Modification de The independence of Latin American nations

{{Infobox Lecture
 | image = 
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 | cours = [[The United States and Latin America: late 18th and 20th centuries]]
 | faculté = [[Lettres]]
 | département = [[Département d’histoire générale]]
 | professeurs = [[Aline Helg]]<ref>[https://www.unige.ch/lettres/istge/unites/hco/anciens-collaborateurs/helg/ Aline Helg] - [https://www.unige.ch/ UNIGE]</ref><ref>[https://unige.academia.edu/AlineHelg Aline Helg] - [https://www.academia.edu/ Academia.edu]</ref><ref>[https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aline_Helg Aline Helg] - Wikipedia</ref><ref>[http://www.afrocubaweb.com/helg.htm Aline Helg] - [http://www.afrocubaweb.com/ Afrocubaweb.com]</ref><ref>[https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aline_Helg Aline Helg] - [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Aline_Helg Researchgate.net]</ref><ref>[https://www.cairn.info/publications-de-Aline-Helg--670782.htm Aline Helg] - [https://www.cairn.info Cairn.info]</ref><ref>[https://scholar.google.fr/citations?user=h3hUuPgAAAAJ&hl=en&oi=ao Aline Helg] - [https://scholar.google.fr/schhp?hl=en Google Scholar]</ref>
 | enregistrement = 
 | lectures = 
*[[The Americas on the eve of independence]]
*[[The independence of the United States]]
*[[The U.S. Constitution and Early 19th Century Society]]
*[[The Haitian Revolution and its Impact in the Americas]]
*[[The independence of Latin American nations]]
*[[Latin America around 1850: societies, economies, policies]]
*[[The Northern and Southern United States circa 1850: immigration and slavery]]
*[[The American Civil War and Reconstruction: 1861 - 1877]]
*[[The (re)United States: 1877 - 1900]]
*[[Regimes of Order and Progress in Latin America: 1875 - 1910]]
*[[The Mexican Revolution: 1910 - 1940]]
*[[American society in the 1920s]]
*[[The Great Depression and the New Deal: 1929 - 1940]]
*[[From Big Stick Policy to Good Neighbor Policy]]
*[[Coups d'état and Latin American populisms]]
*[[The United States and World War II]]
*[[Latin America during the Second World War]]
*[[US Post-War Society: Cold War and the Society of Plenty]]
*[[The Cold War in Latin America and the Cuban Revolution]]
*[[The Civil Rights Movement in the United States]]
}}

The independence of Latin American nations was a complex process that was influenced by a variety of factors, including internal tensions within society, as well as external events such as the American and Haitian revolutions. The weakening or breakdown of the relationship between colonies and their European metropoles played a significant role in facilitating these independence movements.

The French Revolution had a significant impact on the independence movements in Latin America. The ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity that were central to the French Revolution resonated with many Latin American elites and intellectuals, who sought to establish similar values in their own countries. The French Revolution also weakened the power of the European colonial powers, as they were preoccupied with their own internal struggles, which created an opportunity for the colonies to assert their own independence. Additionally, the French Revolution led to the spread of revolutionary ideas and movements throughout the world, which also contributed to the emergence of the Latin American independence movements.

{{Translations
| fr = Les indépendances des nations d’Amérique latine
| es = Las independencias de las naciones de América Latina
}}

=The external cause=

The invasion of the Iberian Peninsula by Napoleon in the early 19th century played a significant role in the independence of Latin American nations. The absence of a strong central authority in Spain and Portugal allowed for local leaders, such as Simon Bolivar, to rise up and claim independence for their respective countries. 

The invasion by Napoleon in 1808 and the subsequent absence of King Ferdinand VII disrupted the traditional power dynamic between rulers and the governed in the Spanish colonies, , which led to the Peninsular War,. With the king unable to effectively govern, local leaders such as Simon Bolivar were able to step in and assert their own authority, eventually leading to the independence of their respective countries. Additionally, the weakness of the Spanish government during this time provided an opportunity for these leaders to gain support and mobilize their populations towards independence. In Brazil, the Portuguese royal family and their court fled to the colony in 1808, which helped to strengthen Brazilian identity and contributed to the country's eventual independence in 1822. 

