrative to understand their historical significance and long-term effects. An event such as the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is a prime example. During its occurrence, it was a current affair; now, it's a subject of contemporary history, offering insights into the end of the Cold War and the reconfiguration of global politics. Contemporary history seeks to analyze and interpret the causes and effects of such events, drawing on the benefit of hindsight and a wider array of sources that become available over time. This is where academic discourse plays a vital role, as scholars like Timothy Garton Ash have provided comprehensive accounts of the era, enriching our understanding of the period's historical context. | Understanding the nuances between 'current affairs' and 'contemporary history' is crucial for grasping the complexities of our world. Current affairs are the immediate events and issues that capture our attention on a daily basis. They are what we see on news channels, read about in newspapers, and discuss with colleagues. These are the happenings that political analysts like Fareed Zakaria comment on, providing insight into their immediate implications and potential outcomes. For instance, the ongoing discussions about climate change negotiations, the latest decisions of the United Nations Security Council, or the immediate economic impacts of a decision by OPEC are all examples of current affairs. They demand constant vigilance and adaptation as they shape the policy decisions and public opinions of the moment. In contrast, contemporary history looks at these same events with the advantage of some temporal distance. As historian Eric Hobsbawm might have articulated, it's about placing recent events within a broader narrative to understand their historical significance and long-term effects. An event such as the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is a prime example. During its occurrence, it was a current affair; now, it's a subject of contemporary history, offering insights into the end of the Cold War and the reconfiguration of global politics. Contemporary history seeks to analyze and interpret the causes and effects of such events, drawing on the benefit of hindsight and a wider array of sources that become available over time. This is where academic discourse plays a vital role, as scholars like Timothy Garton Ash have provided comprehensive accounts of the era, enriching our understanding of the period's historical context. | ||
While current affairs often rely on real-time reporting and immediate analyses, contemporary history utilizes methodologies to critically assess and contextualize recent events. For example, the ongoing analysis of the Arab Spring by academics like POMEPS director Marc Lynch has turned a series of current events into a rich field of historical inquiry, demonstrating the impact of these events on the political landscape of the Middle East. Both fields are dynamic; as time progresses, the line between them blurs. Today's current affairs become tomorrow's contemporary history. The analysis of current affairs, informed by the context provided by contemporary history, allows policymakers, scholars, and the general public to make sense of a rapidly changing world. As we witness events unfold, such as the development of the COVID-19 pandemic, we engage with them as current affairs. Yet, future historians will study these same events as part of contemporary history, examining their causes, the effectiveness of the global response, and their long-term impact on society. The interplay between current affairs and contemporary history is essential in shaping our collective understanding of where we stand in the flow of time and how we might influence the course of future events. They are two sides of the same coin, offering different lenses through which we can view and interpret the world around us. | While current affairs often rely on real-time reporting and immediate analyses, contemporary history utilizes methodologies to critically assess and contextualize recent events. For example, the ongoing analysis of the Arab Spring by academics like POMEPS director Marc Lynch has turned a series of current events into a rich field of historical inquiry, demonstrating the impact of these events on the political landscape of the Middle East. Both fields are dynamic; as time progresses, the line between them blurs. Today's current affairs become tomorrow's contemporary history. The analysis of current affairs, informed by the context provided by contemporary history, allows policymakers, scholars, and the general public to make sense of a rapidly changing world. As we witness events unfold, such as the development of the COVID-19 pandemic, we engage with them as current affairs. Yet, future historians will study these same events as part of contemporary history, examining their causes, the effectiveness of the global response, and their long-term impact on society. The interplay between current affairs and contemporary history is essential in shaping our collective understanding of where we stand in the flow of time and how we might influence the course of future events. They are two sides of the same coin, offering different lenses through which we can view and interpret the world around us. | ||
=== | === IR as a ‘field of inquiry,’ but inquiry into what, exactly? === | ||
International Relations (IR) as a field of inquiry casts a wide and ever-expanding net over the myriad ways in which the world's political, economic, social, and cultural entities interact with one another. At its core, IR is concerned with the exercise of power, whether through the coercive might of military force, as examined by political scientists like Joseph Nye, or through the soft power of cultural influence and diplomacy. The field seeks to understand the intricacies of international law, the inner workings of diplomacy, and the role of international organizations in fostering cooperation or contention among states. | International Relations (IR) as a field of inquiry casts a wide and ever-expanding net over the myriad ways in which the world's political, economic, social, and cultural entities interact with one another. At its core, IR is concerned with the exercise of power, whether through the coercive might of military force, as examined by political scientists like Joseph Nye, or through the soft power of cultural influence and diplomacy. The field seeks to understand the intricacies of international law, the inner workings of diplomacy, and the role of international organizations in fostering cooperation or contention among states. | ||
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In sum, IR is an expansive field that seeks to understand and explain the complex tapestry of global interactions. It examines historical events, current affairs, and predictive scenarios for the future, all while seeking to apply scholarly insights to real-world problems. From the halls of academia, where scholars theorize about the nature of international politics, to the corridors of power, where these theories are tested and applied, IR remains an essential area of inquiry for anyone looking to understand or influence the global order. | In sum, IR is an expansive field that seeks to understand and explain the complex tapestry of global interactions. It examines historical events, current affairs, and predictive scenarios for the future, all while seeking to apply scholarly insights to real-world problems. From the halls of academia, where scholars theorize about the nature of international politics, to the corridors of power, where these theories are tested and applied, IR remains an essential area of inquiry for anyone looking to understand or influence the global order. | ||
= | = Why Does IR Theory exist? Why do we need IR theory? = | ||
=== | === Obama and missiles in Europe === | ||
