Modification de 第二次世界大战期间的拉丁美洲

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[[Fichier:Gou.png|thumb|150px|GOU 徽章(中央为帝国之鹰和圣马丁将军的图像)。]]
[[Fichier:Gou.png|thumb|150px|GOU 徽章(中央为帝国之鹰和圣马丁将军的图像)。]]


胡安-多明戈-庇隆是二十世纪阿根廷政治史上的核心人物。他是在政治不稳定、经济不平等和社会紧张的背景下成为领导人的。20 世纪 30 年代和 40 年代,阿根廷发生了一系列政变和昙花一现的政府,国家正在寻找一位能够为未来提供清晰愿景的稳定领导人。贝隆在埃德尔米罗-法雷尔(Edelmiro Farrell)总统任内先后担任劳动和福利部部长和国家副总统,巩固了与工会和工人阶级的联系,并将自己定位为他们的拥护者。他的福利政策和民族主义言论加强了他与这些群体的关系,这些政策和言论承诺建立一个更加包容和公平的阿根廷。贝隆政策的支柱之一是 "司法主义",这是他在社会正义、经济独立和政治主权原则基础上发展起来的一种意识形态。在他的领导下,阿根廷实施了一系列进步改革,包括在 1947 年给予妇女选举权、建立社会保障体系、提高工资以及将铁路和电信等关键行业国有化。贝隆的妻子埃娃-贝隆(Eva "Evita" Perón)对贝隆的声望也起到了至关重要的作用。她致力于阿根廷工人阶级 "descamisados"(字面意思是 "没穿衬衣的人")的事业,并代表他们发起了许多社会计划。她成为阿根廷的准神话人物,体现了最弱势群体的愿望和希望。然而,庇隆主义并非没有批评者。保护主义经济政策和国家干预主义因造成经济效率低下而受到批评。贝隆还被指责为民粹主义和独裁主义,其政权的特点是攻击新闻自由和镇压反对者。
Juan Domingo Perón is a central figure in twentieth-century Argentine political history. His emergence as a leader was rooted in a context of political instability, economic inequality and social tensions. The 1930s and 1940s saw a series of coups d'état and short-lived governments in Argentina, and the country was looking for a stable leader who could offer a clear vision for the future. As Secretary of Labour and Welfare and then Vice-President of the Nation under President Edelmiro Farrell, Perón consolidated his links with the unions and the working class, positioning himself as their champion. His relationship with these groups was strengthened by his welfare policies and nationalist rhetoric, which promised a more inclusive and equitable Argentina. One of the pillars of Perón's policies was "Justicialism", an ideology he developed based on the principles of social justice, economic independence and political sovereignty. Under his leadership, Argentina saw the implementation of a number of progressive reforms, including granting women the right to vote in 1947, creating a social security system, raising wages and nationalising key industries such as railways and telecommunications. Perón's wife, Eva "Evita" Perón, also played a crucial role in his popularity. She was devoted to the cause of the "descamisados" (literally "those without shirts"), Argentina's working class, and launched numerous social programmes on their behalf. She became a quasi-mythical figure in Argentina, embodying the aspirations and hopes of the most disadvantaged. However, Peronism was not without its critics. Protectionist economic policies and state interventionism were criticised for causing economic inefficiencies. Perón was also accused of populism and authoritarianism, and his regime was marked by attacks on press freedom and repression of opponents.


1943 年 6 月 4 日发生在阿根廷的政变是前几年震撼阿根廷的一系列政治和社会动荡的一部分。20 世纪 30 年代的全球经济萧条对阿根廷产生了影响,加剧了社会不平等和民众的不满情绪。传统的政治阶层被视为腐败,无法满足人民的需求,这为激进变革创造了肥沃的土壤。军官联合集团(GOU)主要由对国家发展方向不满的中级军官组成。他们坚信,阿根廷需要强有力的领导来带领它渡过难关。在这面旗帜下,他们领导了政变,推翻了现任总统拉蒙-卡斯蒂略(Ramón Castillo)。一旦掌权,GOU 便采取了一系列独裁措施来巩固其控制。国会被解散,新闻自由受到限制,许多政治家和工会领导人被捕。然而,乌拉圭政府并非铁板一块,在国家的发展方向问题上出现了内部分歧。在这种情况下,GOU 成员胡安-多明戈-贝隆开始崭露头角。他最初在劳动和社会保障部任职,与工会建立了密切联系,并推动有利于工人阶级的政策。随着时间的推移,在群众的支持下,他成为该国最有权势的政治人物,为他日后担任总统和创建庇隆主义运动奠定了基础。
The coup d'état of 4 June 1943 in Argentina was part of a series of political and social upheavals that had shaken the country in previous years. The global economic depression of the 1930s had repercussions in Argentina, exacerbating social inequalities and popular discontent. The traditional political class was seen as corrupt and unable to respond to the needs of the people, and this created fertile ground for radical change. The United Officers Group (GOU) was mainly made up of middle-ranking army officers who were unhappy with the direction the country was taking. They firmly believed that Argentina needed strong leadership to guide it through these troubled times. Under this banner, they led the coup and ousted the incumbent president, Ramón Castillo, who was part of the decried 'Infamous Decade', a period of electoral fraud and political corruption. Once in power, the GOU took a series of authoritarian measures to consolidate its control. Congress was dissolved, press freedom restricted and many politicians and trade union leaders arrested. However, the GOU was not monolithic and internal divisions emerged over the direction the country should take. It was in this context that Juan Domingo Perón, a member of the GOU, began to emerge as a dominant figure. Initially holding positions in the Ministry of Labour and Social Security, he developed close links with the trade unions and promoted policies favourable to the working class. Over time, with the support of the masses, he became the most powerful political player in the country, laying the foundations for his future presidency and the creation of the Peronist movement.