The demographic makeup of the colonies also played a significant role in the independence movements of Latin American nations. The large indigenous population and significant number of enslaved people were often oppressed and treated as second-class citizens by the Spanish and Portuguese colonizers. This led to discontent and ultimately, movements for independence from colonial rule. Additionally, the Enlightenment ideals of freedom and self-government also influenced the independence movements in Latin America.

=The independence of Brazil=

The independence of Brazil was set in motion in 1808 when Napoleon had already invaded Spain, the Prince Regent of Portugal Joao VI embarked with his family, court and administration for Brazil in an event known as the "Transfer of the Portuguese Court" in which between 10,000 and 150,000 people set sail on ships under British escort with the archives and treasure. This was done as the Prince Regent of Portugal, Joao VI, feared that the French would invade Portugal and wanted to protect the royal family, government officials, and the country's wealth. The arrival of the court in Brazil had a significant impact on the colony, as it led to an increase in trade and economic activity, and also marked the beginning of a period of autonomy for Brazil. In 1822, Prince Pedro, the son of the Prince Regent, declared Brazil's independence from Portugal, and he was subsequently crowned as the first emperor of Brazil.

From 1808 to 1821, the Portuguese Empire was ruled from Rio de Janeiro, where the royal court and government officials had relocated during the Napoleonic Wars. During this period, Brazil experienced significant economic and cultural growth, and the colony's elite began to develop a sense of autonomy. However, the relationship between the colony and the metropolis remained relatively peaceful until 1821, when King Joao VI decided to return to Lisbon and leave his son, Pedro, as the regent of Brazil. This decision caused tension between the Brazilian elite, who wanted to maintain their autonomy, and the Portuguese officials, who wanted to reassert control over the colony. This ultimately led to the declaration of Brazil's independence in 1822, with Pedro being declared as the first Emperor of Brazil.

The Brazilian elites were offended by the idea of returning to the situation before 1808, and they convinced Pedro I to stay in Brazil and become the independent emperor of the country. In 1822, Pedro I declared the independence of Brazil from Portugal and became the first emperor of the newly formed empire. However, Brazil remained a slave monarchy, and there was no social change. That is correct, slavery was still legal in Brazil and remained so until 1888. Despite the declaration of independence, the social and economic structure of the colony remained largely unchanged, with the elite continuing to hold power and the majority of the population, including enslaved Africans, remaining marginalized. The abolition of slavery would come later, in 1888, after a long and complex process.<gallery mode="packed">
Fichier:Autor não identificado - Embarque da Família Real Portuguesa.jpg|The departure of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil. Anonymous painting, early 19th century.
Fichier:Debret-djoãoVI-MHN.jpg|King John VI of Portugal by Jean-Baptiste Debret.
Fichier:DpedroI-brasil-full.jpg|Painting by Simplício Rodrigues de Sá, circa 1830.
Fichier:Fernando de Borbón, príncipe de Asturias.jpg|Ferdinand VII as Prince of Asturias.
</gallery>

=Continental Spanish America: from loyalty to the king to civil war (1810 - 1814)=

In 1810, the Spanish colonies in America began to experience a wave of revolutionary movements, as local leaders sought to take advantage of the power vacuum left by the absence of a strong central government. These movements were initially focused on maintaining loyalty to the Spanish king and preserving the existing colonial system, but as the war between Spain and France dragged on, many leaders began to call for greater autonomy and independence from Spanish rule.

By 1814, the situation had devolved into open civil war, as different factions fought for control of the various colonies. Some sought to establish independent republics, while others sought to restore loyalty to the Spanish king or create new empires. The wars of independence led to the dissolution of Spanish Empire in America and emergence of various independent states.

Initially, after the fall of King Ferdinand VII, the cities in the Spanish colonies in America formed local juntas, or councils, to govern in his name during his absence. They invoked the principle that in the absence of the king, sovereignty rests with the people, but did not question the validity of royal power. They believed that the king would return and reassume control, so they were trying to maintain order and stability until that time. However, as the war between Spain and France dragged on and it became clear that the king would not return anytime soon, many of these local leaders began to demand greater autonomy and independence from Spanish rule. This led to the emergence of various revolutionary movements and eventually the wars of independence.[[Image:El_juramento_de_las_Cortes_de_Cádiz_en_1810.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Swearing-in of the Cortes de Cádiz in the parish church of San Fernando. Presentation at the Congress of Deputies of Madrid.]]
 