IR theory serves as the intellectual scaffolding for understanding the complicated and interconnected world of international affairs. It exists because the realm of global interactions is vast and nuanced, and without a structured approach, the behavior of states and non-state actors can seem unpredictable and chaotic. Theories in International Relations distill these complexities into more comprehensible models and paradigms, allowing us to navigate a world filled with diverse political, economic, social, and cultural currents. The necessity of IR theory becomes evident when we consider its various applications. It equips scholars and practitioners with analytical frameworks to interpret the actions of countries and international organizations, shedding light on the underlying motives and probable outcomes of these actions. For instance, when Kenneth Waltz, a prominent figure in neorealist theory, discussed the balance of power, he provided a lens through which to view state behavior in terms of power dynamics and security concerns. Such a perspective is invaluable for policymakers who must often make decisions with significant international repercussions. Moreover, IR theory is indispensable in guiding policymaking. By predicting how states are likely to behave, theories can suggest the most effective policy responses. They can also offer insights into future trends, such as the rise of emerging powers or the impact of global economic shifts, allowing nations to prepare and adjust their strategies accordingly. The theoretical underpinnings of international relations are not just academic musings but have real-world implications, informing and sometimes cautioning against certain courses of action. | IR theory serves as the intellectual scaffolding for understanding the complicated and interconnected world of international affairs. It exists because the realm of global interactions is vast and nuanced, and without a structured approach, the behavior of states and non-state actors can seem unpredictable and chaotic. Theories in International Relations distill these complexities into more comprehensible models and paradigms, allowing us to navigate a world filled with diverse political, economic, social, and cultural currents. The necessity of IR theory becomes evident when we consider its various applications. It equips scholars and practitioners with analytical frameworks to interpret the actions of countries and international organizations, shedding light on the underlying motives and probable outcomes of these actions. For instance, when Kenneth Waltz, a prominent figure in neorealist theory, discussed the balance of power, he provided a lens through which to view state behavior in terms of power dynamics and security concerns. Such a perspective is invaluable for policymakers who must often make decisions with significant international repercussions. Moreover, IR theory is indispensable in guiding policymaking. By predicting how states are likely to behave, theories can suggest the most effective policy responses. They can also offer insights into future trends, such as the rise of emerging powers or the impact of global economic shifts, allowing nations to prepare and adjust their strategies accordingly. The theoretical underpinnings of international relations are not just academic musings but have real-world implications, informing and sometimes cautioning against certain courses of action. | ||
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Political actors frequently operate within a realm where their public statements and the reasons they offer for their actions may not fully align with their actual intentions or underlying motivations. This discrepancy can be due to a variety of factors, including the need to maintain a certain public image, the desire to appeal to different domestic or international audiences, or the pursuit of strategic objectives that may not be palatable if expressed openly. For example, consider the diplomatic rhetoric that often surrounds military interventions. A state might publicly justify its actions on humanitarian grounds, citing the responsibility to protect civilians from an oppressive regime. However, deeper analysis might reveal strategic interests, such as gaining influence in a geopolitically significant region or securing access to resources. Scholars like Mearsheimer, who advocate for the realist theory of international relations, suggest that the true driving forces behind state actions are often power and security interests, even when cloaked in the language of humanitarianism or international law. | Political actors frequently operate within a realm where their public statements and the reasons they offer for their actions may not fully align with their actual intentions or underlying motivations. This discrepancy can be due to a variety of factors, including the need to maintain a certain public image, the desire to appeal to different domestic or international audiences, or the pursuit of strategic objectives that may not be palatable if expressed openly. For example, consider the diplomatic rhetoric that often surrounds military interventions. A state might publicly justify its actions on humanitarian grounds, citing the responsibility to protect civilians from an oppressive regime. However, deeper analysis might reveal strategic interests, such as gaining influence in a geopolitically significant region or securing access to resources. Scholars like Mearsheimer, who advocate for the realist theory of international relations, suggest that the true driving forces behind state actions are often power and security interests, even when cloaked in the language of humanitarianism or international law. | ||
=== | === The problems with events in international relations === | ||
Another aspect contributing to the difficulty in believing politicians and understanding the 'real' reasons for social action is the practice of secrecy and confidentiality in international affairs. States often classify information about their foreign policy decisions, negotiations, and intelligence assessments, citing national security concerns. This practice can lead to a significant gap between what is known to the public and the actual factors influencing decision-making. The challenge of getting at the 'real' reasons for social action in international relations is further complicated by the multiplicity of actors and interests involved. In addition to states, there are multinational corporations, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and other non-state actors, each with their own agendas and perspectives. This creates a dense web of interactions where true motives can be obscured by layers of complexity. This complexity necessitates a critical approach to the study of international relations, where scholars and analysts strive to look beyond surface explanations. They must consider a range of potential factors, from economic interests to political ideologies, from cultural biases to historical enmities, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of international events. The field of IR theory, therefore, not only serves to interpret and explain but also to question and scrutinize the narratives presented by political actors on the global stage. | Another aspect contributing to the difficulty in believing politicians and understanding the 'real' reasons for social action is the practice of secrecy and confidentiality in international affairs. States often classify information about their foreign policy decisions, negotiations, and intelligence assessments, citing national security concerns. This practice can lead to a significant gap between what is known to the public and the actual factors influencing decision-making. The challenge of getting at the 'real' reasons for social action in international relations is further complicated by the multiplicity of actors and interests involved. In addition to states, there are multinational corporations, international organizations, non-governmental organizations, and other non-state actors, each with their own agendas and perspectives. This creates a dense web of interactions where true motives can be obscured by layers of complexity. This complexity necessitates a critical approach to the study of international relations, where scholars and analysts strive to look beyond surface explanations. They must consider a range of potential factors, from economic interests to political ideologies, from cultural biases to historical enmities, in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of international events. The field of IR theory, therefore, not only serves to interpret and explain but also to question and scrutinize the narratives presented by political actors on the global stage. | ||