胡安-多明戈-庇隆被任命为军政府的劳工和福利部长后,开始为阿根廷塑造新的政治和社会模式。他以这一职位为跳板,推动劳工改革,不仅改善了工人的条件,还使他在工人阶级中建立了坚实的支持基础。这些行动催生了后来被称为 "贝隆主义 "的阿根廷政治和意识形态运动。在贝隆的领导下,国家成为经济的主要参与者,将关键产业国有化,并推动社会福利计划。贝隆的妻子伊娃-贝隆(Eva Perón)在推广这些计划(尤其是针对妇女和弱势群体的计划)方面发挥了至关重要的作用,进一步提升了这对总统夫妇的魅力和影响力。然而,贝隆的领导风格并非没有缺点。虽然他以人民的拥护者自居,但他的方法往往是专制的。政治反对派经常受到镇压,新闻自由受到限制,尽管工会与国家关系密切,但国家经常干预工会事务。贝隆留下的遗产是复杂的。对许多人来说,他被视为阿根廷现代工人运动之父和弱势群体的捍卫者。另一些人则批评他独断专行,不尊重民主制度。无论如何,他对阿根廷政治的影响是不可否认的,在他去世几十年后,庇隆主义仍然是阿根廷政治的主导力量。
Juan Domingo Perón, after being appointed Secretary of Labour and Welfare in the military government, began to shape a new political and social model for Argentina. Using this position as a springboard, he promoted labour reforms that not only improved conditions for workers, but also allowed him to build a solid base of support among the working class. These actions gave rise to what would later be known as Peronism, a distinctly Argentine political and ideological movement. Under Perón, the state became a major player in the economy, nationalising key industries and promoting social welfare programmes. Eva Perón, his wife, played a crucial role in popularising these initiatives, particularly for women and the underprivileged, further enhancing the charisma and reach of the presidential couple. However, Perón's leadership style was not without its flaws. While he presented himself as a champion of the people, his methods were often authoritarian. Political opponents were often repressed, freedom of the press was restricted and the state often intervened in the affairs of the trade unions, despite their close relationship. Perón's legacy is complex. For many, he is seen as the father of the modern workers' movement in Argentina and a defender of the underprivileged. For others, he is criticised for his authoritarianism and lack of respect for democratic institutions. Whatever the case, his influence on Argentine politics is undeniable, with Peronism remaining a dominant force in the country's politics decades after his death.


胡安-多明戈-庇隆在阿根廷历史上仍然是一个复杂而又充满争议的人物。他的崛起正值全球地缘政治变革、法西斯意识形态在欧洲崛起以及美洲国家之间关系紧张之时。贝隆在欧洲,尤其是意大利接受的教育无疑影响了他对治理和国家结构的一些看法。贝尼托-墨索里尼(Benito Mussolini)领导的意大利法西斯主义提倡一种专制主义,强调民族主义、国家统一以及国家在社会和经济中的积极作用。其中一些原则在庇隆主义中得到了反映,不过庇隆主义也受到了其他意识形态的影响,并逐渐融合了民粹主义、社会主义和民族主义政策。美国指责贝隆亲纳粹,部分原因是认为他同情欧洲的独裁政权。然而,必须指出的是,虽然阿根廷在第二次世界大战之前和期间与纳粹德国和法西斯意大利有经济和外交联系,但阿根廷在国内政治中并没有坚持纳粹或法西斯意识形态。相反,阿根廷在贝隆和其他领导人的领导下,在促进本国利益的同时,寻求以务实的方式驾驭当时的地缘政治格局。对贝隆独裁的指责是基于他的施政方法。虽然他实施了广受欢迎的社会和经济改革,但他也压制政治反对派,控制媒体,并利用国家机器巩固自己的权力。尽管如此,他仍因其支持劳工的政策和在国家现代化进程中发挥的作用而受到阿根廷大多数民众的崇拜和敬仰。
Juan Domingo Perón remains a complex and controversial figure in Argentine history. His rise to power came at a time of global geopolitical change, the rise of fascist ideologies in Europe and tensions between the countries of the Americas. Perón's education in Europe, particularly Italy, undoubtedly influenced some of his views on governance and state structure. Italian fascism, under Benito Mussolini, promoted a form of authoritarianism that emphasised nationalism, national unity and the active role of the state in society and the economy. Some of these principles were reflected in Peronism, although Peronism was also influenced by other ideologies and evolved to include a mixture of populist, socialist and nationalist policies. US accusations that Perón was pro-Nazi were partly based on his perceived sympathy for authoritarian regimes in Europe. However, it is important to note that although Argentina had economic and diplomatic ties with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy before and during the Second World War, it did not adhere to Nazi or Fascist ideology in its domestic politics. Rather, Argentina, under Perón and other leaders, sought to navigate pragmatically the geopolitical landscape of the time, while promoting its own national interests. The accusation of Perón's authoritarianism is based on his methods of governance. Although he implemented popular social and economic reforms, he also suppressed political opposition, controlled the media and used the state apparatus to consolidate his power. Despite this, he remains a figure adored and admired by much of the Argentine population for his pro-labour policies and his role in modernising the nation.


