« Humanitarian action: between action and intervention » : différence entre les versions
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The Charter is not true, because certain principles must be put into perspective. The Charter was developed in the 1980s. | The Charter is not true, because certain principles must be put into perspective. The Charter was developed in the 1980s. | ||
#Respect | #Respect for medical ethics | ||
#Respect | #Respect for human rights: there is a difference between those who do human rights and those who do humanitarian work. Human rights are organizations that are openly human rights organizations. It is difficult to give evidence and not take part in the International Criminal Court system, | ||
# | #particularly to give evidence. | ||
# | #The concern for independence | ||
# | #A founding principle: impartiality | ||
# | #A spirit of neutrality | ||
# | #Accountability and transparency | ||
# | #A volunteer organization | ||
#An associative operation | |||
Today, there is a tendency to abandon questions of neutrality, particularly in the context of Syria. In Israel and Palestine, Israel criticizes for not working in Israel. The answer is that Israel has all the infrastructure and personnel necessary for its medical sufficiency. | |||
== | == Countries of intervention in 2012 == | ||
[[Fichier:Ri2 pays intervention msf.png|400px|vignette|centré]] | [[Fichier:Ri2 pays intervention msf.png|400px|vignette|centré]] | ||
Version du 24 décembre 2018 à 14:00
Humanitarian action is a research subject that has been of much less interest to scientific debates and is above all a question of practitioners. Humanitarian aid is difficult to build as an object of research. It is difficult to operationalize theoretical concepts in the case of humanitarian work.
Brief History of Humanitarian Action
There is a dilemma and contradiction around the issue of humanitarian aid since there is a surge of charity, but the issue of politics comes into play and humanitarian aid can be instrumentalized.
After the battle of Solferino, Henri Dunant created the Red Cross, which became the ICRC, and laid the foundations of humanitarian law through the Geneva Conventions. When we talk about humanitarian aid as a practice, there is a century of hegemony of the Red Cross, which will be the main actor in humanitarian aid, particularly around the principles of neutrality and impartiality. The ICRC will be criticised in the context of the Second World War because it was aware of the events in the concentration camps with the gas chambers, but in order to be able to keep access for assisted persons and prisoners of war in particular, the ICRC did not disclose the information and took a position.
In parallel with the hegemony of the Red Cross, new humanitarian actors will emerge. From the inter-war period, with the League of Nations, the foundations of a global humanitarian system began to emerge with different agencies such as the Office of the Commissioner for Refugees. With the end of the Second World War and the realization of the need for a world government, the UN will become a fairly central actor in humanitarian aid, with a series of specialized agencies that will later lead to the creation of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.
With the arrival of the new UN actors, there is the arrival of non-governmental organizations marking a deregulation with a multiplicity of actors making humanitarian aid as an object of research even more complicated. On the other hand, during decolonization, there is a first questioning of humanitarian principles with a more third world approach to humanitarian aid, particularly with humanitarian aid that is more politicized and socialist or closer to the eastern bloc, which wants to question the principle of neutrality, which in the form of criticism would only be a disguised way of imposing Western hegemony. It is an argument of Marxist origin that is influential in the criticism of development theory.
There is a growing success of humanitarian action with more and more resources, more and more actors who have increasingly different conceptions of what humanitarian action is. This brings a moment in the Cold War which is considered a turning point which is the Biafra war which is a province of Nigeria wanting to become independent which has provoked a civil war challenging the international community and humanitarian actors.
It should be noted that monotheistic religions predominate in the construction of what has been a charitable action and what has subsequently become a humanitarian action. Whether for Christianity, Islam or Judaism, it is fundamentally at the heart of Christian charity, of zakat, which is one of the five pillars of Islam. We will see how today what is charitable or humanitarian action resulting from the action of the Church or from a religious action is totally decried comes from there.
The NGO issue actually comes from before the Biafra war. OXFOM, for example, was created during the war that was Oxford's committee against famine to send aid to people suffering from famine in Greece during the Second World War. We can also note Save the children created in 1919.
