Version actuelle datée du 10 décembre 2023 à 20:21

Based on a course by Victor Monnier^[1]^[2]^[3]

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Introduction to the Law : Key Concepts and Definitions ● The State: Functions, Structures and Political Regimes ● The different branches of law ● The sources of law ● The great formative traditions of law ● The elements of the legal relationship ● The application of law ● The implementation of a law ● The evolution of Switzerland from its origins to the 20th century ● Switzerland's domestic legal framework ● Switzerland's state structure, political system and neutrality ● The evolution of international relations from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century ● The universal organizations ● European organisations and their relations with Switzerland ● Categories and generations of fundamental rights ● The origins of fundamental rights ● Declarations of rights at the end of the 18th century ● Towards the construction of a universal conception of fundamental rights in the 20th century

In our exploration of the vast field of law, we embark on an intellectual journey through the principles and structures that underpin legal systems and shape interactions within our societies. This discussion does not simply define law in its most basic terms; it seeks to reveal how it permeates and guides fundamental aspects of community life. By examining concepts such as objective and subjective law, we seek to understand not only the rules that govern individual behaviour, but also how these rules reflect and influence social values and structures.

We will look at positive law and its interaction with natural law, a subject that reveals the tensions and balances between written laws and universal ethical principles. The example of the French Civil Code is a perfect illustration of how ideals of justice and equality, once seen as the domain of morality or philosophy, have been incorporated into positive law, reflecting changing societal perceptions over time.

By exploring legal institutions such as marriage and adoption, we recognise how law shapes and is shaped by human relationships. These institutions are not simply legal agreements; they reflect how society conceives of and values personal relationships and responsibilities.

The judicial process, with its states of affairs and devices, is another focal point of our discussion. Here, we reveal how legal decisions are made, highlighting the importance of interpreting the facts and applying the rules of law. Imperative and dispositive rules offer an insight into the dynamic between individual freedom and the constraints imposed by the law.

This discussion is more than an academic presentation; it is an exploration of how law shapes and is shaped by human values and social interactions. By better understanding these principles, we gain not only legal knowledge, but also a deeper perspective on society itself and our role within it.

What is law?[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The law is a coherent set of socially established and imposed rules of conduct that dictate the behaviour expected of members of a society. These rules, endowed with binding power, serve as a guide for human interaction, regulating interpersonal relations in a fair and predictable manner. At the heart of its function is the overriding objective of ensuring harmonious and peaceful coexistence within the community. The law acts as a peacemaking mechanism, mitigating and resolving conflicts between individuals. It also plays a crucial role in the structural organisation of society, protecting not only individual and collective interests, but also the goods that are essential for harmonious social functioning. Law is the fundamental pillar of social order, guaranteeing stability and justice within the community.

The law in society[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Society can be further redefined as a set of individuals who coexist within an organised framework, sharing common norms, values and institutions. This coexistence is not static, but rather characterised by a multitude of interpersonal relationships that are constantly developing and evolving.

Each member of society is involved in a dense network of interactions with others, forming a rich and diverse social fabric. These interactions are not simply occasional contacts; rather, they constitute a complex series of relationships that shape individual and collective experiences. These relationships are influenced by factors such as cultural norms, laws, beliefs and economic practices.

Society can be seen as a living organism, where each member plays a crucial role in maintaining and evolving its structure and culture. The constant interaction between individuals is not only a feature of society, but also the driving force that shapes and transforms it.

The organisation of society, public constraint and the legal order[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

In any society, individuals face a range of constraints that influence and delimit their behaviour, choices and opportunities. These constraints manifest themselves in a variety of ways, reflecting the complexity and diversity of social structures. Laws and regulations are a major form of constraint in any society. Imposed by government authorities and other regulatory bodies, these legal norms aim to ensure public order, security and justice. While they are essential for maintaining order and protecting the rights of citizens, they can also limit certain individual freedoms, defining a legal framework within which individuals must act. Beyond laws, social and cultural norms exert a powerful influence on individual behaviour. Cultural values, traditions and expectations often determine what is considered acceptable or unacceptable in a society. These norms can sometimes restrict the expression of individuality and impose patterns of behaviour that correspond to collective expectations. Economic conditions are another significant form of constraint. Wealth, poverty and unequal access to resources significantly influence the options available to individuals. These economic constraints can limit opportunities for education, healthcare, decent housing and other essential aspects of well-being. Finally, the physical and geographical environment imposes its own limitations. Climate, topography and access to natural resources have a direct impact on people's lifestyles. These environmental factors can determine the types of economic activity possible, lifestyles, and even the challenges faced by individuals. These different forms of constraint are fundamental in defining the structure and functioning of societies. They contribute to social stability and the predictability of human interactions, while shaping the dynamics of community life. Public coercion refers to the legitimate power exercised by state authorities to impose standards, rules and decisions. This power extends to all state institutions and agents, including the government, law enforcement agencies, the judiciary and public administrations. The essence of this power lies in its ability to enforce laws and regulations, thereby guaranteeing public order and the safety of citizens. The concept of public constraint also extends to individuals or entities that hold rights recognised by law. In this context, the holder of a right is entitled to demand that this right be respected, if necessary by appealing to the authority of the State. For example, an owner can assert his property rights in the event of an offence, by requesting the intervention of the competent authorities to enforce compliance with the law. Public enforcement is therefore a fundamental part of the rule of law. It not only ensures that the law is enforced, but also serves as a mechanism for protecting the rights and freedoms of individuals within society. It is through this power that the State maintains order, justice and social cohesion.