胡安-多明戈-贝隆在战后阿根廷的崛起令美国担忧,原因有几个。首先,当时冷战初露端倪,美国担心该地区出现任何可能不完全符合美国利益,甚至可能向苏联集团靠拢的领导人。其次,强调民族主义和社会正义的庇隆主义意识形态与美国在该地区推行的新自由主义政策格格不入。当时的美国驻阿根廷大使斯普鲁耶-布拉登在竞选活动中发挥了积极作用,公开批评贝隆及其政策。这甚至导致了著名的 "布莱登与贝隆之争 "的竞选活动,在这场竞选中,布莱登(也就是美国利益)与贝隆之间的选择被摆到了台面上。美国对阿根廷国内政治的公开干预最终对庇隆有利,因为这强化了他作为阿根廷主权捍卫者、反对外来干涉的形象。试图通过将贝隆描绘成法西斯分子来诋毁他的企图也失败了。虽然贝隆在 20 世纪 30 年代和 40 年代与欧洲独裁政权有过接触,并借鉴了法西斯主义的一些元素,但他的意识形态主要以社会正义、工人福利和民族主义为中心。对许多阿根廷人来说,贝隆代表着对更美好未来、更平等社会和在国际舞台上更独立国家的希望。贝隆的外交政策寻求平衡与美国的关系,同时加强与其他国家,特别是欧洲和拉丁美洲国家的联系,这种外交政策最终促成了他作为阿根廷主要政治人物的持久成功。
Juan Domingo Perón's rise to power in post-war Argentina worried the United States for several reasons. Firstly, at the time, the Cold War was beginning to take shape and the US was concerned about the emergence of any leader in the region who might not align completely with US interests or who might even move towards the Soviet bloc. Secondly, Peronist ideology, with its strong emphasis on nationalism and social justice, was at odds with the neoliberal policies that the US was promoting in the region. The US ambassador to Argentina at the time, Spruille Braden, played an active role in the election campaign, openly criticising Perón and his policies. This even led to the famous "Braden o Perón" election campaign, where the choice was presented as a choice between Braden (and therefore American interests) and Perón. This open intervention by the United States in Argentina's domestic politics ultimately worked in Perón's favour, as it reinforced his image as a defender of Argentine sovereignty against foreign interference. Attempts to discredit Perón by portraying him as a fascist also failed. Although Perón had contacts with European authoritarian regimes in the 1930s and 1940s, and borrowed some elements from fascism, his ideology was mainly centred on social justice, the welfare of workers and nationalism. For many Argentines, Perón embodied the hope of a better future, a more egalitarian society and a more independent country on the international stage. Ultimately, Perón's approach to foreign policy, which sought to balance relations with the United States while strengthening ties with other countries, particularly in Europe and Latin America, contributed to his enduring success as a major political figure in Argentina.


= 罗斯福政府针对 "敌国侨民 "的安全计划 =
= The Roosevelt administration's security programme against "enemy aliens" =


在第二次世界大战期间,罗斯福政府启动了 "外敌控制计划"(AECP),这一颇具争议的计划往往被更广为人知的关押日裔美国人计划所掩盖。1941 年 12 月珍珠港事件发生后,人们对来自轴心国的个人,甚至是生活在拉丁美洲的个人产生了根深蒂固的不信任感。这种不信任不仅限于日本人,也延伸到德国和意大利裔人。在 AECP 的支持下,美国与几个拉美国家政府合作,逮捕并拘留了数千名被认为具有潜在危险的居民。其中许多人被转移到美国,关押在不同的中心。最大的拘留中心之一位于得克萨斯州的水晶城,与日裔美国人的集中营分开。罗斯福政府以国家安全的名义为这些行动辩护。他们担心这些居住在拉丁美洲的所谓轴心国同情者可能会从事颠覆活动或充当轴心国的间谍。一些被关押者与轴心国关押的美国公民进行了交换,而另一些人则在战后被驱逐回原籍国,无论他们在拉丁美洲生活了几年或几十年。战后的日子对许多被拘留者来说是艰难的。有些人由于被关押,自己和家人的生活都发生了翻天覆地的变化,再也没有获准返回拉丁美洲的祖国。事后看来,这些行动被广泛批评为过度、歧视性和不合理。通过承认过去的错误,我们希望今后能够避免此类虐待行为。
During the Second World War, the Roosevelt administration launched the Alien Enemy Control Program (AECP), a controversial programme often overshadowed by the more widely recognised internment of Japanese Americans. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, there was a deep-seated mistrust of individuals from Axis countries, even those living in Latin America. This mistrust was not limited to the Japanese, but also extended to people of German and Italian origin. Under the aegis of the AECP, the United States collaborated with several Latin American governments to arrest and detain thousands of residents deemed potentially dangerous. Many of them were transferred to the United States to be interned in various centres. One of the largest internment centres was in Crystal City, Texas, separate from the camps for Japanese Americans. The Roosevelt administration justified these actions in the name of national security. The fear was that these individuals, supposedly Axis sympathisers living in Latin America, might engage in subversive actions or act as spies for the Axis powers. Some internees were exchanged for American citizens held by the Axis powers, while others were deported to their countries of origin after the war, regardless of the number of years or decades they had spent in Latin America. The post-war period was difficult for many of these internees. Some were never allowed to return to their home countries in Latin America, having seen their lives and those of their families turned upside down by internment. With hindsight, these actions have been widely criticised as excessive, discriminatory and unjustified. By acknowledging these past mistakes, it is hoped that such abuses can be avoided in the future.