The local juntas in the Spanish colonies in America were primarily composed of the elite of planters and merchants, both from the peninsular regions (people from Spain who had settled in the colonies) and Creole regions (people of Spanish descent born in the colonies). These juntas were formed to govern in the name of the king and maintain order until his return.

In Spain, a similar process occurred, with provincial juntas forming a Supreme Central Junta in Cadiz. This junta was intended to serve as a central governing body for the entire Spanish empire, including the colonies in America, and coordinate a war of liberation against Napoleon. The Junta in Cadiz was not invaded by Napoleon, so it considered itself as the legitimate government of Spain and its empire. However, the distance, lack of communication and the different interests between the Junta in Cadiz and the American Juntas made difficult to coordinate the war of liberation.

The Supreme Central Junta in Cadiz appointed a Regency Council as the legitimate government of the imprisoned King Ferdinand VII and sought to gain the support of the American colonies in their war against Napoleon. To this end, they recognized the principle of equality among the American provinces and sought to involve them in the government of the empire.

In 1810, under conditions of war and occupation by the French, the Supreme Central Junta hastily convened a National Assembly of delegates from the provinces of Spain, the Americas and Asia. This assembly was intended to represent the entire empire and provide a forum for the provinces to participate in the governance of the empire and coordinate the war of liberation. However, the National assembly was short-lived, and it was difficult to implement its decisions due to the distance and communication difficulties with the American colonies. Additionally, the American colonies had already started to develop their own movements for independence and self-government, which made it difficult for the Supreme Central Junta in Cadiz to maintain control over them.

The question of representation in the National Assembly quickly became a major issue, as it became clear that, based on population, Spain would have fewer delegates than the American colonies, which had a population of around 16 million. The Regency Council ultimately decided the debate, and at the Cortes, the American colonies were severely under-represented, with only 1/5 of the members. This decision posed a problem of legitimacy for the Cortes, as it was seen by many in the American colonies as a denial of their right to equal representation and self-government.

This lack of representation and the growing desire for self-rule in America led to the emergence of various revolutionary movements in the colonies. These movements, which were led by Creole elites, began to call for greater autonomy and eventually for full independence from Spain.

This underrepresentation of American colonies in the Cortes, and the subsequent lack of attention to their interests, was one of the key factors that led to the Wars of Independence in America.

The Cortes, which were convened by the Regency Council, did debate and ratify the Political Constitution of the Spanish Monarchy of 1812. This constitution applied to Spain and its territories in America and Asia, and it was intended to modernize and liberalize the government of the empire. The constitution established a parliamentary monarchy, with a reduced power of the king in favor of the Cortes, and it aimed to decentralize part of the administration and grant suffrage to all adult men without requiring them to be property owners or literate.

The Constitution of 1812 was a significant document in the history of Spain, as it attempted to grant greater political rights and representation to the people. However, it was not well received in America, where the colonies were not represented in the Cortes, and it was seen as a continuation of the same policies that had led to the Wars of Independence. Additionally, the Constitution was not implemented in the American colonies, as the revolutionary movements were already in motion and it was too late for it to have any meaningful impact on the situation.

The Constitution of 1812 did grant suffrage to all adult men, but it was limited to Spaniards, Indians, and mixed-race sons of Spaniards. This effectively excluded free people of African descent, known as Afro-Latin Americans, as well as people of mixed-race who did not conform to the principle of limpieza de sangre, which required that a person's ancestry be pure Spanish.

This exclusion of Afro-Latin Americans from political rights and representation was a major flaw in the Constitution of 1812, as they made up a significant portion of the population of the American colonies. It reinforced the already existing racial hierarchy and discrimination against people of color in the Spanish Empire, further marginalizing them and denying them equal rights and opportunities.

This exclusion of a significant portion of the population from political rights and representation was one of the factors that contributed to the Wars of Independence in America, as many people of color fought alongside the Creole elites for their rights and freedom.

The implementation of the Constitution of 1812 and the actions of the Regency Council were not well received in many of the American provinces, and it caused a division among them. Some provinces recognized the authority of the Cortes and the Regency Council, while others did not.

In some provinces, the Regency Council appointed new governors to neutralize the existing juntas, but many of these governors were not accepted by the local populations, and the juntas refused to recognize their authority. This led to a power struggle between the appointed governors and the existing juntas, with many provinces continuing to govern in the name of the king through their juntas.