Biafra is a turning point in the French-speaking world because it was from that moment that some actors found it unacceptable to see that the Red Cross did not denounce what was happening in Biafra. Subsequently, it was discovered that this was manipulated. Biafra was the idea of providing help, but also of testifying and decrying situations that were considered intolerable. In the early 1980s, this whole trend was nothing more than third worldism. Subsequently, Médecin du monde and Aide médicale internationale were created. At one point, we enter a separation between French-style and Anglo-Saxon humanitarian aid. What happens in the late 1960s is to speak out for the voiceless.
With the events in Ethiopia in 1985, there was an awareness of Médecin sans frontières who would leave the country after becoming aware that he had been manipulated. Most of the leaders of MSF and MDU subsequently entered governments. In the early 1990s, with the realization that the State may be failing, these non-governmental organizations must be used to achieve certain objectives in the context of liberalization and the State must be allowed to restrict itself to a few sovereign functions.
The genocide in Rwanda was not anticipated despite the presence of the Red Cross and the United Nations. This was a shock, particularly for the United Nations and NGOs, which has a lack of coordination and cooperation leading to a structuring of humanitarian aid.
Until the Tsunami event, there was a willingness on the part of the United Nations to coordinate humanitarian action with the creation of an Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, but this did not work very well leading to United Nations reform. This is seeing the emergence of clusters. At the time of the Tsunami, there is a massive influx of aid, but without the capacity to manage this funding. This is a scandal and we realize that there is a larger world because governments also make history. It is at this point that we emerge from the problem of the 1990s of a binary vision between the State and NGOs.
With the earthquake in Haiti in January 2010, it was a humanitarian "spectacle", from crazy projects to the American army that prevented two MSF planes from landing. A country reconstruction commission is set up under the aegis of Bill Clinton, who decides on the allocation of resources. This is a situation where the health cluster does not take into account the cooperation of other actors. With the advent of the cholera epidemic, this raises new issues.
The Syrian situation has seen the refusal of the ICRC and the United Nations to express themselves by blocking aid from the Damascus government. It was a situation where all areas against the Damascus government had no access to any assistance.
Humanitarian actors
The humanitarian nebula
Stoddard and Donini focused on the issue of describing humanitarian actors today. The dunantist trend is humanitarian aid based on the principles of neutrality, independence and impartiality; and religious actors. The idea is to distinguish between organizations with a Wilsonian tendency that are part of a realistic approach that helps because there is a transformative agenda and we need to change the regime or work on the causes of the conflict or humanitarian cause.
A distinction must be made. The idea of talking about a nebula is that we are in a relationship with aid that is very different. It is also necessary to differentiate between the short term and the long term. Humanitarian aid often refers to the English notion of "relief" which is there to relieve suffering. The Wilsonian trend is the logic that to effectively help a population, the root causes of conflict must be addressed. In order to improve the situation in a country, it is necessary to improve certain aspects such as the school system or to overthrow the existing regime. It is a tension around the debates within the humanitarian nebula.
Operational humanitarian organizations in 2010
There is a whole debate between the United Nations and Médecins sans frontières on the issue of operationality since the United Nations is convinced of their operationality, but in reality it is only reallocating funds they have.
The whole question surrounding the insecurity of humanitarian workers must be put into perspective with the fact that this is a sector that has increased significantly in recent years. A whole series of actors does not appear.
New humanitarian actors
Governments and regional organizations such as those in Asia and the Middle East are setting up their own relief programmes. The private sector emphasizes corporate social responsibility. Some companies put funding into humanitarian programs such as the Ikea Foundation. Some organizations have strict funding to avoid being tied to entities involved in certain compromising situations. The armed forces have developed their own backup systems.
A major turning point is taking place at the moment with the emergence by some States of a desire to reaffirm their sovereignty over certain actors.
Presentation of MSF and its principles of action
The creation
Médecin sans frontières was created in 1971 by journalists and doctors with the idea of creating an organization that would provide medical assistance and testify as a voice for the voiceless.
Principles of action
Médecin sans frontières prides itself on being an extremely operational organization that does not fund other actors.
Today, the ICRC is much more vocal than MSF is because it is not always easy to testify when there are teams in the field. Safety is to be balanced with patients and patients' rights.
The Charter
The Charter is not true, because certain principles must be put into perspective. The Charter was developed in the 1980s.