第二次世界大战期间,出于对国家安全的担忧,罗斯福政府采取了严厉措施,特别是针对德裔、意裔和日裔拉丁美洲居民。在美国的影响下,15 个拉丁美洲国家被迫将被视为 "敌国侨民 "的人驱逐到美国。这些驱逐并不总是因为当事人被证实有不法行为,而是因为他们的种族出身以及他们被认为可能构成威胁。这些人一到美国就被关押在集中营里,有时被称为 "集中营",但与欧洲的纳粹死亡营不同。这些拘留中心遍布美国各地,其中最著名的一个位于得克萨斯州的水晶城。此外,作为控制敌国侨民计划的一部分,许多被驱逐者的资产被政府扣押和没收。属于这些人的银行、企业和房地产被当局接管,导致许多家庭一贫如洗,处境岌岌可危。这些行动在当时是合理的,因为在战争中需要保护美国的利益和安全。然而,事后看来,许多人批评这些措施过于严厉和具有歧视性。这些措施扰乱了人们的生活,在许多情况下甚至摧毁了人们的生活,其合法性在随后的几十年里成为激烈争论的话题。
During the Second World War, concerns about national security led the Roosevelt administration to take drastic measures, particularly with regard to Latin American residents of German, Italian and Japanese origin. Under the influence of the United States, fifteen Latin American countries were forced to deport people considered to be "enemy aliens" to the United States. These deportations were not always the result of proven wrongdoing on the part of the individuals concerned, but were rather based on their ethnic origin and the perception that they might pose a threat. Once in the United States, these individuals were interned in camps, sometimes described as "concentration camps", although different from the Nazi death camps in Europe. These internment centres were spread across the United States, with one of the most notable being located in Crystal City, Texas. In addition, as part of this programme to control enemy aliens, the assets of many deportees were seized and confiscated by the governments. Banks, businesses and real estate belonging to these individuals were taken over by the authorities, leaving many families destitute and in a precarious situation. These actions were justified at the time by the need to protect the interests and security of the United States in the midst of war. However, with hindsight, many have criticised these measures as being excessively harsh and discriminatory. They disrupted and, in many cases, destroyed lives, and their legitimacy was the subject of intense debate in the decades that followed.


在第二次世界大战最激烈的时期,国内敌人威胁的阴影笼罩着美国国民的心灵。在这种恐惧和怀疑的氛围下,美国制定了 "敌侨控制计划",主要针对德国、意大利和日本血统的人。虽然该计划的公开目的是保护国家安全,但其实际影响却更为深远,而且往往毫无道理。受该计划影响的大部分人是在美国生活多年的美国公民或永久居民。这些人往往深深扎根于自己的社区,作为工人、企业家和邻居为美国社会做出贡献。然而,一夜之间,由于他们的种族传统,他们成了被怀疑的对象,被赶出家园,关进拘留营。事实上,绝大多数被拘留者后来都被认定没有实施任何间谍或叛国行为,这一点很能说明问题。事实上,在成千上万被关押的人中,只有极少数人被认定与轴心国合作。这就提出了一个根本性的问题,即安全对策的相称性以及社会准备以国家安全的名义做出的牺牲。敌侨控制计划对公民权利产生了深远的影响,仍然是美国历史上的一个黑暗污点。它提醒我们,即使在最成熟的民主国家,恐惧有时也会压倒原则,给无辜生命带来毁灭性后果。
At the height of the Second World War, the spectre of the enemy threat at home haunted the American national psyche. In this climate of fear and suspicion, the Enemy Alien Control Programme was set up, primarily targeting people of German, Italian and Japanese origin. While the stated aim was to protect national security, the actual effects of the programme were far more far-reaching and often unjustified. A large proportion of the people affected by this programme were American citizens or permanent residents who had lived in the United States for many years. These people were often deeply rooted in their communities, contributing to American society as workers, entrepreneurs and neighbours. Yet overnight, because of their ethnic heritage, they became targets of suspicion and were uprooted from their homes and placed in internment camps. The fact that the overwhelming majority of those interned were later found not to have committed any act of espionage or treason is revealing. Indeed, of the thousands of people interned, a tiny number were identified as collaborating with the Axis powers. This raises the fundamental question of the proportionality of security responses and the sacrifices that societies are prepared to make in the name of national security. The Enemy Alien Control programme, with its profound implications for civil rights, remains a dark stain on American history. It is a reminder that, even within the most established democracies, fear can sometimes trump principle, with devastating consequences for innocent lives.