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The empirical study of how international institutions work and their effects on state behavior can inform normative theories about global governance and the design of better institutions. Conversely, normative ideas about justice can inform empirical studies on the distribution of wealth and power in the international system. A concrete example of this interplay can be seen in debates over humanitarian intervention. Empirical theories might analyze past interventions to determine patterns of success and failure, which states are most likely to intervene, and under what circumstances. Normative theories would then take these findings and apply ethical reasoning to argue for or against future interventions, considering the empirical evidence of what is likely to lead to positive outcomes. Empirical research can set the parameters for normative debate by clarifying what is possible, while normative theory can broaden the scope of empirical research by questioning existing paradigms and suggesting new areas of study. The two are entwined in a continuous dialogue, each pushing the other forward. In the study and practice of international relations, recognizing and embracing the link between empirical and normative theories is essential for a holistic understanding of the field. | The empirical study of how international institutions work and their effects on state behavior can inform normative theories about global governance and the design of better institutions. Conversely, normative ideas about justice can inform empirical studies on the distribution of wealth and power in the international system. A concrete example of this interplay can be seen in debates over humanitarian intervention. Empirical theories might analyze past interventions to determine patterns of success and failure, which states are most likely to intervene, and under what circumstances. Normative theories would then take these findings and apply ethical reasoning to argue for or against future interventions, considering the empirical evidence of what is likely to lead to positive outcomes. Empirical research can set the parameters for normative debate by clarifying what is possible, while normative theory can broaden the scope of empirical research by questioning existing paradigms and suggesting new areas of study. The two are entwined in a continuous dialogue, each pushing the other forward. In the study and practice of international relations, recognizing and embracing the link between empirical and normative theories is essential for a holistic understanding of the field. | ||
= | = What is IR theory, what are IR theories for, and who benefits from different conceptions of theory = | ||
=== | === IR theory examines the larger, underlying conceptual problems that underlay real world current events === | ||
==== | ==== The role of the state in international relations (i.e. the state and non-state actors) ==== | ||
IR theory delves into the foundational conceptual issues that inform and often drive the real-world events we observe. At the heart of these conceptual problems is the role of the state in international relations and how it interacts with an array of non-state actors. The state has traditionally been viewed as the primary actor in IR theory, especially from the perspective of classical realism, where the state is considered a rational unitary actor seeking power and security in an anarchic international system. Realists like Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz have underscored the state's sovereignty and its pursuit of national interests as central to understanding international dynamics. However, the role of the state and its interactions with non-state actors have become increasingly complex and significant. Non-state actors, including international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and even terrorist networks, have emerged as influential players on the international stage. These entities can support, challenge, or bypass the traditional power of states, and they operate within and across national borders in ways that traditional state-centric theories did not fully anticipate. | IR theory delves into the foundational conceptual issues that inform and often drive the real-world events we observe. At the heart of these conceptual problems is the role of the state in international relations and how it interacts with an array of non-state actors. The state has traditionally been viewed as the primary actor in IR theory, especially from the perspective of classical realism, where the state is considered a rational unitary actor seeking power and security in an anarchic international system. Realists like Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz have underscored the state's sovereignty and its pursuit of national interests as central to understanding international dynamics. However, the role of the state and its interactions with non-state actors have become increasingly complex and significant. Non-state actors, including international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and even terrorist networks, have emerged as influential players on the international stage. These entities can support, challenge, or bypass the traditional power of states, and they operate within and across national borders in ways that traditional state-centric theories did not fully anticipate. | ||
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The rise of transnational issues such as climate change, terrorism, and global pandemics also illustrates the necessity of considering non-state actors. These issues often require cooperation between states and non-state actors, as seen in the global response to climate change where international coalitions of states, NGOs, and businesses work together to address a common challenge. In this broader context, current events cannot be fully understood without recognizing the larger, underlying conceptual problems that IR theory seeks to clarify. The role of the state remains central, but it is now seen as part of a larger tapestry of actors and influences that must be understood in their interrelation to make sense of contemporary international relations. | The rise of transnational issues such as climate change, terrorism, and global pandemics also illustrates the necessity of considering non-state actors. These issues often require cooperation between states and non-state actors, as seen in the global response to climate change where international coalitions of states, NGOs, and businesses work together to address a common challenge. In this broader context, current events cannot be fully understood without recognizing the larger, underlying conceptual problems that IR theory seeks to clarify. The role of the state remains central, but it is now seen as part of a larger tapestry of actors and influences that must be understood in their interrelation to make sense of contemporary international relations. | ||