The legal order is a complex, integrated system of legal rules that orchestrate relations within societies and between various entities on the international stage. This system encompasses a range of norms, from a country's domestic laws to the rules governing international interactions, providing a multi-layered regulatory framework. At the heart of this legal order are rules imposed by the rule of law and reinforced by sanctions for non-compliance. These rules serve as a foundation for justice and public order, ensuring that actions and interactions within society conform to accepted and ethical standards. For example, an individual who breaks a national law may be subject to criminal sanctions, reflecting the application of legal constraint to maintain social order. The legal order covers both national and supranational dimensions. At the national level, it comprises the constitution, laws made by parliament, administrative regulations and court rulings. These elements form the legal framework on which government structures and the rights and obligations of citizens are based. For example, a country's constitution defines the form of government and the fundamental rights of its citizens, while laws and regulations detail specific aspects of life in society, such as labour law or environmental protection. At international level, the legal system is made up of treaties, international conventions and globally recognised legal principles. These standards govern relations between states and other international players, covering areas such as international trade, human rights and humanitarian law. For example, the Geneva Conventions establish rules for the treatment of prisoners of war, illustrating how international law strives to maintain order and humanity even in times of conflict.

Taken as a whole, the legal order provides an essential structure for the stability and efficiency of societies, while ensuring a framework for the peaceful resolution of conflicts and the protection of rights and freedoms on a global scale. It represents not only a set of rules, but also a living system that evolves with social, economic and political change, reflecting the constant dynamics of life in society and international relations.

The function of law and social order[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Law, in its essence, is a system of rules established and applied by a society to regulate the behaviour of its members. These rules may vary greatly from one society to another, but they have in common the objective of maintaining order, protecting rights and property, and promoting the general welfare. Sanctions, for their part, are the means by which compliance with these rules is ensured. It represents a formal response to the transgression of established norms, and can take various forms, such as fines, prison sentences or other disciplinary measures. For example, if an individual commits theft, he or she is breaking not only a moral norm, but also a rule of law. In response to this offence, society's legal system may impose a sanction, such as a prison sentence, both to punish the offender and to deter others from committing similar acts. This repression of prohibited behaviour helps to preserve social order and reinforce confidence in the legal system. Thus, the presence of sanctions to punish breaches of the law is a crucial element in maintaining cohesion and stability in any society. It reflects the need for a balance between individual freedom and collective interests, ensuring that the rights and freedoms of some are not crushed by the actions of others.

The state plays a vital role in ensuring that society functions properly, a task that involves establishing and maintaining rules of discipline under the authority of a centralised government structure. This responsibility is based on several essential functions. Firstly, the state is responsible for creating and enforcing rules and norms that define appropriate behaviour and interactions within society. These rules, often formalised in the form of laws and regulations, serve to prevent chaos and promote a safe and orderly environment. The clarity and precision of these rules are crucial. Well-defined and comprehensible laws enable citizens to clearly recognise their rights and duties, thereby facilitating adherence to these norms and reducing the risk of misunderstanding or conflict. The authority of the State is manifest in its power to enforce these laws. This includes the maintenance of public order by the police, the trial and punishment of offences by the courts, and the enforcement of sentences. For example, in the event of a breach of road traffic laws, police officers are empowered to intervene, and offenders may be subject to penalties such as fines or, in more serious cases, prison sentences. In addition, the State has a duty to regularly adapt and update the legal framework to reflect social, economic and technological changes. This adaptability is essential to meet the emerging challenges and evolving needs of society. For example, with the advent of the internet and digital technologies, many states have developed new laws to regulate online activities, protect personal data and combat cybercrime. In this way, by establishing a legal and regulatory framework and ensuring that it is enforced, the State ensures order and security in society. These actions not only help to maintain peace and social cohesion, but also contribute to the development and overall prosperity of the community.