- Respect for medical ethics
- Respect for human rights: there is a difference between those who do human rights and those who do humanitarian work. Human rights are organizations that are openly human rights organizations. It is difficult to give evidence and not take part in the International Criminal Court system,
- particularly to give evidence.
- The concern for independence
- A founding principle: impartiality
- A spirit of neutrality
- Accountability and transparency
- A volunteer organization
- An associative operation
Today, there is a tendency to abandon questions of neutrality, particularly in the context of Syria. In Israel and Palestine, Israel criticizes for not working in Israel. The answer is that Israel has all the infrastructure and personnel necessary for its medical sufficiency.
Countries of intervention in 2012
Médecin sans frontière en Suisse
Le mouvement de MSF en chiffres
Aujourd’hui, ce sont 8 millions de consultations avec 445000 hospitalisations, 73'000 opérations chirurgicales. C’est aussi 30000 d’employé-e-s dans plus de 60 pays avec 1milliard d’euros de budget, dont 4,5 millions de donateurs et 89 % de fonds privés.
Ressources financières de MSF CH
Les recettes en 2012 s’élevaient à 180 millions CHF tandis qu’on dénombre 211494 donateurs. L’indépendance financière offre la possibilité de dénoncer et de porter certains discours.
Domaines d’activité de MSF
Les domaines d’activité sont :
- l’assistance aux victimes de violence ;
- l’assistance aux victimes de catastrophes naturelles ;
- lutte contre les maladies [épidémies, VIH/sida, tuberculose, paludisme, maladies négligées] :
- lutte contre la malnutrition.
Structure internationale
Quelques principes d’actions
Il y a un refus de l’instrumentalisation de l’humanitaire avec des limites claires entre action militaire et humanitaire. D’autre part, les trois axes sont l’indépendance, la neutralité et l’impartialité par rapport aux pouvoirs politique, religieux ou économique.
La question de la perception des limites des actions de MSF met en exergue que MSF ne pas tout faire. Les principes humanitaires doivent se traduire dans la pratique au cours des opérations d’assistance, car c’est le respect de ces principes qui garantit aux organisations humanitaires le droit d’être présents sur le terrain lors de conflits armés selon les conventions de Genève. Il y a une tension entre les principes d’action et l’action sur le terrain.
Dilemmes de l’humanitaire
intervention humanitaire VS. action humanitaire
La question de l’intervention humanitaire se nourrit de la notion de guerre juste menant à l’idée de responsabilité de protéger. Il est fondamental aujourd’hui d’avoir accès à des populations si un gouvernement ne les aide pas posant tout un certain nombre de problèmes dans l’application de ces principes. Dans le cas de Libye, les principes humanitaires neutralité, impartialité et indépendance, mais auxquels il est aussi possible d’ajouter l’humanité que le CICR indique dans ses principes d’action donne lieu au principe d’intervention humanitaire. Au lieu de répondre par des bombardements, pourquoi ne pas donner asile aux populations qui fuyaient un conflit.
Il faut voir qu’on est fasse à un objet typiquement flou qui fait partie des enjeux humanitaires. On est face à des conceptions tout à fait de bonne foi différentes de l’humanitaire. Le point de vue de Médecin sans frontière est un point de vue assez puriste. C’est-à-dire qu’à partir du moment où on est dans une conception totalement. Du moment où on est dans une conception totalement différente, on va avoir à faire à des pratiques totalement différentes. Dans une position dunantienne, dès qu’on va être face à des acteurs financés par des États. Du moment où on va entrer dans une vision plus interventionniste, il va y avoir un problème de la question notamment des interventions militaires. Travailler avec des militaires n’est pas uniquement que des militaires seraient en train de manipuler des humanitaires.
Le problème aujourd’hui est qu’on parle de guerre humanitaire, d’intervention humanitaire, d’action humanitaire ou encore de crise humanitaire et cela devient n’importe quoi. Par exemple, la conceptualisation des failed states a servi à justifier une intervention militaire et humanitaire en Somalie.