第二次世界大战期间,国际社会对轴心国威胁的反应多种多样,每个国家都根据自身的利益、历史和外交关系做出反应。尽管美国支持并实施了 "敌侨控制 "计划,但该计划并未在西半球得到普遍采纳。墨西哥有着悠久的独立和捍卫主权的历史,它选择了一条不同的道路。墨西哥有一个庞大的德裔社区,他们积极为社会做出贡献,墨西哥认为没有必要也不应该因为这些人的遗产而将他们拘禁或驱逐出境。相反,墨西哥寻求保护其居民,无论其种族出身如何,同时在战争的大部分时间里保持中立。其他南美国家,如阿根廷、巴西和智利,尽管有大量德裔、意裔和日裔人口,但也避免了大规模拘留政策。这些决定不仅反映了地缘政治现实和国际关系,也反映了国家价值观和正义原则。墨西哥为逃离迫害的人提供避难所的人道主义做法强化了其作为一个关注人权的国家的形象。它还强化了这样一种观念,即即使面对巨大的国际压力,主权国家也有能力和权利做出符合其国内价值观和原则的决定。在全球危机时期,必须牢记每个国家都有自己的特性、信念和应对全球挑战的方式。
During the Second World War, the international response to the threat from the Axis powers was varied, with each country reacting according to its own interests, history and diplomatic relations. The Enemy Alien Control programme, although supported and implemented by the United States, was not universally adopted in the Western Hemisphere. Mexico, with its long history of independence and defence of its sovereignty, has chosen a different path. With a large community of German origin actively contributing to its society, Mexico deemed it unnecessary and unjust to intern or deport these people because of their heritage. Instead, Mexico sought to protect its residents, regardless of their ethnic origins, while maintaining its neutrality throughout much of the war. Other South American countries, such as Argentina, Brazil and Chile, also avoided a policy of mass internment, despite the presence of large populations of German, Italian and Japanese origin. These decisions reflect not only geopolitical realities and international relations, but also national values and principles of justice. Mexico's humanitarian approach in offering refuge to those fleeing persecution elsewhere reinforced its image as a nation concerned with human rights. It also reinforced the notion that, even in the face of immense international pressure, sovereign nations have the capacity and the right to make decisions in line with their internal values and principles. In times of global crisis, it is crucial to remember that each country has its own identity, its own convictions, and its own way of responding to global challenges.


第二次世界大战期间,不信任和猜疑达到顶峰。因此,美国在拉丁美洲实施了 "敌侨控制计划",并采取了重大行动。在这种情况下,50% 居住在洪都拉斯的德国人、30% 居住在危地马拉的德国人和 20% 居住在哥伦比亚的德国人被驱逐出境。这些驱逐行动直接违背了罗斯福的睦邻政策,该政策旨在促进美国与拉丁美洲国家之间的和谐关系。尽管有这一政策,许多居民,包括逃离纳粹压迫的犹太人和法西斯主义的反对者,发现自己被关押和驱逐。这些数字不仅显示了所采取的行动的规模,也显示了受影响者的悲惨遭遇,尤其是那些已经逃离欧洲迫害的人。这些事件凸显了政府在战时面临的挑战,以及基于恐惧而非确凿证据采取的行动可能造成的破坏性后果。
During the Second World War, mistrust and suspicion were at their height. As a result, the United States introduced the Enemy Alien Control Programme in Latin America, which led to major actions. In this context, 50% of the Germans living in Honduras, 30% of those living in Guatemala and 20% of the German population of Colombia were deported. These deportations were in direct contradiction with Roosevelt's Good Neighbour policy, which aimed to promote harmonious relations between the United States and Latin American countries. Despite this policy, many residents, including Jews who had escaped Nazi oppression and opponents of fascism, found themselves interned and deported. These figures show not only the scale of the actions taken, but also the tragedy of those affected, particularly those who had already fled persecution in Europe. These events highlight the challenges faced by governments in wartime and the potentially devastating consequences of actions based on fear rather than hard evidence.


在第二次世界大战期间,纳粹主义和独裁政权的阴影延伸到了欧洲之外。在这种紧张的全球氛围中,拉丁美洲因其文化、种族和与欧洲国家的历史关系而被许多美国人视为西半球的一个潜在弱点。媒体、流行的说法和一些政府报告助长了这一地区容易受到纳粹渗透甚至统治的形象。巴西可能被希特勒利用作为攻击美国的跳板,这种想法并不仅仅是过度活跃的想象力的臆造,而是反映了对美国国家安全更深层次的焦虑。拉丁美洲拥有广袤的领土、宝贵的资源,而且在地理位置上靠近美国,因此被视为美洲防御链中的一个潜在薄弱环节。德国、意大利和日本人在这些国家的大量聚居更加剧了这种担忧。在这种怀疑和焦虑的背景下,敌侨控制计划应运而生。该计划针对的个人并不是他们的实际行动或从属关系,而主要是因为他们的种族或民族血统。这一预防性行动旨在遏制颠覆或间谍活动的威胁。不幸的是,这一政策对许多无辜的人造成了严重后果,他们仅仅因为怀疑或偏见就被驱逐出境或关押。
During the Second World War, the shadow of Nazism and authoritarian regimes extended beyond Europe. In this tense global climate, Latin America, with its mosaic of cultures, ethnicities and historical relationships with European countries, was perceived by many Americans as a potential weak point in the Western hemisphere. The media, popular narratives and some government reports have fuelled this image of a region susceptible to infiltration and even domination by Nazi influences. The idea that Brazil could be used by Hitler as a springboard for a possible attack on the United States was not simply a figment of an overactive imagination, but rather a reflection of a deeper anxiety about American national security. Latin America, with its vast territories, valuable resources and geographical proximity to the US, was seen as a potentially weak link in the defensive chain of the Americas. The presence of large German, Italian and Japanese communities in these countries reinforced these fears. Against this backdrop of suspicion and anxiety, the Enemy Alien Control programme was born. Individuals were targeted not on the basis of their actual actions or affiliations, but primarily because of their ethnic or national origin. This preventive action was intended to contain the perceived threat of subversion or espionage. Unfortunately, this policy had dramatic consequences for many innocent individuals who were deported or interned on the basis of mere suspicion or prejudice.