This lack of acceptance and the division among the American provinces made it difficult for the Regency Council to maintain control over the colonies and further weaken their authority. It also hindered the efforts of the Regency Council to coordinate the war of liberation against Napoleon, as many provinces were focused on their own internal conflicts.

Additionally, this division and the lack of a unified effort among the American provinces, made it easier for the revolutionary movements to gain support and momentum, ultimately leading to the Wars of Independence in America.

In some cases, the local juntas declared the Regency Council illegitimate, expelling the new governors appointed by it, and they declared that only they had the authority to govern in the absence of the king. These juntas gradually moved from seeking autonomy to declaring independence.

However, not all juntas took this path, some remained loyal to the Regency Council, and recognized its authority. These loyal juntas were often led by conservative elites, who saw the Regency Council as the legitimate government of Spain and the best hope for restoring order and stability to the empire.

This division among the juntas further weakened the authority of the Regency Council and made it difficult for it to maintain control over the colonies. It also created a situation in which some provinces were moving towards independence, while others were still loyal to the empire, leading to a complex and confusing situation.

The declaration of independence by some of the American provinces was a gradual process, and it was not universally accepted by the population, it was a result of the complex political, economic and social situation in America, and the different interests of the Creole elites.

From 1809 until 1814, there were not truly wars of independence in Spanish America, but rather civil wars within each province between those who wanted to remain loyal to the Regency Council and the king and those who wanted autonomy and independence. The situation in the colonies was highly complex and varied depending on the region, with some provinces remaining loyal to the empire, while others moved towards autonomy and independence.

These civil wars were often brutal and resulted in significant loss of life and destruction of property. They were also characterized by shifting alliances and betrayals, as different groups and factions fought for control of the provinces.

The Wars of Independence in America were not a single unified effort, but rather a series of conflicts that occurred in different regions and at different times. The end of the Napoleonic Wars and the return of King Ferdinand VII to the throne in 1814, led to the end of these civil wars, and the emergence of various independent states in America. However, the wars of independence in Spanish America continued in some regions until 1825.

=Continental Spanish America: the diversity of independence processes (1814 - 1824)=

In 1814, with the fall of Napoleon and the return of King Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne, the colonies in Latin America faced a difficult decision. Ferdinand rejected the liberal 1812 Constitution that had been established during his absence, and instead sought to reassert absolutist rule over the colonies. This decision, along with a series of economic and political grievances, sparked a wave of independence movements throughout Latin America. The colonies, led by Creole elites, began to resist Spanish rule and fight for their freedom. These struggles for independence were long and bloody, with many battles and atrocities committed on both sides. Ultimately, most of the colonies were able to gain their independence by 1824, although the process of nation-building and creating stable governments was far from over.

In response to the independence movements, King Ferdinand VII launched a process of reconquest in which he sent troops to the colonies to reassert Spanish control. This process was characterized by the use of force and brutal repression, as Spanish forces sought to crush the rebellion and maintain their hold on the colonies. The Creole elites and other independence leaders who led the resistance faced severe repression, including imprisonment, execution, and exile. However, the resistance continued, driven by a desire for freedom and self-determination. The independence struggles were long and difficult, with many battles and sacrifices along the way, but eventually most of the colonies were able to achieve independence by 1824.

==Mexico==

[[File:Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.jpg|thumb|200px|Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla.]]

In Mexico, the independence movement was sparked by Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Hidalgo, a white man born in Mexico, was a priest who became deeply frustrated with the harsh treatment of the Mexican people by the Spanish government and the "gachupines" (Spanish-born elites who held power in Mexico). In 1810, he launched a rebellion against the Spanish, calling on Mexicans of all races and social classes to join him in the fight for a fairer government. Hidalgo's rebellion was initially successful, but eventually was defeated by the Spanish army. Hidalgo was captured, tried and executed in 1811. However, his rebellion sparked a war for independence that would continue for another 11 years under the leadership of other figures, like José María Morelos and Vicente Guerrero, and ultimately Mexico achieved its independence from Spain in 1821.