==== | ==== The problem of international order in the absence of supreme authority in the international system (‘international anarchy’) ==== | ||
The problem of international order without a supreme authority represents a central conceptual challenge in International Relations theory and reflects a condition often described as 'international anarchy.' In the absence of a global sovereign or overarching legal authority with the power to enforce rules and resolve disputes authoritatively, IR theory questions how order is established and maintained among sovereign states. | The problem of international order without a supreme authority represents a central conceptual challenge in International Relations theory and reflects a condition often described as 'international anarchy.' In the absence of a global sovereign or overarching legal authority with the power to enforce rules and resolve disputes authoritatively, IR theory questions how order is established and maintained among sovereign states. | ||
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The idea of international anarchy also raises questions about the role of international law and norms in creating a semblance of order. While international law lacks the coercive enforcement found within sovereign states, it often shapes state behavior through a combination of legal obligations, moral authority, and mutual interests. States typically adhere to international law not only because it is in their self-interest to do so, but also because it contributes to the predictability and stability of international relations. Real-world events continually test the theories that seek to explain how order is—or is not—achieved in the international system. Conflicts, alliances, trade agreements, international treaties, and the evolution of international norms all reflect the ongoing struggle to establish a stable order in the absence of a global authority. The problem of international anarchy remains a foundational concern of IR theory, as it seeks to understand the dynamics that govern state behavior in a system where there is no higher power to enforce rules and resolve disputes. | The idea of international anarchy also raises questions about the role of international law and norms in creating a semblance of order. While international law lacks the coercive enforcement found within sovereign states, it often shapes state behavior through a combination of legal obligations, moral authority, and mutual interests. States typically adhere to international law not only because it is in their self-interest to do so, but also because it contributes to the predictability and stability of international relations. Real-world events continually test the theories that seek to explain how order is—or is not—achieved in the international system. Conflicts, alliances, trade agreements, international treaties, and the evolution of international norms all reflect the ongoing struggle to establish a stable order in the absence of a global authority. The problem of international anarchy remains a foundational concern of IR theory, as it seeks to understand the dynamics that govern state behavior in a system where there is no higher power to enforce rules and resolve disputes. | ||
==== | ==== The relationship between power and security ==== | ||
The relationship between power and security is one of the most scrutinized subjects in International Relations (IR) theory. At its core, this relationship revolves around the notion that power, whether in terms of military might, economic capabilities, or diplomatic influence, is essential to a state's security. However, the interplay between power and security is multifaceted and complex. | The relationship between power and security is one of the most scrutinized subjects in International Relations (IR) theory. At its core, this relationship revolves around the notion that power, whether in terms of military might, economic capabilities, or diplomatic influence, is essential to a state's security. However, the interplay between power and security is multifaceted and complex. | ||
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In practice, the relationship between power and security can be observed in various international dynamics. The Cold War's arms race, the formation of NATO, the strategic partnerships and rivalries in the Asia-Pacific region, and the development of the European Union all exemplify different aspects of how power and security are intertwined. Power and security are thus interconnected in the international arena, with power perceived as a means to achieve security. Yet, the nature of this relationship is complex and varies according to different theoretical perspectives, reflecting a spectrum of beliefs about how states can best ensure their survival and prosperity in a world where threats are a constant concern. | In practice, the relationship between power and security can be observed in various international dynamics. The Cold War's arms race, the formation of NATO, the strategic partnerships and rivalries in the Asia-Pacific region, and the development of the European Union all exemplify different aspects of how power and security are intertwined. Power and security are thus interconnected in the international arena, with power perceived as a means to achieve security. Yet, the nature of this relationship is complex and varies according to different theoretical perspectives, reflecting a spectrum of beliefs about how states can best ensure their survival and prosperity in a world where threats are a constant concern. | ||
==== | ==== The causes of conflict - war, civil war, terrorism ==== | ||
The causes of conflict, including war, civil war, and terrorism, are diverse and multifaceted, encompassing a range of political, economic, social, and psychological factors. IR theory provides various lenses through which to understand these causes. | The causes of conflict, including war, civil war, and terrorism, are diverse and multifaceted, encompassing a range of political, economic, social, and psychological factors. IR theory provides various lenses through which to understand these causes. | ||
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In practice, the causes of conflict are often a combination of these factors. The outbreak of World War I, for instance, can be attributed to a mix of power politics, nationalistic fervor, and entangled alliances. Civil wars, such as the Syrian conflict, can be traced back to a combination of authoritarian governance, ethnic divisions, and external interventions. The rise of terrorist groups like ISIS relates to ideological extremism, state fragility, and regional power vacuums. The causes of conflict in international relations are complex and often interlinked, requiring a comprehensive analysis that incorporates various theoretical perspectives to fully understand their origins and dynamics. | In practice, the causes of conflict are often a combination of these factors. The outbreak of World War I, for instance, can be attributed to a mix of power politics, nationalistic fervor, and entangled alliances. Civil wars, such as the Syrian conflict, can be traced back to a combination of authoritarian governance, ethnic divisions, and external interventions. The rise of terrorist groups like ISIS relates to ideological extremism, state fragility, and regional power vacuums. The causes of conflict in international relations are complex and often interlinked, requiring a comprehensive analysis that incorporates various theoretical perspectives to fully understand their origins and dynamics. | ||
==== | ==== The interaction between economic and military power, and how technology relates to power ==== | ||