在第二次世界大战初期,美国的中立是一个重大的政治问题。尽管美国舆论最初不愿卷入另一场欧洲冲突,但珍珠港事件和来自各种国际来源的情报等多个因素促使美国改变了这一立场。英国情报机构为争取美国的支持,在提供轴心国活动信息方面发挥了作用,尤其是在拉丁美洲。其中一些报告高估或夸大了纳粹在该地区的威胁,以加剧局势的紧迫性。结果,不管是有意还是无意,错误的信息加强了美国对本半球安全的担忧。这些报道塑造了一个形象,即拉丁美洲是一个潜在的不稳定地区,很容易受到颠覆或轴心国的影响。在世界大战和国际局势紧张的背景下,美国政府做出了相应的反应,力图从所有潜在的角度确保安全。当然,事后看来,其中一些信息显然是不准确或故意误导的。然而,当时正值战火纷飞,面对轴心国构成的生存威胁,美国政府辨别真假的能力无疑大打折扣。这些错误信息无疑对美国在拉丁美洲的政策产生了影响,更广泛地说,对美国在战争期间的整体战略产生了影响。
During the early stages of the Second World War, the neutrality of the United States was a major political issue. Although American public opinion was initially reluctant to become involved in another European conflict, several factors contributed to changing this position, including the Pearl Harbor attacks and information from various international sources. British intelligence, in its efforts to gain US support, played a role in providing information on the activities of the Axis powers, particularly in Latin America. Some of these reports overestimated or exaggerated the Nazi threat in the region to heighten the urgency of the situation. As a result, misinformation, whether intentional or not, reinforced US concerns about the security of its own hemisphere. These reports cultivated an image of Latin America as a potentially unstable region, susceptible to subversion or Axis influence. In the context of a world war and a tense international atmosphere, the US government reacted accordingly, seeking to secure all potential angles of vulnerability. Of course, with hindsight, it is clear that some of this information was inaccurate or deliberately misleading. However, at the time, in the tumult of war and faced with the existential threat posed by the Axis powers, the US government's ability to discern truth from falsehood was undoubtedly compromised. The impact of this misinformation certainly had repercussions on US policy in Latin America and, more broadly, on its overall strategy during the war.


拉丁美洲的历史及其与美国的关系蕴含着丰富的细微差别,其特点往往是紧张、误解和地缘政治利益。第二次世界大战期间,由于世界大事的影响和当时的战略利害关系,局势变得更加复杂。华盛顿某些精英对拉美的蔑视或居高临下的态度并不新鲜。从历史上看,门罗主义、"大棒 "政策甚至罗斯福的推论都表明,美国倾向于将拉丁美洲视为其 "后院 "和天然的势力范围。这种家长式的态度往往低估了拉美国家的复杂性和自主性。当欧洲爆发战争时,这些偏见因安全担忧而被放大。认为拉美可能成为攻击美国的基地,或者认为拉美是一个容易受到纳粹宣传影响的地区,部分原因就是基于这些居高临下的看法。错误的信息、夸大的报道和已有的偏见助长了这些成见。罗斯福政府敦促拉美国家识别并驱逐可疑人员的行动说明了为确保西半球免受轴心国威胁所做的努力。将重点放在德国血统的人或参与德国经营的企业的人身上,揭示了一种狭隘的观点,即只要有德国血统或商业联系,就可能是与敌人勾结的同义词。
The history of Latin America and its relationship with the United States is rich in nuances, often marked by tensions, misunderstandings and geopolitical interests. During the Second World War, the situation was further complicated by the weight of world events and the strategic stakes of the period. The contempt or condescension of certain elites in Washington towards Latin America was nothing new. Historically, the Monroe Doctrine, the "Big Stick" policy and even Roosevelt's Corollary show a tendency for the United States to regard Latin America as its "backyard", a natural zone of influence. This paternalistic attitude often underestimated the complexity and autonomy of Latin American nations. When war broke out in Europe, these prejudices were amplified by security fears. The idea that Latin America could become a base for attacks on the United States, or that it was a region easily influenced by Nazi propaganda, was partly based on these condescending perceptions. These stereotypes were fuelled by misinformation, exaggerated reports and existing prejudices. The Roosevelt administration's action in urging Latin American countries to identify and expel suspicious individuals illustrates the effort to secure the Western Hemisphere against Axis threats. The focus on individuals of German origin, or those involved in German-run businesses, reveals a reductive view, where the mere fact of having German ancestry or business links could be synonymous with collusion with the enemy.