The law plays a fundamental role in facilitating peaceful coexistence within society. As a system of legal rules and norms, the law functions as an essential framework for regulating interactions between individuals, thereby ensuring social harmony and stability. One of the main functions of the law is to pacify human relations. It achieves this by defining acceptable behaviour and prescribing consequences for unacceptable behaviour. For example, civil law determines rights and obligations in contractual and family relationships, while criminal law establishes penalties for harmful behaviour such as theft or violence. By providing a systematic way of resolving conflicts and dealing with transgressions, the law helps to prevent disorder and promote justice. The law also serves as the foundation of social order. It creates a framework within which economic, political and social activities can take place in an orderly and predictable manner. By establishing clear rules and ensuring that they are applied, the law facilitates cooperation and mutual trust, which are essential to the smooth running of any society. So the law is not just a set of rules and regulations; it is a vital component of the social structure, playing a key role in preserving peace and order, and enabling people to live together productively and harmoniously.

The main purpose of law is to organise society and protect national interests, but also, and perhaps more fundamentally, to safeguard individual rights and freedoms. "I still don't know what law is, but I now know what a state without law is" The historical experience to which Vedel refers, that of the arrival of prisoners liberated from the concentration camps at the Gare de Lyon in 1944, highlights the tragic consequences of a state operating without respect for the principles of law. In such a context, the absence of adequate legal structures and protections opens the way to abuses of power, oppression and massive violations of human rights. The period of the Second World War and the horrors of the concentration camps represent perhaps the darkest and most poignant example of what can happen when the state acts without being constrained or guided by law. Vedel's observation is therefore a striking illustration of the need for a strong and respected legal system. The law, in its ideal form, must function as a safeguard against arbitrariness and abuse of power, while organising social, political and economic structures. It is essential for establishing and maintaining order, justice and freedom in any society. Thus, the historical experience highlighted by Vedel is an eloquent reminder of the fundamental role of law as a pillar of social order and protector of the fundamental rights of individuals.

Social order, in its broadest sense, is a complex structure that ensures the cohesion and harmonious functioning of society. It rests on a number of fundamental pillars which, together, enable a community to prosper and adapt to change. At the heart of this social order is a structured organisation that provides a framework for society. This organisation can take many forms, including governmental, legal, educational and other social institutions that define the rules of community life. These institutions are responsible for establishing the norms and laws that govern interactions between individuals and groups, thereby ensuring order and predictability in social relations. A key element of social order is the authority that directs and supervises the operation of these institutions. This authority, whether political, legal or otherwise, plays a crucial role in implementing laws and policies and in directing public affairs. The authority ensures that the laws are respected and that the decisions taken serve the general interest. The social order must also ensure the material and intellectual sustenance of its members. This means not only meeting basic physical needs, such as food, housing and health, but also promoting education, culture and access to information. By meeting these basic needs, the social order contributes to the well-being and fulfilment of individuals. Another fundamental aspect of social order is its ability to maintain a balance between divergent interests. In any society, different groups and individuals have different needs, desires and perspectives, which can lead to conflict. The social order, through its institutions and processes, seeks to harmonise these opposing interests, through negotiation, mediation and the implementation of equitable policies. Finally, the social order must be in a constant state of adaptation. Societies are dynamic; they evolve over time as a result of changes in mores, values, technologies and environmental conditions. An effective social order is one that is able to adapt to these changes, revising its laws, policies and structures to meet new challenges and opportunities. In short, the social order is a complex, multidimensional system that plays an essential role in structuring society. It ensures social cohesion by meeting basic needs, managing divergent interests and adapting to ongoing changes in society.

The many meanings of the word "law"[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The word "law", derived from the Low Latin "directum", suggests the idea of something that is direct or straight, as opposed to something that is tortuous or devious. This etymological origin clearly illustrates the concept of law as a clear and straightforward path to justice and fairness. From this perspective, the law is seen as a reliable and upright guide that steers individuals and society towards just and appropriate behaviour, and away from fraud, corruption and injustice. The term 'juridical', on the other hand, refers to everything that belongs to the law, or 'ius' in Latin. "Ius" derives from the Latin verb "iubere", meaning "to order". This root underlines the authority inherent in law - it is not simply a set of suggestions or advice, but rather a body of commands and obligations that govern the conduct of individuals and institutions. Moreover, 'iustus', meaning 'the just', is the origin of the word 'iusticia', meaning 'justice'. This highlights the intrinsic relationship between law and justice. The law is thus conceived as a tool in the service of justice, aimed at ensuring that each individual receives what is due to him or her and that decisions and actions are taken in a fair and balanced manner. These terms therefore reflect the founding principles of many legal systems: the idea that the law should lead to right, just and orderly actions, and that justice is the ultimate goal of all legal rules and regulations.