The interaction between economic and military power and the role of technology in power dynamics are critical considerations in International Relations (IR). Economic power is the foundation upon which military power is often built; a strong economy can sustain large defense expenditures and advanced military capabilities. Military power, in turn, can protect and extend a state's economic interests by securing trade routes and access to vital resources. | The interaction between economic and military power and the role of technology in power dynamics are critical considerations in International Relations (IR). Economic power is the foundation upon which military power is often built; a strong economy can sustain large defense expenditures and advanced military capabilities. Military power, in turn, can protect and extend a state's economic interests by securing trade routes and access to vital resources. | ||
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Economic and military power are in sum intrinsically linked, with technology acting as a crucial bridge and amplifier between the two. Understanding the interactions between these forms of power is essential for analyzing state behavior and the evolving dynamics of international relations. | Economic and military power are in sum intrinsically linked, with technology acting as a crucial bridge and amplifier between the two. Understanding the interactions between these forms of power is essential for analyzing state behavior and the evolving dynamics of international relations. | ||
==== | ==== The bases of international cooperation - various peace plans, leagues, etc ==== | ||
International cooperation has been a central pursuit in global relations, seeking to bring order and peace in a world where no single authority reigns supreme. The creation of various peace plans and leagues, such as the United Nations and the European Union, stems from a collective desire to address shared challenges and prevent the recurrence of conflict. These entities provide a platform for states to deliberate, negotiate, and resolve disputes, embodying the principles of diplomacy and dialogue that are essential for peaceful coexistence. Historically, the devastation of war has often precipitated the drive for cooperation. The Treaty of Versailles, while punitive and controversial, represented an early attempt to bring about lasting peace after the horrors of World War I. Similarly, the Geneva Conventions established rules for the humane treatment of combatants and civilians, reflecting a consensus on the standards of conduct in war. The intertwining of economies and the mutual benefits of trade have also served as strong incentives for peaceful relations. Economic integration efforts, like the European Coal and Steel Community, which laid the groundwork for the European Union, are based on the understanding that economic ties can act as a deterrent to conflict. The principle here is clear: when states are economically interdependent, the costs of war far outweigh the benefits, thus fostering peace through shared prosperity. | International cooperation has been a central pursuit in global relations, seeking to bring order and peace in a world where no single authority reigns supreme. The creation of various peace plans and leagues, such as the United Nations and the European Union, stems from a collective desire to address shared challenges and prevent the recurrence of conflict. These entities provide a platform for states to deliberate, negotiate, and resolve disputes, embodying the principles of diplomacy and dialogue that are essential for peaceful coexistence. Historically, the devastation of war has often precipitated the drive for cooperation. The Treaty of Versailles, while punitive and controversial, represented an early attempt to bring about lasting peace after the horrors of World War I. Similarly, the Geneva Conventions established rules for the humane treatment of combatants and civilians, reflecting a consensus on the standards of conduct in war. The intertwining of economies and the mutual benefits of trade have also served as strong incentives for peaceful relations. Economic integration efforts, like the European Coal and Steel Community, which laid the groundwork for the European Union, are based on the understanding that economic ties can act as a deterrent to conflict. The principle here is clear: when states are economically interdependent, the costs of war far outweigh the benefits, thus fostering peace through shared prosperity. | ||
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Cooperation is also facilitated by the ongoing processes of diplomacy. Constant diplomatic engagement, whether through high-profile summits or discreet channels of communication, allows states to articulate their interests, understand the positions of others, and forge agreements that benefit all parties involved. The history of international cooperation is marked by both successes and failures. The League of Nations, for example, failed to prevent World War II, but it paved the way for the creation of the United Nations, which has since played a pivotal role in maintaining international peace and security. The successes of international cooperation, thus, are built on the lessons learned from past experiences, the alignment of interests, and the commitment of states to work together for the common good. In essence, the pursuit of international cooperation is a response to the complex dynamics of global relations, where the absence of a supreme authority compels states to seek out ways to coexist, collaborate, and confront shared challenges together. Through the establishment of international institutions, treaties, economic partnerships, and security alliances, as well as the cultivation of shared norms and the practice of diplomacy, states strive to create a world that is stable, prosperous, and peaceful. | Cooperation is also facilitated by the ongoing processes of diplomacy. Constant diplomatic engagement, whether through high-profile summits or discreet channels of communication, allows states to articulate their interests, understand the positions of others, and forge agreements that benefit all parties involved. The history of international cooperation is marked by both successes and failures. The League of Nations, for example, failed to prevent World War II, but it paved the way for the creation of the United Nations, which has since played a pivotal role in maintaining international peace and security. The successes of international cooperation, thus, are built on the lessons learned from past experiences, the alignment of interests, and the commitment of states to work together for the common good. In essence, the pursuit of international cooperation is a response to the complex dynamics of global relations, where the absence of a supreme authority compels states to seek out ways to coexist, collaborate, and confront shared challenges together. Through the establishment of international institutions, treaties, economic partnerships, and security alliances, as well as the cultivation of shared norms and the practice of diplomacy, states strive to create a world that is stable, prosperous, and peaceful. | ||
==== | ==== The role of culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, nationalism in international society ==== | ||
The role of culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism in international society is profoundly significant, influencing the behavior of states and other actors in a myriad of ways. These elements often shape the underlying values, beliefs, and motivations that drive international interactions. | The role of culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism in international society is profoundly significant, influencing the behavior of states and other actors in a myriad of ways. These elements often shape the underlying values, beliefs, and motivations that drive international interactions. | ||