Légitimité VS. Souveraineté
La légitimité n’est pas à tenir pour acquise. La question est de savoir si peut-on et ne peut-on pas contester la souveraineté d’un État et dans quelles conditions cela se fait. Il peut y avoir le sentiment d’une conception à deux échelles et qu’on utilise la responsabilité à protéger lorsque cela sert les intérêts de l’OTAN et des États-Unis. Le principe d’« égalité souveraine » est rappelé dans la Charte des Nations Unies à l’article 2. La souveraineté d’un État est basée sur le pouvoir exclusif qu’il exerce sur son territoire et ses ressortissants. Il en découle un certain nombre d’ambiguïtés de la pratique de l’humanitaire entre le droit d’ingérence et la Responsabilité de protéger [R2P].
« Regime change (its moral legitimacy and political practicality) is the ghost at the banquet of humanitarian intervention »
— D. Rieff
Il est difficile de parler de responsabilité de protéger sans faire abstraction de l’idée de changement de régime et de système politique.
Sur la question de la souveraineté, il faut se replacer dans l’histoire de l’émergence et de la transformation de la conception de la souveraineté et comment en est-on arrivé à intervenir au nom du droit international ou au nom d’une intervention humanitaire en remettant en cause la notion de souveraineté. En relations internationales, l’État et son corolaire qui est la souveraineté sont centraux. À partir des années 1990, le fait de pouvoir intervenir dans un pays sans même que le gouvernement de ce pays ait donné son consentement est une révolution en relations internationales. La souveraineté surtout après la décolonisation est une notion centrale surtout que dans la Charte des Nations Unies où le principe d’égalité est inscrit à savoir que tous les pays souverains sont égaux entre eux.
Il y a un glissement qui s’opère à partir de la fin de la Guerre froide où la souveraineté n’est plus considérée comme un droit inaliénable, mais que la souveraineté deviendrait une question de responsabilité. Si un régime ne s’occupe pas bien de sa population, la communauté internationale aurait le droit de changer ce régime. Ce type d’approche qualifiée de libérale va avoir d’un côté des gens de tendance wilsonienne afin de transformer des sociétés et améliorer le bien-être de populations. Ce type d’argument va soulever toute une série de critiques. Il y a une critique impériale c’est-à-dire qu’on va choisir d’intervenir dans certains pays pour des raisons d’intérêts, et il y a une voix purement humanitaire sur ce sujet. Il y a une véritable critique au sein des humanitaires.
Un espace humanitaire
Trois conceptions divergent :
- pour Médecin sans frontières, l’espace humanitaire n’existe pas en tant que tel, car c’est plutôt un espace symbolique basé sur l’indépendance à évaluer des besoins des populations, ce qui est peu le cas dans certaines zones de conflit.
- pour le CICR, la conception est fondée sur la pyramide de Dunant. L’idée est que la base de cette pyramide est le droit international humanitaire, sur lequel s’apposent les principes de neutralité, d’impartialité et d’indépendance amenant comme finalité le principe d’humanité. L’espace humanitaire est constitué par les trois principes qui créent un espace humanitaire.
- pour les Nations Unies, c’est un environnement opérationnel humanitaire. Il est paradoxal de voir les Nations Unies de parler d’un espace humanitaire indépendant, car a été mis en place un ensemble de missions conjointes politiques et humanitaires. En Somalie, il y a une mission politique qui vise à une transformation du régime, à un anéantissement de la milice des Shebab et en même temps fait de l’humanitaire. Le même problème se pose en Irak qui pose un problème de lisibilité.
Dans la nébuleuse humanitaire, on voit des acteurs qui ont des perspectives différentes. Du point de vue dunantiste ou de Médecin sans frontières, on est dans une volonté de s’inscrire dans un espace qui se voudrait autonome notamment politique et à des tentatives de détournement de l’action humanitaire. D’un autre côté, on est face à des acteurs de type onusien ou l’objectif premier n’est pas de maintenir l’indépendance et l’autonomie de cet espace, mais de coordonner un maximum de gens dans le cadre de la globalisation et il est possible de mélanger les acteurs puisque toute proposition d’aide est bonne à prendre puisque le vrai enjeu de l’humanitaire est un vrai problème de coopération.
Annexes
- Conventions de Genève et commentaires. Comité International de la Croix-Rouge. Url: https://www.icrc.org/fr/guerre-et-droit/traites-et-droit-coutumier/conventions-de-geneve