Objective law refers to the set of rules of conduct established by a society and binding on its members. These rules are characterised by their socially enacted and sanctioned nature, which means that they are created by recognised institutions (such as the legislature or the regulatory authority) and are subject to sanctions in the event of non-compliance. These rules of conduct encompass a wide range of norms, including laws, regulations, decrees and case law, which govern interactions within society. Their purpose is to maintain order, protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, regulate relations between people and institutions, and promote the general welfare. The term "Law" corresponds to this notion of objective law. It refers to the set of rules that are applied in a given jurisdiction. This notion encompasses not only written laws, but also the principles and practices that are recognised and applied by the courts. Objective law forms the legal structure on which society is based. It is essential to ensure social cohesion, fairness in the treatment of individuals, and predictability of the legal consequences of various actions and interactions within the community.

A subjective right is a faculty or power granted to an individual or group by objective law. This prerogative enables its holder to act in a certain way, to require certain conduct from others, or to prohibit certain actions, generally in his own interest or sometimes in the interest of others. These subjective rights can take different forms, such as property rights, contractual rights, or fundamental rights such as the right to freedom of expression or the right to privacy. For example, a property right allows its holder to enjoy and dispose of his property as he wishes, within the framework set by objective law. Similarly, in a contract, one party acquires the right to require the other party to perform certain agreed actions. The concept of "right" in English corresponds to the droit subjectif in French. It refers to a claim or interest legitimised by objective law. These "rights" can be protected or enforced through the legal system, and their violation can lead to reparation or sanctions. Subjective law is therefore a personal and individualised aspect of law, embodying the way in which objective law is translated into concrete prerogatives for individuals and groups. It is fundamental to the protection of individual interests and the achievement of justice in society.

Positive law encompasses all the legal rules that are effectively in force at a given time in a given society, be it a national entity or the international community. The term refers to the law as it is "laid down" or established, i.e. the law as it is actually formulated, adopted and applied. Positive law includes both objective and subjective law. As objective law, it includes laws, regulations, decrees and other legal norms enacted by the competent authorities. These rules define the general legal framework within which individuals and organisations must operate. For example, a country's civil code or criminal code are expressions of positive law as objective law. As subjective law, positive law also manifests itself in the rights and prerogatives granted to individuals or groups. These subjective rights are recognised and protected by positive law. For example, the right to property or the right to a fair trial are aspects of positive law that concern individual rights. Positive law is therefore the law that is actually applied and recognised in a given jurisdiction. It is distinct from "natural law", which is based on theoretical notions of justice and morality, and from "ideal law", which represents the law as it should be in an ideal society. Positive law is a dynamic concept, evolving with legislative changes, judicial decisions and social transformations. It is the concrete manifestation of law in the everyday life of societies.

Natural law is seen as a set of principles and values that transcend positive law. These principles are supposed to derive from human nature, reason or a higher moral order, and serve as the basis for the conception of justice and equity. Natural law is often associated with notions of ideal justice and moral duty. Unlike positive law, which is the law as established and applied in a given society, natural law is considered to be universal and immutable. It is not written down in legal texts, but is seen as inherent in the human condition or derived from human reason. The principles of natural law often serve as inspiration for the creation and interpretation of positive law. They are invoked to evaluate or criticise existing laws and to guide the drafting of new laws. For example, concepts such as the fundamental equality of all human beings or the right to liberty are ideas derived from natural law that have influenced many laws throughout the world. Because of its abstract nature and generality, natural law is often used as a reference for judging the correctness or legitimacy of positive laws. Throughout history, natural law has been invoked to challenge and change laws and practices deemed iniquitous or oppressive, such as slavery, segregation or the deprivation of civil rights. Natural law is concerned with universal moral and ethical principles. It represents an ideal of justice towards which positive law tends and provides a framework for evaluating and improving existing legal systems.

The French Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code, was a major step in the consolidation of law in France after the French Revolution, representing a significant effort to unify and systematise civil law across the country. The French Civil Code was conceived with the objective of creating a body of civil law that would be uniformly applicable to all French citizens, regardless of the region in which they resided. Prior to the adoption of the Code, France was governed by a multitude of local laws and regional customs, which made the legal system complex and inconsistent. The Civil Code introduced a more uniform and centralised legal system, which contributed to the legal and administrative unification of France.