The Catholic religion was indeed very strong in Mexico, and played a major role in the country's social and political life. Hidalgo's rebellion, however, was not primarily motivated by religious reasons but rather by a desire for political and economic change. He called for the end of Spanish rule and the creation of a fairer government. However, the rebellion quickly took on a class character, as Hidalgo's troops targeted the haciendas of the Creole elites and other wealthy landowners. This class struggle, which Hidalgo may not have intended, made it difficult for him to maintain control over the rebellion and led to divisions within his forces. Despite this, the rebellion managed to control a large territory in Mexico, but eventually was defeated by the Spanish army and Hidalgo was captured and executed. The struggle for independence continued under other leaders.[[File:Morelos por autor anónimo.jpg|thumb|Morelos por autor anónimo]]
 
After the initial success of Hidalgo's rebellion, many of the Creole elites became fearful of the social and economic upheaval caused by the rebellion, and chose to side with the Spanish crown. Hidalgo was eventually captured and executed by the Spanish army. However, the struggle for independence continued under the leadership of José María Morelos. Morelos, an Afro-descendant priest of mixed heritage and modest origins, took up the torch of the rebellion and developed a more comprehensive program for political independence, racial equality, land redistribution, and in particular, the abolition of slavery. He managed to gain control of a significant part of the country but faced difficulties in maintaining control of his troops. Eventually, Morelos was captured and executed by the Spanish in 1815. Despite the execution of Morelos, the war for independence continued under the leadership of other figures like Vicente Guerrero, and ultimately Mexico achieved its independence in 1821.

[[Fichier:Iturbide Emperador by Josephus Arias Huerta.jpg|thumb|left|Augustin I{{er}} of Mexico.]]
 
After the execution of Morelos, the war for independence in Mexico continued with various leaders and shifting alliances. Eventually, in 1821, a Mexican aristocrat named Agustín de Iturbide declared independence and succeeded in forging an alliance between the supporters of Hidalgo, Morelos and the Creole elite against the Spanish. With this alliance, Iturbide was able to defeat the Spanish army and gain independence for Mexico. After the defeat of Spain, Iturbide proclaimed himself as the constitutional emperor of Mexico. This solution lasted for only two years, and was intended to protect the existing social hierarchy. However, the revolution ultimately resulted in the creation of an independent Mexico, although the nation-building process and the creation of a stable government still had a long way to go.

Central America, which consisted of present-day countries such as Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica, was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which was based in Mexico City. As Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821, the viceroyalty was dissolved and Central America became a separate entity. However, Central America did not fight for its independence as it came as a result of the administrative and political changes in Mexico after its separation from Spain. Central America formally declared its independence in 1823, with the Act of Independence of Central America, which established a federal republic composed of the five aforementioned countries. This was an important step to the formation of a new nation, but it was not a war of independence like in most of the other countries in Latin America.

==Venezuela==

In Venezuela, the independence movement was led by wealthy Creole elites who sought greater autonomy and political power. However, the issue of race and social inequality complicated the movement, as the population of Venezuela was diverse, with large numbers of enslaved Africans and indigenous peoples. The Creole elites were influenced by the example of Haiti, which had successfully achieved independence from France through a slave rebellion, and the other sugar West Indies, which had also experienced slave revolts. This led to a tension between the elites, who sought independence for their own benefit, and the lower classes, who sought freedom and equality for all. This tension would continue to shape the country's political and social development even after gaining independence in 1821.

Venezuela, being a colony with a significant population of enslaved Africans, the issue of slavery added complexity to the independence movement. In Venezuela, slavery was more developed than in Mexico, with slaves primarily employed on cocoa plantations. Additionally, there was a large number of freedmen of color working in handicrafts in the cities, who were not considered equal to the white Creole elites. The presence of a large enslaved population and the fear of a Haitian-style revolution, where the enslaved population would rise up against their masters, made the Creole elite hesitant to fully support the movement. They were more inclined to seek greater autonomy within the Spanish empire rather than full independence, which would mean loss of control over the enslaved population and potential social upheaval. This fear of a slave rebellion would continue to shape the country's political and social development, even after gaining independence in 1821.

The independence process in Venezuela was different from that of Mexico. At the very beginning of the movement, a junta declared independence in 1810, but this declaration did not excite the popular classes who were treated badly by the elites, and were subject to slavery and exploitation. The Spanish, who still had troops in the region, managed to mobilize non-white plantation troops by denouncing the racism of the Creole elites, and by promising freedom to the enslaved population, including the llaneros (cowboys) of the haciendas. This led to a split among the independence forces, with the Creole elites and their troops facing off against those raised by Spain. As a result, the independentists were quickly overtaken by the troops raised by Spain, and the war for independence continued for another decade, under the leadership of other figures like Simon Bolivar and Francisco de Paula Santander. Eventually, Venezuela would gain its independence in 1821, along with the other territories of Gran Colombia, but the process of nation-building and creating stable governments was far from over.