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The interplay between these factors and international politics is complex. Constructivist theorists like Alexander Wendt argue that these social and cultural factors are not merely background conditions but actively shape state interests and identities. They can determine who is considered a friend or foe, what actions are deemed legitimate or illegitimate, and how states define their goals and interests. In practice, these cultural and social factors often intersect with more material aspects of international relations. For example, disputes over resources can be exacerbated by ethnic or religious differences, and cultural ties can influence economic partnerships. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, is not only an economic project but also reflects the cultural and political affinity between China and Pakistan. In conclusion, culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism are integral to the fabric of international society. They shape the perceptions, behaviors, and policies of states and non-state actors, influencing the course of international relations in profound and sometimes unpredictable ways. Understanding these elements is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of global affairs. | The interplay between these factors and international politics is complex. Constructivist theorists like Alexander Wendt argue that these social and cultural factors are not merely background conditions but actively shape state interests and identities. They can determine who is considered a friend or foe, what actions are deemed legitimate or illegitimate, and how states define their goals and interests. In practice, these cultural and social factors often intersect with more material aspects of international relations. For example, disputes over resources can be exacerbated by ethnic or religious differences, and cultural ties can influence economic partnerships. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), part of China's Belt and Road Initiative, is not only an economic project but also reflects the cultural and political affinity between China and Pakistan. In conclusion, culture, religion, identity, ethnicity, and nationalism are integral to the fabric of international society. They shape the perceptions, behaviors, and policies of states and non-state actors, influencing the course of international relations in profound and sometimes unpredictable ways. Understanding these elements is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of global affairs. | ||
=== IR | === IR theory exists to examine the broader, larger, enduring ethical or normative questions === | ||
International Relations (IR) theory serves a vital role in examining the broader, larger, and enduring ethical or normative questions that underpin global interactions and policies. These questions delve into what ought to be rather than what is, challenging scholars and practitioners to consider the moral implications and values that should guide international conduct and decision-making. | International Relations (IR) theory serves a vital role in examining the broader, larger, and enduring ethical or normative questions that underpin global interactions and policies. These questions delve into what ought to be rather than what is, challenging scholars and practitioners to consider the moral implications and values that should guide international conduct and decision-making. | ||
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Furthermore, the rise of nationalism and populism in recent years has brought to the fore ethical questions about identity politics, the treatment of refugees and migrants, and the tension between globalism and localism. These issues challenge the traditional Westphalian notion of state sovereignty and require a rethinking of ethical obligations beyond borders. In essence, IR theory provides the tools and frameworks necessary to engage with these ethical and normative questions. It enables a critical examination of the principles that should govern international relations, encouraging a move beyond power politics to consider the moral dimensions of global interactions. This aspect of IR theory is crucial for developing policies and practices that are not only effective but also just and ethical. | Furthermore, the rise of nationalism and populism in recent years has brought to the fore ethical questions about identity politics, the treatment of refugees and migrants, and the tension between globalism and localism. These issues challenge the traditional Westphalian notion of state sovereignty and require a rethinking of ethical obligations beyond borders. In essence, IR theory provides the tools and frameworks necessary to engage with these ethical and normative questions. It enables a critical examination of the principles that should govern international relations, encouraging a move beyond power politics to consider the moral dimensions of global interactions. This aspect of IR theory is crucial for developing policies and practices that are not only effective but also just and ethical. | ||
==== | ==== What, when, and to what degree to use force? ==== | ||
Determining when, what, and to what degree to use force in international relations is a question that has continually challenged nations, particularly in the context of conflicts like those in Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa, Bosnia, Libya, Syria, Zimbabwe, the Congo, and Liberia. Each of these situations presented unique challenges and considerations, testing the international community's ability to balance state sovereignty, human rights, and practical intervention concerns. | Determining when, what, and to what degree to use force in international relations is a question that has continually challenged nations, particularly in the context of conflicts like those in Rhodesia, apartheid South Africa, Bosnia, Libya, Syria, Zimbabwe, the Congo, and Liberia. Each of these situations presented unique challenges and considerations, testing the international community's ability to balance state sovereignty, human rights, and practical intervention concerns. | ||
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These varied cases reflect the nuanced and often contentious nature of deciding to use force in international affairs. The decisions are influenced by a mix of factors, including the severity of the situation, the legal and ethical justifications for intervention, potential success rates, the intervening states' interests, and the broader implications for international stability. They illustrate the ongoing tension between respecting the sovereignty of states and the imperative to protect human rights, between pursuing national interests and adhering to international law and moral principles. These situations underscore the complex and multifaceted nature of using force in international relations, a decision that requires careful consideration of both the immediate and long-term consequences for all involved. | These varied cases reflect the nuanced and often contentious nature of deciding to use force in international affairs. The decisions are influenced by a mix of factors, including the severity of the situation, the legal and ethical justifications for intervention, potential success rates, the intervening states' interests, and the broader implications for international stability. They illustrate the ongoing tension between respecting the sovereignty of states and the imperative to protect human rights, between pursuing national interests and adhering to international law and moral principles. These situations underscore the complex and multifaceted nature of using force in international relations, a decision that requires careful consideration of both the immediate and long-term consequences for all involved. | ||
==== | ==== What is the place of morality in foreign policy or international relations? ==== | ||