第二次世界大战期间在拉丁美洲实施 "敌侨控制计划 "的历史表明,国家安全战略是如何被用于政治和经济目的的。美国驻拉丁美洲使馆采取的行动主要出于国家安全考虑,但也受到经济利益的影响。制定 "可疑 "人员名单不仅是基于与轴心国合作的确凿证据,往往也是政治和经济考量的结果。一旦这些人的身份被确认,他们的资产被没收,这就为那些有能力从没收资产中获益的人创造了经济机会。索摩查统治下的尼加拉瓜的例子尤其能说明问题。没收德国财产并将其转让给美国公司的热情表明,国家安全的说辞可以用来掩盖更深层次的经济利益。显然,对于索摩查和其他地区领导人来说,与美国合作实施敌侨控制计划是一个增加其权力和财富的机会。
The history of the implementation of the Enemy Alien Control Programme in Latin America during the Second World War shows how national security strategies can be exploited for political and economic ends. The actions taken by US embassies in Latin America were primarily motivated by national security concerns, but they were also influenced by economic interests. The drawing up of lists of people considered 'suspect' was not only based on tangible evidence of collaboration with the Axis powers, but was often the result of political and economic calculations. Once these people were identified and their assets confiscated, this created an economic opportunity for those in a position to benefit from the confiscations. The example of Nicaragua under Somoza is particularly revealing. The zeal with which German property was seized and transferred to American companies shows how the rhetoric of national security can be used to mask deeper economic interests. It is clear that for Somoza and other regional leaders, collaboration with the US on the Enemy Alien Control programme was an opportunity to increase their power and wealth.


冷战期间,西方资本主义和东方共产主义之间的意识形态鸿沟是强烈偏执和不信任的根源。美国将自己视为民主和资本主义的堡垒,加大了对内对外抵制共产主义影响的力度。在美国国内,这一时期出现了麦卡锡主义,即由参议员约瑟夫-麦卡锡领导的反共运动。从公务员到演员、作家和普通公民,许多人在没有证据的情况下被指控为共产主义同情者,结果是被解雇、上黑名单和名誉扫地。在这一过程中,许多美国人的宪法权利遭到践踏,因为 "猎杀共产党 "将国家安全置于公民自由之上。在国外,对共产主义蔓延的担忧导致美国对许多国家进行直接或间接的干预。例如,在拉丁美洲,门罗主义认为西半球受到美国的影响,被用来为政变、支持独裁政权和军事干预辩护,其目的都是为了防止出现社会主义或共产主义政府。与第二次世界大战时一样,这些行动往往以保护国家安全为理由。然而,这些行动也受到经济和地缘政治利益的影响。例如,1954 年美国对危地马拉的干预就与美国联合果品公司的利益有关,该公司在危地马拉拥有大量股份。冷战和第二次世界大战期间,美国都以国家安全为名采取了严厉措施。但每一次,这些决定都受到意识形态、政治和经济利益的混合影响。事后看来,这两次事件都表明,盲目追求安全可能会导致严重的不公正,凸显了在安全与自由之间取得平衡的持续挑战。
During the Cold War, the ideological divide between the capitalist West and the communist East was the source of intense paranoia and mistrust. The United States, seeing itself as the bastion of democracy and capitalism, intensified its efforts to counter Communist influence, both internally and externally. Within the United States, this period saw the emergence of McCarthyism, an anti-Communist campaign led by Senator Joseph McCarthy. Many people, from civil servants to actors, writers and ordinary citizens, were accused without proof of being Communist sympathisers, resulting in dismissals, blacklists and ruined reputations. The constitutional rights of many Americans were trampled in the process, as the Communist witch-hunt prioritised national security over civil liberties. Abroad, concerns about the spread of communism led to direct and indirect US interventions in many countries. In Latin America, for example, the Monroe Doctrine, which considered the Western Hemisphere to be under American influence, was used to justify coups d'état, support for authoritarian regimes and military intervention, all with the aim of preventing the emergence of socialist or communist governments. As in the Second World War, these actions were often justified by the need to protect national security. However, they were also influenced by economic and geopolitical interests. For example, the American intervention in Guatemala in 1954 was linked to the interests of the United Fruit Company, an American company with vast holdings in the country. Both the Cold War and the Second World War saw drastic measures taken in the name of national security. But each time, there was a mixture of ideological, political and economic interests influencing these decisions. In both cases, hindsight shows that the blind pursuit of security can lead to grave injustices, highlighting the constant challenge of striking a balance between security and freedom.