Article 1 of the Civil Code was particularly noteworthy, as it stated the existence of a "universal and immutable law", considered to be the source of all positive laws. This formulation reflected the influence of natural law ideas, emphasising the idea that positive laws should be based on principles of natural reason that govern human relationships. This meant an implicit recognition that the laws enacted should be in harmony with certain universal and rational principles, a concept that has profoundly influenced modern legal thought. The Civil Code had a considerable influence not only in France, but also in many other countries, where it served as a model for the reform and development of legal systems. It marked a decisive stage in the history of law, emphasising the codification of civil laws and the importance of universal and rational principles in the development of law.

Code Civil de 1804 - Article 1er

The French Civil Code had a considerable and lasting impact, not only in France but also in many other parts of Europe, particularly those under French influence or domination in the early 19th century. Although the original title, which evoked the idea of universal and immutable law, was not retained in the final version of the Civil Code, the influence of its principles and structure on European law was profound. During the Napoleonic era, France extended its influence far beyond its traditional borders, bringing the Civil Code with it to occupied or annexed territories. For example, when Geneva became the prefecture of the Department of Lake Geneva, it was under French administration, so the French Civil Code also applied to the people of Geneva. This adoption of the Civil Code outside metropolitan France illustrates the spread of French legal ideas across Europe. As for Jura, which had been annexed by France, it retained the Civil Code even after becoming part of the Swiss canton of Berne. This fact testifies to the enduring adherence to certain legal principles and structures introduced by the Code, even after the end of French rule. The adoption and persistence of the Civil Code in these regions demonstrates its significant influence as a tool for legal modernisation and unification. The Napoleonic Code served as a model for civil law reform in many European countries and had a lasting impact on the conception and practice of law in the Western world.

For positivists, the law is strictly defined by the laws and regulations that have been officially established and adopted by the competent authorities. According to this view, only those norms and rules that form part of the corpus of positive law have binding force and can legitimately influence judicial decisions. In positivist thinking, concepts of natural law or moral principles have no binding legal status in themselves, unless they are explicitly incorporated into positive law. This means that for a judge, lawyer, legislator or any other jurist, the application of the law is limited to legal texts and official regulations. Notions of justice, equity or morality that are not formalised in these texts have no legal weight in the decision-making process.

This approach emphasises a clear separation between law and morality, considering that the role of the legal system is not to interpret or apply abstract moral principles, but rather to apply the law as written. For positivists, the authority of the law derives from its formal adoption by recognised institutions, not from its conformity with external moral or natural principles. This perspective has significant implications for the practice of law. It limits the role of the judge to the interpretation and application of existing laws, without recourse to considerations external to positive law. Although this approach has its critics, notably those who argue that the law should be informed by moral or ethical considerations, it remains a cornerstone of legal thinking in many legal systems around the world.

An important development in the evolution of the law in recent decades is the incorporation of principles once considered to be natural law, such as liberty and equality, into positive law through constitutions and legislation. This phenomenon reflects a worldwide trend whereby universal values and principles are becoming codified and officially recognised in national legal systems. 150 years ago, concepts such as freedom and equality were often seen as moral or philosophical ideals rather than legally protected rights. However, over time, the growing recognition of the importance of these principles for a just and equitable society has led to their gradual incorporation into the framework of positive law. This has often happened through constitutional amendments or new legislation.

The inclusion of these principles in modern constitutions means that they have acquired binding legal force. For example, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights was an important milestone in this development, setting international human rights standards that were subsequently adopted in many national laws. Today, principles such as non-discrimination, the right to freedom of expression and the right to a fair trial are considered fundamental components of many legal systems. This development illustrates how societies and their legal systems adapt and change in response to evolving values and moral requirements. It also marks the diminishing of the traditional separation between natural law and positive law, with a growing recognition that moral and ethical principles can and should play a role in the formation of formal law.