The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is a subject of considerable debate and varied perspectives within the field of International Relations (IR). The incorporation of moral principles, such as human rights, religious freedom, and humanitarian concerns, into foreign policy reflects a significant shift from traditional views that prioritized state interests and power politics. | The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is a subject of considerable debate and varied perspectives within the field of International Relations (IR). The incorporation of moral principles, such as human rights, religious freedom, and humanitarian concerns, into foreign policy reflects a significant shift from traditional views that prioritized state interests and power politics. | ||
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The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is thus a dynamic and complex issue. It represents an ongoing struggle to align ethical imperatives with the practical realities of global politics, reflecting the tension between idealist aspirations and realist constraints. The pursuit of moral objectives in international relations underscores the evolving nature of the international system, one in which the traditional notions of state sovereignty and non-intervention are increasingly weighed against the global community's responsibility to uphold fundamental human rights and ethical principles. | The place of morality in foreign policy and international relations is thus a dynamic and complex issue. It represents an ongoing struggle to align ethical imperatives with the practical realities of global politics, reflecting the tension between idealist aspirations and realist constraints. The pursuit of moral objectives in international relations underscores the evolving nature of the international system, one in which the traditional notions of state sovereignty and non-intervention are increasingly weighed against the global community's responsibility to uphold fundamental human rights and ethical principles. | ||
==== | ==== What are the ‘obligations’ we owe to the state, and obligations not originating in our states - are their duties beyond state borders? ==== | ||
In the realm of political philosophy and international relations, the discussion of obligations owed to the state versus those transcending national boundaries is both intricate and multifaceted. Citizens generally have well-established obligations to their state, which can include adhering to laws, paying taxes, engaging in the democratic process, and sometimes participating in national service. These duties are often viewed as part of a social contract, where citizens agree to certain responsibilities in exchange for the state's protection and services. The nature and extent of these obligations can vary widely, with democratic societies typically emphasizing the protection of individual rights and freedoms, while more authoritarian regimes might demand greater compliance and control. | In the realm of political philosophy and international relations, the discussion of obligations owed to the state versus those transcending national boundaries is both intricate and multifaceted. Citizens generally have well-established obligations to their state, which can include adhering to laws, paying taxes, engaging in the democratic process, and sometimes participating in national service. These duties are often viewed as part of a social contract, where citizens agree to certain responsibilities in exchange for the state's protection and services. The nature and extent of these obligations can vary widely, with democratic societies typically emphasizing the protection of individual rights and freedoms, while more authoritarian regimes might demand greater compliance and control. | ||
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In practice, the degree to which individuals and states recognize and act on obligations beyond their borders varies significantly and frequently becomes a topic of political debate. Discussions around refugee policies, foreign aid, and participation in international environmental agreements all reflect varying perspectives on the extent and nature of a state's duties beyond its immediate citizenry and territory. The obligations to the state are clearly defined within legal and societal frameworks, but the notion of duties extending beyond national borders is more fluid and subject to ethical debate, international norms, and the changing dynamics of global interdependence. These broader obligations reflect an increasing awareness of the shared challenges and common destiny of humanity, pushing the boundaries of traditional state-centric views in international relations. | In practice, the degree to which individuals and states recognize and act on obligations beyond their borders varies significantly and frequently becomes a topic of political debate. Discussions around refugee policies, foreign aid, and participation in international environmental agreements all reflect varying perspectives on the extent and nature of a state's duties beyond its immediate citizenry and territory. The obligations to the state are clearly defined within legal and societal frameworks, but the notion of duties extending beyond national borders is more fluid and subject to ethical debate, international norms, and the changing dynamics of global interdependence. These broader obligations reflect an increasing awareness of the shared challenges and common destiny of humanity, pushing the boundaries of traditional state-centric views in international relations. | ||
==== | ==== What are the rights and wrongs of intervention – military and humanitarian? ==== | ||
The debate over the rights and wrongs of intervention, encompassing both military and humanitarian actions, is a deeply complex issue in international relations, balancing ethical, legal, and pragmatic considerations. On the one hand, interventions are often justified on humanitarian grounds, especially when aimed at preventing gross human rights violations such as genocide, ethnic cleansing, or crimes against humanity. The concept of a 'responsibility to protect' argues that when a state fails to protect its citizens, or worse, perpetrates atrocities against them, there is a moral imperative for the international community to step in. However, interventions are defensible and more ethically sound when they have the backing of international law, typically through a United Nations Security Council resolution. This legal sanctioning ensures that the intervention isn't merely a cover for advancing a single nation's interests but is instead a collective response to a crisis. Interventions can also be justified for maintaining or restoring regional and global stability, particularly when a nation's conflict poses threats beyond its borders. Yet, interventions are fraught with challenges and potential pitfalls. A significant concern is the violation of state sovereignty, a core principle in international law and relations. Unilateral or inadequately supported interventions can be seen as infringements on a nation's right to self-determination. Furthermore, military interventions, even with the noblest intentions, risk escalating conflicts, causing civilian casualties, and creating long-term instability and power vacuums, as seen in the aftermath of interventions in Iraq and Libya. | The debate over the rights and wrongs of intervention, encompassing both military and humanitarian actions, is a deeply complex issue in international relations, balancing ethical, legal, and pragmatic considerations. On the one hand, interventions are often justified on humanitarian grounds, especially when aimed at preventing gross human rights violations such as genocide, ethnic cleansing, or crimes against humanity. The concept of a 'responsibility to protect' argues that when a state fails to protect its citizens, or worse, perpetrates atrocities against them, there is a moral imperative for the international community to step in. However, interventions are defensible and more ethically sound when they have the backing of international law, typically through a United Nations Security Council resolution. This legal sanctioning ensures that the intervention isn't merely a cover for advancing a single nation's interests but is instead a collective response to a crisis. Interventions can also be justified for maintaining or restoring regional and global stability, particularly when a nation's conflict poses threats beyond its borders. Yet, interventions are fraught with challenges and potential pitfalls. A significant concern is the violation of state sovereignty, a core principle in international law and relations. Unilateral or inadequately supported interventions can be seen as infringements on a nation's right to self-determination. Furthermore, military interventions, even with the noblest intentions, risk escalating conflicts, causing civilian casualties, and creating long-term instability and power vacuums, as seen in the aftermath of interventions in Iraq and Libya. | ||
