« Identity politics and social movements » : différence entre les versions
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The focus is now on political actors other than the State that may have spatial implications. The State will not disappear, but for the most part, these diverse political actors will be in relation with the State having a strong influence on the way in which political facts are inscribed in space. | The focus is now on political actors other than the State that may have spatial implications. The State will not disappear, but for the most part, these diverse political actors will be in relation with the State having a strong influence on the way in which political facts are inscribed in space. | ||
= | = Identity, identity politics = | ||
There is a growing political importance of identity issues. Identity is the basis of democracy today. How criminalization of identity and identity theft is more important. Talking about personal identity and collective identity refers to the question of identity as something that can be chosen or imposed. Behind the interpretation of identity, there are political dynamics. | |||
Identities can be multiple. Unchangeable identity is a naturalistic approach which is the notion that one's identity is one's uniqueness. Contextual identity means that there is a set of identities that one can have and the different identities are mobilized and activated according to the context. It is the construction of a problem that then activates and mobilizes a certain identity for political ends. Identity can be either a passive expression or an active performance. Identity politics is when differences in collective identity become a source of conflict or an object of effort to bring about social transformation. | |||
= | = Identity spaces = | ||
In political geography, we are particularly interested in dimensions in order to talk about identity spaces. The foundation of most identity theories has strong links to space within the framework of an "I" and an "Other/Othering" that can be spatiality. The idea is to designate someone as someone else in order to better identify oneself. In Orientalism published in 1978, Edward Said shows how Westerners created the Orient as a concept and as a region. In Under Western Eyes published in 2003, Chandra Mohanty became interested in northern feminism that would have created an image of southern women losing their capacity. | |||
[[File:découpage région genève.jpg|thumb|center]] | [[File:découpage région genève.jpg|thumb|center]] | ||
The distribution of these identities can be seen everywhere. For example, European identity finds spatial variations that can be linked to politics. Political geography examines the spatial qualities of identity politics and the use of space to mobilize support for the political rights of specific identity groups. | |||
= | = Social movements = | ||
Cette désignation trouve son origine dans les mouvements identitaires des années 1960. Il s’agit de mouvement que les théories d’alors ne pouvaient pas expliquer. Ce n’était | Cette désignation trouve son origine dans les mouvements identitaires des années 1960. Il s’agit de mouvement que les théories d’alors ne pouvaient pas expliquer. Ce n’était It was not possible to deal with identity issues, but on the basis of traditional cleavages, we could not explain these identity movements. The birth of identity (social) movements in the 1960s and 1970s took place around feminism, "Black Power", the defence of homosexual rights, political Islam, religious law, but also ethnoregionalism. The difficulties are to understand them through standard categories. | ||
What links these movements is that they are networks of organizations and individuals, we do not speak of a unitary institution although in many movements professional organizations have been created that even dominate the movements, but we speak of movement as a set of organizations and individuals explaining also why there is a diffuse geography of the movement. These movements will use non-traditional tactics such as demonstrations, boycotts, guards, civil disobedience. These strategies are outside the traditional tools of analysis since they involve mobilizing identities that are subject to injustices in public policies of the day. For most geographers interested in social movements, they are interested in urban movements. | |||
= Justice environnementale = | = Justice environnementale = | ||
Version du 16 mai 2018 à 21:48
We will focus on this theme for two main reasons:
- with the evolution of the state, the state is increasingly interested in population, particularly in the context of the emergence of the welfare state and the functions it should provide. Political geography has focused on how political strategies and decisions influence the character of population distribution and control. Some authors believe that it is one of the last remaining powers of the state. One of the tools to control the population is identity. It is a multidimensional concept.
- at a time when the authors of political geography began to diversify their interests in the 1960s and 1970s, after a long focus on the state as a political actor, this transformation came at a time when social movements were emerging in which identity played a crucial role.
Summary
The political geographer is a speech. If we speak of the political geographer as a discipline is precisely because an overview of the evolution of this sub-discipline helps us to understand key concepts from a varied perspective in order to give us the tools to apply them to today's problems. We must recognize that concepts that we talk about a lot are fairly old concepts, concepts that have changed over time and that have meanings that change over time. To be able to better understand a problem today, it is important to understand that these concepts have not always been understood in the same way.
We see that there are groups emerging. The first with the philosophers of the Enlightenment, a second with the initiators of political geography, a third which participated in the diversification of objects and interests from the 1970s. This emergence of the discipline of political geography thought is also linked to historical events, notably the First World War and the fall of the Soviet Union. These events provide the world around these thinkers, they provide the material that these thinkers will use to build this theory. To understand why Ratzel focused so much on the state, it is because at the time of writing his work, the state was the main actor. Depending on national origin, one realizes that for the most part, political geography served the interests of powerful nations.
Along the evolution of the discipline, we can see an inversion of causality. From a naturalistic perspective, most of the initiators of political geography thought were interested in the ways in which biophysical forms determined politics. It was the impact of policies on space facts.