It is important to understand and differentiate between positive law and natural law, two fundamental concepts in legal theory. Positive law refers to laws and regulations that are officially established and adopted by legislative and governmental authorities. These are norms that are formulated in concrete terms, enshrined in legal texts and applied by the judicial system. Positive law is specific to each society and may evolve over time, reflecting changes in society's values, needs and circumstances. Natural law, on the other hand, is based on principles that are considered universal and immutable, often linked to morality, ethics or notions of ideal justice. Natural law is not written down in specific legislative texts, but is rather seen as inherent in human nature or derived from human reason. Proponents of natural law argue that certain moral truths or principles should guide the creation and application of laws. It is crucial to understand the interaction between these two types of law. Historically, natural law has often been used as a basis for criticising or reforming positive law, particularly when existing laws are perceived to be unjust or outdated. Similarly, positive law, by drawing on the principles of natural law, can evolve to better reflect the ideals of justice and equality. In modern legal practice, there is often a dialogue between natural law and positive law, with universal principles influencing the drafting and interpretation of laws. Understanding this dynamic is essential for those who study law, work in the legal field, or are interested in how laws affect and are affected by notions of justice and ethics.

The rule of law[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The rule of law, or legal rule, is a fundamental element of the legal system, acting as a norm that guides and regulates the conduct of individuals in their social interactions. These rules are characterised by their generality, abstraction and binding nature, and are supported by the sanctioning power of the state. As general norms, they apply to a wide range of situations and are not limited to specific cases or particular individuals. Their abstraction means that they deal with general situations or patterns of behaviour, rather than specific details. The mandatory aspect of the rule of law is one of its most important attributes. Breach of these rules can result in sanctions, which are enforced by public authorities such as courts and law enforcement agencies. This means that the rules of law are not mere recommendations, but directives that must be complied with on pain of legal consequences.

As far as the law is concerned, it is a set of rules of law, often formulated and adopted by a legislative body, such as a parliament. The law is a formal expression of these rules and serves as a detailed guide to acceptable behaviour in society. It covers a variety of areas, from civil law, which governs relationships between individuals, to criminal law, which deals with crimes and penalties. Laws establish clear and precise standards that individuals and organisations must follow, and they play a crucial role in maintaining order and justice in society.

The importance of the rule of law and the law lies in their ability to structure and stabilise social, economic and political interactions. They ensure a degree of predictability and fairness in society, enabling individuals to understand the consequences of their actions and to plan accordingly. They also serve to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, by setting limits on what is permissible and providing mechanisms for resolving conflicts. Ultimately, rules of law and legislation are essential for an organised and functional society, where justice and order are maintained.

The distinction between public and private law[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Mandatory, general and abstract[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The mandatory nature of legal rules is a fundamental element that is evident in any legal system. This characteristic means that the rules of law are not mere suggestions or advice, but imperative standards with which individuals and organisations are legally bound to comply. Failure to comply with these rules entails legal consequences, such as sanctions, penalties or other forms of legal redress. This binding nature is ensured by public authorities, in particular the judiciary and law enforcement agencies. The courts play a crucial role in interpreting laws and determining penalties for violations. The police are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining public order. Legal obligation is a principle that distinguishes the law from other systems of norms, such as moral rules or social conventions. While the latter can influence behaviour, they do not have the same binding force as laws. For example, a moral rule may dictate ethical behaviour, but its violation does not generally result in legal sanctions. On the other hand, the violation of a law entails consequences that are legally defined and applied by the State. This obligation is essential to ensure order and stability in society. It ensures that individuals and institutions abide by an agreed set of rules, thereby facilitating cooperation, predictability and fairness in social relations. In short, the binding nature of legal rules is a pillar that underpins the structure and functioning of any organised and just society.

The general nature of legal rules is another essential feature that contributes to their effectiveness and fairness. This generality means that legal rules apply to an indefinite number of people and a multitude of situations, without any specific or personal distinction. Unlike decisions that are addressed to specific individuals or groups, legal rules are formulated to cover general categories of behaviour or situations. For example, a law prohibiting theft applies to all members of society, regardless of their personal status, profession or any other individual characteristic. This universality ensures that the rules of law are impartial and fair, applying in the same way to all those in similar circumstances. This generality is fundamental to ensuring equality before the law, a basic principle in many legal systems. It enables laws to serve as instruments of justice and public order, establishing clear and uniform standards for the conduct of individuals and institutions. It also contributes to the predictability and stability of the legal system, because individuals can understand and anticipate the legal consequences of their actions. The general nature of legal rules is a key element in ensuring the impartiality and effectiveness of the legal system, thereby helping to maintain order and justice in a society.