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The decision to intervene, whether militarily or in a humanitarian capacity, necessitates therefore a nuanced and comprehensive assessment. It requires balancing the immediate needs and the long-term impacts on the affected population and the international system. Ensuring that interventions are legally sanctioned, internationally supported, and effectively and responsibly implemented is crucial for maintaining their legitimacy and ensuring they do more good than harm. | The decision to intervene, whether militarily or in a humanitarian capacity, necessitates therefore a nuanced and comprehensive assessment. It requires balancing the immediate needs and the long-term impacts on the affected population and the international system. Ensuring that interventions are legally sanctioned, internationally supported, and effectively and responsibly implemented is crucial for maintaining their legitimacy and ensuring they do more good than harm. | ||
=== IR | === What is IR theory – it is a ‘tool kit’ or type of ‘problem-solving theory’ (Robert Cox) === | ||
International Relations (IR) theory, as conceptualized by theorists like Robert Cox, can be understood as a 'tool kit' or a type of 'problem-solving theory.' This characterization underscores the practical and analytical utility of IR theory in understanding and addressing the complexities of global politics. | International Relations (IR) theory, as conceptualized by theorists like Robert Cox, can be understood as a 'tool kit' or a type of 'problem-solving theory.' This characterization underscores the practical and analytical utility of IR theory in understanding and addressing the complexities of global politics. | ||
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Interpretive theory aligns with the constructivist approach in IR, which holds that the realities of international politics are socially and culturally constructed rather than objectively given. Constructivists argue that the identities, interests, and actions of states are shaped by shared ideas, norms, and values, and thus, understanding these social constructs is key to understanding international relations. Both explanatory and interpretive theories offer valuable insights into international relations. The explanatory approach, with its focus on general laws and causal explanations, is useful for predicting events and formulating policies. On the other hand, the interpretive approach provides a deeper understanding of the complex social, historical, and cultural factors that influence international events and decisions. In practice, a comprehensive analysis of international relations often requires a combination of both approaches. While the explanatory theory can elucidate broad patterns and regularities in state behavior, interpretive theory can uncover the unique contexts and meanings that underlie specific international events. Together, these approaches provide a more complete picture of the dynamics at play in the world of international politics. | Interpretive theory aligns with the constructivist approach in IR, which holds that the realities of international politics are socially and culturally constructed rather than objectively given. Constructivists argue that the identities, interests, and actions of states are shaped by shared ideas, norms, and values, and thus, understanding these social constructs is key to understanding international relations. Both explanatory and interpretive theories offer valuable insights into international relations. The explanatory approach, with its focus on general laws and causal explanations, is useful for predicting events and formulating policies. On the other hand, the interpretive approach provides a deeper understanding of the complex social, historical, and cultural factors that influence international events and decisions. In practice, a comprehensive analysis of international relations often requires a combination of both approaches. While the explanatory theory can elucidate broad patterns and regularities in state behavior, interpretive theory can uncover the unique contexts and meanings that underlie specific international events. Together, these approaches provide a more complete picture of the dynamics at play in the world of international politics. | ||
=== IR | === IR theory – as negative critique or prophetic === | ||
International Relations (IR) theory can function as a form of critique of the existing international order, and this critique can take two primary forms: negative critique and prophetic critique. These approaches differ in their perspectives and objectives regarding the status quo of international relations. | International Relations (IR) theory can function as a form of critique of the existing international order, and this critique can take two primary forms: negative critique and prophetic critique. These approaches differ in their perspectives and objectives regarding the status quo of international relations. | ||
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Both forms of critique play vital roles in the field of IR. Negative critiques are important for understanding the limitations and problems of the current international system, providing a necessary foundation for any meaningful reform or transformation. Prophetic critiques are essential for imagining alternative futures and motivating change towards a more just and sustainable global order. In academic discourse and policy-making, these critiques serve as a means of holding the existing system accountable and inspiring debates about potential pathways for change. They encourage a continuous re-examination of the principles, practices, and structures that govern international relations, fostering a dynamic and evolving understanding of global politics. | Both forms of critique play vital roles in the field of IR. Negative critiques are important for understanding the limitations and problems of the current international system, providing a necessary foundation for any meaningful reform or transformation. Prophetic critiques are essential for imagining alternative futures and motivating change towards a more just and sustainable global order. In academic discourse and policy-making, these critiques serve as a means of holding the existing system accountable and inspiring debates about potential pathways for change. They encourage a continuous re-examination of the principles, practices, and structures that govern international relations, fostering a dynamic and evolving understanding of global politics. | ||
=== IR | === IR theory – theory as everyday social practice === | ||
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= Why to Buzan and Little argue IR as a ‘Failed intellectual project’? = | |||
= Annexes = | = Annexes = | ||
= | = Reference = | ||