This causality will be reversed in the 1970s, we will focus more on spatial effects. Political facts to know how the organization of politics, political decisions, public policy will fit into space, how the spatial distribution of equality or inequality can be explained through political organization.
There has also been a shift in discipline from the universal to the state. The initiators of political geophagy who were almost exclusively interested in the state. There is also an evolution of analytical postures, starting with a naturalism that predominates among the initiators of political geography and that evolves towards rationalism and postmodernism. There is an evolution of methods in political geography. Until the beginning of the 20th century, these were rather normative philosophical argumentation methods. More and more, there will be empirical scientific argumentation and especially with the scientific revolution in the social sciences in the 1960s. There has been an evolution in the scales of analysis. Not only will we be talking about the individual, the city, the region, the cross-border or even the global, but we will also begin to interpret these scales as a social construct. More and more attention will be paid to the interaction between these different scales.
The focus is now on political actors other than the State that may have spatial implications. The State will not disappear, but for the most part, these diverse political actors will be in relation with the State having a strong influence on the way in which political facts are inscribed in space.
Identity, identity politics
There is a growing political importance of identity issues. Identity is the basis of democracy today. How criminalization of identity and identity theft is more important. Talking about personal identity and collective identity refers to the question of identity as something that can be chosen or imposed. Behind the interpretation of identity, there are political dynamics.
Identities can be multiple. Unchangeable identity is a naturalistic approach which is the notion that one's identity is one's uniqueness. Contextual identity means that there is a set of identities that one can have and the different identities are mobilized and activated according to the context. It is the construction of a problem that then activates and mobilizes a certain identity for political ends. Identity can be either a passive expression or an active performance. Identity politics is when differences in collective identity become a source of conflict or an object of effort to bring about social transformation.
Identity spaces
In political geography, we are particularly interested in dimensions in order to talk about identity spaces. The foundation of most identity theories has strong links to space within the framework of an "I" and an "Other/Othering" that can be spatiality. The idea is to designate someone as someone else in order to better identify oneself. In Orientalism published in 1978, Edward Said shows how Westerners created the Orient as a concept and as a region. In Under Western Eyes published in 2003, Chandra Mohanty became interested in northern feminism that would have created an image of southern women losing their capacity.
The distribution of these identities can be seen everywhere. For example, European identity finds spatial variations that can be linked to politics. Political geography examines the spatial qualities of identity politics and the use of space to mobilize support for the political rights of specific identity groups.
Social movements
Cette désignation trouve son origine dans les mouvements identitaires des années 1960. Il s’agit de mouvement que les théories d’alors ne pouvaient pas expliquer. Ce n’était It was not possible to deal with identity issues, but on the basis of traditional cleavages, we could not explain these identity movements. The birth of identity (social) movements in the 1960s and 1970s took place around feminism, "Black Power", the defence of homosexual rights, political Islam, religious law, but also ethnoregionalism. The difficulties are to understand them through standard categories.
What links these movements is that they are networks of organizations and individuals, we do not speak of a unitary institution although in many movements professional organizations have been created that even dominate the movements, but we speak of movement as a set of organizations and individuals explaining also why there is a diffuse geography of the movement. These movements will use non-traditional tactics such as demonstrations, boycotts, guards, civil disobedience. These strategies are outside the traditional tools of analysis since they involve mobilizing identities that are subject to injustices in public policies of the day. For most geographers interested in social movements, they are interested in urban movements.
Justice environnementale
La justice environnementale est un mouvement qui émerge aux États-Unis dans les années 1980. Les enjeux raciaux et environnementaux ont déjà été sujets de débats politiques, mais avant les années 1980, ils n’étaient pas vraiment liés. Il y a un contexte spécifique dans lequel émergence ce mouvement suite au rapport Toxic Waste and Race in the United States publié en 1987 qui invente le terme de « racisme environnemental ».
Sur cette carte, les zones noires indiquent les endroits ou le taux de population afro-américaine et hispano-américaine est au-dessus du moyen de contrôle du pays. Ce rapport a montré le lien entre le positionnement des sources de déchets toxiques et les habitations des minorités aux États-Unis. Ce rapport va lancer le mouvement de la justice environnementale.
Toxic Waste and Race in the United States
Vingt ans après, il y a peu de progrès et de nouveaux problèmes dus à des réductions budgétaires dans l'application des lois, à l’affaiblissement de la protection de la santé publique, mais aussi au démantèlement des lois de protection contre le racisme environnemental.
Ce graphique indique le pourcentage de la population afro-américaine est hispanolatino qui habite à proximité des sites toxiques. Presque 50% de la population de couleurs se trouve à moins d’un kilomètre de zones dangereuses.