The abstract nature of legal rules is an essential feature that enables them to cover a wide range of situations. This abstraction means that legal rules are not formulated for specific circumstances or cases, but rather are designed to apply to any number of situations that might arise. This abstract quality is crucial because it gives rules of law the flexibility to be applicable in a variety of different contexts, without needing to be constantly modified or adapted. For example, a law that prohibits intentionally causing harm to others is sufficiently abstract to cover many types of harmful behaviour, without having to list every specific act that might constitute harm. Abstraction also allows the courts to interpret and apply the law consistently in a multitude of different situations. This helps to ensure that similar cases are treated in similar ways, contributing to the fairness and predictability of the legal system. In addition, it allows the law to adapt to developments and changes in society without the need to constantly rewrite laws. The abstract nature of legal rules is fundamental to their effectiveness and long-term relevance. It allows the legal system to encompass a wide range of behaviours and situations, while maintaining fairness and justice in its application.

Coercive nature: implies constraint[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

A fundamental aspect of legal rules is the presence of a sanction guaranteed by public authority. This feature distinguishes legal rules from other types of social norms, such as moral rules or conventions. Sanction in the legal context refers to a legal consequence or penalty imposed in response to the violation of a rule of law. Sanctions can take various forms, such as fines, prison sentences, reparation orders or other disciplinary measures. The role of sanctions is not only to punish offences, but also to deter future illegal behaviour and maintain social order. The public authority, or public power, plays a crucial role in ensuring and applying these sanctions. State bodies, such as the courts, the police and the various administrative agencies, function as the instruments by which the rules of law are applied and sanctions imposed. These bodies ensure compliance with the law, deal with offences and implement judicial decisions. The courts, in particular, play a central role in this process. They interpret the law, adjudicate on offences and determine the appropriate penalties. The police, for their part, are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining public order, including the arrest and detention of offenders. The guarantee of a sanction by the public authority is a key element that gives the rules of law their strength and effectiveness. It ensures that the legal system is respected and followed, and that offences are dealt with appropriately, thereby contributing to stability and justice within society.

In most modern legal systems, including Switzerland, legal rules are distinct from religious rules. Contemporary legal systems are generally based on principles of positive law, which are established and applied independently of religious doctrines or prescriptions. However, it is true that certain rules or principles stemming from religious traditions have influenced or found their way into the positive law of many countries, including Switzerland. For example, the commandment "Thou shalt not kill", derived from many religious texts, is reflected in criminal laws that prohibit murder. This incorporation is not so much a question of religious authority over the law, but rather a coincidence whereby certain universally recognised moral standards, present in many religious traditions, coincide with the principles of justice and public order considered essential in secular law.

It is important to note that when such rules are incorporated into positive law, they do so not as religious doctrines, but as autonomous legal norms justified by secular considerations of public order, security and social welfare. Their validity and application do not depend on their religious origin, but on their formal incorporation into the legislative framework and their conformity with the general principles of law. Although modern legal systems and positive law operate independently of religious rules, there are cases where certain moral standards common to several religious traditions are incorporated into positive law. However, these norms are applied as secular laws, reflecting universal values rather than specific religious prescriptions.

Code pénal suisse - article 111

Article 111 of the Swiss Penal Code is a perfect example of how an ethical norm, often found in various religious and moral traditions, is incorporated into positive law in the form of secular law. Article 111 of the Swiss Penal Code clearly stipulates the legal consequences of murder, thus defining a clear legal prohibition on intentionally killing another person. This legal provision reflects a principle widely recognised in many cultures and societies, namely that murder is a serious transgression against the individual and society. However, in the context of positive law, this prohibition is formulated and applied independently of any religious considerations.

The Swiss Penal Code, like other legal systems, bases its laws on principles of justice, public order and the protection of individual rights. By establishing penalties for offences such as murder, it seeks to prevent criminal acts, protect citizens and maintain social order. The emphasis is on protecting human life and deterring behaviour that is dangerous to society. This example shows how positive law can incorporate principles that are also valued in religious and moral traditions, but does so within the framework of a secular legal system, with justifications and applications centred on the needs and values of civil society.

The elements of a rule of law[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Legal institutions are fundamental elements in the organisation of social relations in any society. They are made up of coherent sets of legal rules designed to structure specific aspects of human interaction. These institutions provide a legal framework that clearly defines the rights, obligations and procedures relating to these interactions, reflecting social values and needs.

Take the example of marriage, which is a central legal institution in many societies. As an institution, marriage is governed by laws that determine how two people can legally come together and what the legal consequences of this union are. These laws cover aspects such as the conditions under which a marriage is valid, the mutual responsibilities of the spouses, the management of joint property, and procedures in the event of separation or divorce. These regulations aim to ensure a balance between individual rights and collective interests, while protecting the parties involved, particularly in situations of breakdown or conflict.