In Venezuela, as in many other Latin American countries, the struggle for independence was marked by civil war and internal divisions. One of the key figures in the war for independence was Simon Bolivar, a member of the cocoa aristocracy and a slave trader, who recognized that in order to win independence, he needed the support of the majority of the population who were poor, indigenous and of African descent. He understood that if Spain were to win, they would not grant equality to people of African descent nor would they abolish slavery, as was evident from the 1812 Constitution. Bolivar, therefore, formed alliances with people of different ethnic and social backgrounds and promised them equality and freedom. He also abolished slavery in Venezuela, which helped him to gain the support of the enslaved population. Through his leadership and military strategies, Bolivar and his army were able to defeat the Spanish army and gain independence for Venezuela and other territories of Gran Colombia.

In 1813, Simon Bolivar launched a war against the Spanish, and he declared it as a "War to the death of the Americans" without distinction of race. He understood that in order to defeat the Spanish, he needed to unite all the people of Venezuela, regardless of their race or social class. To achieve this, he trained military leaders without discrimination and promoted black and mulatto officers, and promised freedom to slaves who fought for independence. This policy helped him to gain the support of the enslaved population, who joined his army in large numbers. Bolivar's strategy was key to the success of the Venezuelan War of Independence. He led his troops to several decisive victories against the Spanish and ultimately helped Venezuela to achieve its independence in 1821, along with other territories of Gran Colombia.

When King Ferdinand VII returned to the throne in Spain, he rejected the 1812 Constitution and sought to reassert absolutist rule over the colonies. This led to a renewed effort by the Spanish to reconquer their colonies in Latin America. Bolivar, who had led the struggle for independence in Venezuela, was forced to flee with many of his troops and officers, taking refuge in Haiti. With the help of Haitian President Alexandre Pétion, Bolivar was able to restart the war and unite the struggle of Venezuela with that of Colombia and Ecuador. With this unified effort, Bolivar was able to gradually drive out the Spanish and establish a confederation of three nations called Gran Colombia, which existed until 1831.

The independence of Gran Colombia, a confederation of present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama, was declared in 1821. The process of gaining independence was a long and difficult one, marked by internal divisions and civil war. The territories of Gran Colombia were very different from each other, with diverse ethnic, linguistic and cultural backgrounds. However, under the leadership of Simon Bolivar and other leaders, these regions were able to unite in their struggle for independence from Spain and form a single nation. The formation of Gran Colombia was an important step in the process of nation-building, but it was also a fragile alliance that would face many challenges in the following years, and it ultimately dissolved in 1831.

==Rio de la Plata (Buenos Aires)==

[[File:Jose de San Martin.jpg|thumb|The only photograph of José de San Martín.]]

In the early 19th century, Buenos Aires was a small port city that had only recently been elevated to the rank of capital of the Viceroyalty of the Rio de la Plata. The city had a diverse population, including Afro-descendants, military garrisons, and gauchos (cowboys). In 1807, Buenos Aires was occupied by the British, but the city's inhabitants were able to drive out the invaders and maintain their autonomy. This experience of resistance and self-reliance would be important in the struggle for independence that followed.

In 1810, Buenos Aires declared its independence from Spain, but the city's struggle for independence was complicated by internal divisions and the presence of royalist forces in other parts of the viceroyalty. Despite these challenges, Buenos Aires and the surrounding provinces were eventually able to gain their independence in 1816 and formed the United Provinces of Central America, which would later become the Republic of Argentina.

Independence was quickly won in 1816 in Argentina, but the country was surrounded by the vast territories of Brazil and the Viceroyalty of Peru, which posed a potential threat of attack from the north. To address this concern, one of the main leaders of the independence movement, José de San Martín, and his allies decided to bring the struggle for independence to the hinterland of Argentina, Chile, and even further to Bolivia and Peru. San Martín and his troops fought several battles and ultimately succeeded in liberating Chile in 1818, and Peru in 1821. San Martín's efforts were crucial in the process of nation-building and the formation of independent states in South America.