Justice environnementale dans le Sud
Dans les pays du Sud a lieu la catastrophe de Bhopal en Inde en 1988, la privatisation de l'eau à Cochabamba en Bolivie en 2000 qui est une guerre de l’eau, les seringueros au Brésil ou encore le Green Belt Movement au Kenya afin de lutter contre la déforestation et l’érosion des sols. C’est une série de mouvements où il y a un lien entre l’inégalité des populations et l’accès aux ressources que l’on peut entendre comme un exemple de justice environnementale.
Justice environnementale et développement durable
Concernant le développement durable, Banchon distingue deux initiatives dans des initiatives « top-down » sur la position « paradoxale » du développement durable, à savoir :
- discours : « trois piliers » et une équité entre générations et sociétés ;
- pratique : place en second la justice sociale pour une vision du développement durable « qui ne remet en cause ni les fondements de l’économie mondiale ni le mode des pays riches ».
La justice environnementale se dirige vers une éthique de l’environnement. Pour Rawls, une inégalité devient une injustice quand elle ne bénéficie pas à tous, et en particulier pas aux plus pauvres. Pour Harvey, les inégalités socioécologiques sont regardées comme des formes d’oppression.
Occupy Wall Street
Formes d’oppression environnementale
Young dans Justice and the Politics of Difference publié en 1990 et Harvey dans Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference publié 1996, selon Blanchon permet d’identifier plusieurs formes d’oppression environnementale :
- la non-reconnaissance des spécificités sociales et culturelles des groupes sociaux, et en particulier de la singularité de leur relation avec l’environnement ;
- l’impuissance politique en matière d’environnement, soit l’incapacité de faire entendre sa voix ;
- l’accaparement d’un bien environnemental par un groupe social et/ou la privation d’accès pour le groupe victime ;
- dévastations écologiques pénalisant certains groupes sociaux plus que d’autres.
Ces formes d’oppression environnementale sont liées à une identité et peuvent donner à une politique d’action identitaire dans le cadre de la justice environnementale. La perspective de la justice environnementale est que les conséquences des mauvaises pratiques environnementales sont majoritairement focalisées sur des populations spécifiques sur la base de traits identitaires.
Occupy Wall Street (OWS)
Occupy Wall Street est un mouvement de contestation pacifique dénonçant les abus du capitalisme financier qui débute en mi-septembre 2011 avec une manifestation dans les environs de Wall Street, puis un camp dans le parc Zuccotti. Ce mouvement s’inspire du printemps arabe ainsi que du mouvement des Indignés en Europe. S’étend sur l’ensemble des États-Unis dès le 9 octobre. Le 15 octobre, lors de la première journée mondiale de protestation pour de vraies démocraties, le mouvement Occupy s'étend dans environ 1500 villes de 82 pays. Il s’agit d’un ensemble d’individus qui utilise des tactiques non traditionnelles manifestant surtout autour de l’anticapitalisme. Les manifestants sont expulsés du parc Zuccotti à la mi-novembre.
OWS – géographie politique urbaine
Il y a des aspects intéressants dans la perspective de la symbolique des lieux qui tourne autour de l’espace. Certains lieux ont une importance symbolique notamment à Wall Street au parc Zuccotti et Ground Zero. Ce par s’appelait initialement Liberty Plaza jusqu’en 2006 que les contestataires ont renommés Liberty Plaza. L’idée du POPS était celle de « privately owned public space ». Deux églises se sont opposées quant aux soutiens à apport à ce mouvement à savoir la Trinity Church et la Judson Memorial Church.
OWS – géographie politique globale financière
Avec le mouvement Occupy Wall Street, on peut se demander quels sont les objectifs ? Comment les atteindre ? Il y a des raisons quant à l’incertitude des finalités. On peut estimer que c’est cette hétérogénéité des manifestants est une force permettant une exportation du modèle de diffusion, mais qui était en même temps une faiblesse parce que l’identité qui a pu être mobilisée par les protagonistes était trop diffuse pour que le mouvement devienne durable de la même manière que d’autres mouvements ont pu le faire. Les revendications qui se forment autour d’une critique profonde du capitalisme évoquaient le fait que dans la transformation de l’État providence, il y a des prestations que l’État n’est plus capable de fournir.
Résumé
On parle de politique identitaire quand des divergences d’identité collective deviennent une source de conflit ou un objet d’efforts pour apporter une transformation sociale. Les identités, individuelles et collectives, ont souvent une dimension spatiale. La géographie politique s’adresse aux qualités spatiales de la politique identitaire et à l’utilisation de l’espace pour mobiliser l’appui pour les droits politiques de groupes spécifiques.
La politique identitaire joue un rôle important pour les mouvements sociaux qui émergent dans les années 1960 et 1970. Les conséquences environnementales de la politique identitaire deviennent la cible de la mobilisation pour la justice environnementale. Les dimensions spatiales des mouvements sociaux récents deviennent à la fois plus concrètes et plus diffuses, illustrées par Occupy Wall Street. Les thèmes se répètent : l’État comme organisation politique puissante ne s’en va pas, la transformation des États par le haut et par le bas donne naissance à des nouvelles inégalités et injustices sociospatiales.