= 战后在拉丁美洲的欧洲难民 =  
= European refugees in Latin America after the war =  


第二次世界大战后,拉丁美洲是许多欧洲难民最喜爱的目的地。这些人逃离恐怖的冲突,寻求更好的生活和重新开始的机会。许多犹太人、共产党员、社会主义者、知识分子和其他受纳粹迫害的人在阿根廷、巴西和智利等国找到了避难所。这些国家幅员辽阔,经济发展迅速,需要熟练劳动力,因此对这些难民持欢迎态度,而这些难民也为新家园的文化、科学和经济生活做出了贡献。然而,冷战的到来改变了拉丁美洲许多难民的处境。美国担心共产主义在该地区蔓延,支持了许多专制政权和军事独裁政权。反过来,这些政权经常迫害那些被视为对既定秩序构成威胁的人,包括许多欧洲难民,因为他们的背景、政治信仰或以前的关系。与此同时,拉丁美洲也成为了一些最臭名昭著的纳粹战犯的避难所,他们都是为了逃避欧洲的司法制裁。阿道夫-艾希曼(Adolf Eichmann)和约瑟夫-门格尔(Josef Mengele)等人在阿根廷找到了避难所。这些人受到某些政府和同情他们的网络的保护,通常安静地生活,不被打扰。这些纳粹罪犯在拉丁美洲的存在引起了国际社会,特别是犹太组织的极大关注。这些组织经常与各国政府合作,追捕这些罪犯并将他们绳之以法。然而,由于政治现实、腐败和拉丁美洲广大偏远地区的原因,许多罪犯几十年来一直逍遥法外。
Latin America was a favourite destination for many European refugees after the Second World War. These individuals fled the horrors of the conflict, seeking a better life and an opportunity to start again. Many Jews, communists, socialists, intellectuals and others persecuted by the Nazis found refuge in countries such as Argentina, Brazil and Chile. These countries, with their vast territories, developing economies and need for skilled labour, were welcoming to these refugees, who in turn contributed to the cultural, scientific and economic life of their new homes. However, the advent of the Cold War changed the situation for many refugees in Latin America. The United States, fearing the spread of communism in the region, supported numerous authoritarian regimes and military dictatorships. These regimes, in turn, often persecuted and targeted those perceived as threats to the established order, including many European refugees, because of their background, political beliefs or previous associations. At the same time, Latin America became a place of refuge for some of the most infamous Nazi war criminals, who fled European justice. Figures such as Adolf Eichmann and Josef Mengele found refuge, particularly in Argentina. These individuals were protected by certain governments and sympathetic networks, and often lived quietly without being bothered. The presence of these Nazi criminals in Latin America has caused great concern in the international community, particularly among Jewish organisations. These groups have often worked with governments to track down these criminals and bring them to justice. However, due to political realities, corruption, and the vast remote regions of Latin America, many of these criminals have escaped justice for decades.


克劳斯-巴比(Klaus Barbie)就是一个鲜明的例子,说明在第二次世界大战后的几十年里,一些纳粹战犯是如何逃脱法律制裁的,这在一定程度上要归功于情报机构和外国政府的保护和共谋。他们的专长、网络和知识往往被认为比他们的犯罪历史更有价值,尤其是在冷战时期,超级大国都渴望在地缘政治战略地区获得优势。
Klaus Barbie is a striking example of how some Nazi war criminals managed to escape justice for decades after the Second World War, thanks in part to the protection and complicity of intelligence agencies and foreign governments. Their expertise, networks and knowledge were often deemed more valuable than their criminal past, especially during the Cold War, when the superpowers were keen to gain advantages in geopolitically strategic regions.


巴比曾在战争期间对成千上万的犹太人和法国抵抗运动成员实施酷刑、处决和驱逐,但他借助被称为 "老鼠线 "的纳粹逃亡网络成功逃脱了法律制裁。在德国和意大利度过一段时间后,他前往南美洲。他先抵达阿根廷,最后在玻利维亚定居。在玻利维亚首都拉巴斯,巴比用假名生活,参与了各种活动,包括经商和反叛乱行动。他作为盖世太保官员所经历的镇压和酷刑,使他成为与游击队和反对派运动作斗争的南美各军事独裁政权的宝贵人才。此外,在冷战时期,美国主要关注的是共产主义在该地区的威胁,而像芭比这样的人物则被视为帮助应对这一威胁的资产。直到 20 世纪 70 年代末和 80 年代初,在新闻调查和国际社会的压力下,芭比的真实身份和在玻利维亚的行踪才被揭露。事件曝光后,全球范围内掀起了一场要求引渡芭比的运动。1983 年,经过多年的法律和政治斗争,芭比被引渡到法国。他在里昂受审,里昂是他犯下最令人发指罪行的城市。1987 年,他被判犯有反人类罪,并被判处终身监禁。1991 年,他死于狱中。芭比案凸显了战后司法的复杂性和矛盾性,以及地缘政治利益有时如何优先于对战犯的起诉。
Barbie, who was responsible for the torture, execution and deportation of thousands of Jews and members of the French Resistance during the war, managed to escape justice thanks to a Nazi escape network known as "ratlines". After spending time in Germany and Italy, he travelled to South America. He first arrived in Argentina before finally settling in Bolivia. In La Paz, the Bolivian capital, Barbie lived under an assumed name and was involved in various activities, including business and counter-insurgency operations. His experience of repression and torture as a Gestapo official made him invaluable to various South American military dictatorships that were struggling with guerrilla and opposition movements. Moreover, during the Cold War, the United States was primarily concerned about the threat of communism in the region, and figures like Barbie were seen as assets to help counter that threat. It was only in the late 1970s and early 1980s, following journalistic investigations and pressure from the international community, that Barbie's true identity and whereabouts in Bolivia were revealed. Following these revelations, a worldwide campaign for her extradition was launched. In 1983, after years of legal and political battles, Barbie was extradited to France. He was tried in Lyon, the city where he had committed some of his most heinous crimes. In 1987, he was convicted of crimes against humanity and sentenced to life imprisonment. He died in prison in 1991. The Barbie case highlights the complexities and contradictions of post-war justice, and how geopolitical interests can sometimes take precedence over the prosecution of war criminals.


= 附件 =
= Annexes =
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_alien Enemy alien]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enemy_alien Enemy alien]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian-American_internment Italian-American internment]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian-American_internment Italian-American internment]
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*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_related_internment_and_expulsion_of_Germans_in_the_Americas World War II related internment and expulsion of Germans in the Americas]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II_related_internment_and_expulsion_of_Germans_in_the_Americas World War II related internment and expulsion of Germans in the Americas]


= 参考资料 =
= References =
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