==Peru==

It is interesting to see that this is how Peru is going to gain its independence, caught between the troops coming from the South and the North. Independence will be imposed on Peru, the elites remain loyal to the king and Spain because they are afraid of the Indians like the revolt of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%BApac_Amaru Túpac Amaru].

It will only be in 1824 that the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ayacucho victory of Ayacucho] brings independence and puts an end to Spanish colonialism.<gallery mode="packed">
Fichier:TupacamaruI.JPG|Túpac Amaru, the last Inca of Vilcabamba.
Fichier:Martin Tovar y Tovar 01.JPG|The Battle of Ayacucho, by Martín Tovar y Tovar.
</gallery>

=Consequences=
Spain in 1824 is defeated on the American continent, but not in the Caribbean with Cuba which will become the "pearl of the West Indies" replacing Santo Domingo as supplier of sugar and Puerto Rico which will be under Spanish domination until 1898.

=General considerations=

It should be remembered that, unlike the Thirteen British Colonies and as in Haiti, it is a very long process of independence in Spanish America. From 1808, if we count the first juntas, or 1810 if we count the first revolutionary independence government, it lasted until 1828. Sixteen years of internal conflicts.

Spain waited until 1836 to recognize the independence of Mexico. One may ask why the conflict took so long:

*it did not involve a war against the metropolis, but a kind of civil war that had a socioracional dimension within each viceroyalty. At the same time, royalists, autonomists and independentists were fighting each other.
*The Spanish colonies, unlike the United States, did not receive any help from other nations except Haiti for Venezuela. On the other hand, the little they had in military aid was bought on credit from England. These nations are coming to independence with a fairly large foreign debt.
 
The costs of the war are not equal everywhere; it is very high in terms of human losses in Venezuela and on the Caribbean coast and Colombia, which have their populations declining; in terms of economic loss, Mexico loses the most, as all its mining infrastructure is destroyed. Argentina is getting out of the situation at a lower cost, which explains the more or less rapid start-ups.

One may wonder whether this is a real revolution:

#we have a more or less massive mobilization of the population;
#a struggle between different ideologies;
#a concrete struggle for power;
#we don't really have a deep transformation of social and economic structures.
 
The wars of independence were fought by white elites, but were fought by coloured troops, often of mixed race, black mulattoes and Indians. They are fought on a dominant ideology of freedom, equality and private property.

After independence, there is a great legal change, but not really a change in the socio-economic structures. Everywhere, republican regimes were adopted except for the Iturbid regime, while the nobility was abolished. All references to race in constitutions, laws and even censuses disappear; except for slaves, everyone is a citizen.

For the free Afro-descendants, it is a victory in the sense that they lose the defilement of slavery and gain equality of rights. For community Indians, it is a tragedy, because in the name of equality they lose their status as minors protected by the King of Spain, who prohibited the sale of their community property; now in the name of private property, their lands become alienable, gradually being taken over by haciendanos and small farmers. Many indigenous communities will disappear.

For most slaves there is no change except in Chile, Central America in 1824 and Mexico in 1829 partly because the Anglo-Saxons colonize northern Mexico and this is a way to stop the colonization of the northern United States.

Everywhere else except for the men who fought in the independence troops there are laws of gradual abolition, slavery will be abolished only in the period 1850 - 1860.

If the principle of equality makes the caste system disappear, the socio-racial hierarchy is not upset. There were new means of social mobility, especially in the army where a few half-breed women could move up the ranks. In fact, if it is no longer the accident of being born white, black or Indian, it is private property and formal education that will do so, but this does not mean that the counters will be set at zero, because racial ancestry will subsequently weigh in. Moreover, these populations will be so poor at the time of their independence that they will not be able to invest in education.

The new governments were not advocating the redistribution of land; it was being redistributed to the best buyers and not to the working classes.

Is there a formation of these different nations?

*Yes, in the sense that founding myths are being created and that the independence movements have mixed the populations of the different regions in the armies, in addition we have the arrival of republican ideas that make us feel that we belong to a given homeland.
*No, because the majority undergoes the process without taking part in it, one is often forcibly enrolled in the armies, moreover local identification remained strong. On the other hand, the borders of the new nations reproduce the same nations as before. The division is virtually the same as that of the viceroyalties in the colonial era, while the capitals of the viceroyalties continue to be the capitals of the independent nations.

=Annexes=

=References=
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[[Category:Aline Helg]]
[[Category:histoire]]
[[Category:relations internationales]]  
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