Similarly, adoption is a legal institution that makes it possible to create legal ties of kinship between individuals who are not biologically related. The rules governing adoption are designed to ensure the welfare and protection of adopted children. They define the eligibility criteria for adopters, the procedures to be followed for adoption, and the legal effects of adoption on family relationships. The aim is to provide a stable and loving family environment for the child, while respecting his or her rights and those of his or her biological and adoptive parents.

These institutions, such as marriage and adoption, illustrate how the law can influence and shape fundamental social structures. By providing a detailed and structured legal framework, they contribute to social stability and respect for the rights and duties of individuals within society. Their evolution over time also reflects changes in social attitudes and norms, showing how the law adapts to meet society's changing needs.

The state of affairs[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The state of affairs refers to the concrete facts or circumstances that form the basis of a legal situation or dispute. It serves as the basis for the application of the law and for judicial decisions. In the application of a rule of law, the state of facts acts as a conditional proposition that determines when and how the rule should be applied. This means that the rule of law only applies if certain factual conditions, described in the state of facts, are met. For example, in a theft case, the statement of fact will detail the circumstances of the theft, such as where, when and how the act was committed. These details are essential to determine whether the facts meet the legal criteria defining theft and to decide on the appropriate application of the law.

In the context of a judgment, the statement of facts of a case comprises a complete and chronological statement of the relevant facts. It includes the identification of the parties involved, a description of the events leading up to the dispute, the key stages of the legal proceedings, and the claims or conclusions of each party. This factual exposition is crucial as it provides the framework within which the judge or court will assess the case, interpret the applicable law, and reach a decision. The accuracy and completeness of the statement of facts is therefore essential to ensure a fair and informed decision. The state of facts plays a fundamental role both in the application of the rules of law and in the judging process. It ensures that legal decisions are taken on the basis of a clear and detailed understanding of the specific facts of each case, thus guaranteeing the adequacy and fairness of the application of the law.

The example of "he who intentionally kills" is a good illustration of how a specific state of affairs can determine the application of a rule of law. In this case, the state of affairs concerns the intentional act of killing another person. In the legal context, this sentence would indicate the factual conditions necessary for the application of a criminal law relating to murder. For an individual to be tried under this law, it must be established that the act of killing was carried out intentionally. In other words, intent (or 'mens rea' in legal terms) is a crucial element of the state of facts that must be proved for a murder conviction to proceed.

In a murder trial, for example, the court will examine the evidence and circumstances surrounding the case to determine whether the accused acted with intent to kill. This includes examining the accused's actions, his state of mind at the time, and any other relevant factors that may shed light on his intentions. If the intention to kill is proven, then the state of affairs corresponds to the rule of law applicable to murder, and the court can proceed to apply the appropriate sanction. This example illustrates how the state of facts serves as the basis for the application of legal rules, underlining the importance of detailed factual analysis in the judicial decision-making process.

The operative part[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

The operative part is an essential component of a court judgment or decision, setting out the legal conclusion of the case. It clearly states the legal effect of the court's decision, indicating the specific actions that the parties must take or avoid as a result of the judgment. This part of the judgment is crucial because it determines the practical implications and legal consequences for the parties involved. In a dispositif, the court may pronounce different forms of legal effect. It may issue a prohibition, preventing a party from carrying out certain actions. For example, in a case of copyright infringement, the writ may prohibit the defendant from continuing to use the protected content. In addition, the device may impose an obligation to do, requiring a party to perform a specific action. This is common in contractual disputes where the court orders a party to perform its contractual obligations. Alternatively, the device may impose an obligation not to do certain things, such as stopping an activity that causes a nuisance to others. The role of the arrangement is not limited to simply stating these obligations or prohibitions. It has binding legal authority, meaning that the parties are legally obliged to comply with its terms. In the event of non-compliance, sanctions may be applied or enforcement measures taken to ensure compliance. In this way, the mechanism plays a decisive role in the effective implementation of justice, translating the court's legal conclusions into concrete, enforceable actions.

The example of who "shall be deprived of a custodial sentence of not less than 5 years", illustrates a type of device that might be found in a court decision, specifying the penalty imposed on a person found guilty of an offence. However, there seems to be a slight error in the wording. Normally, in the legal context, a disposition would state that the person is "sentenced to a custodial sentence of at least 5 years". In this case, the provision clearly indicates that the penalty for the offence committed is a prison sentence of at least five years. This means that, following sentencing, the convicted individual will be required by law to serve a prison sentence for the specified period. This type of device is typical in criminal cases where the court determines the appropriate sentence based on the seriousness of the offence and other relevant factors relating to the case. This device translates the court's decision into concrete action, indicating how the law should be applied in that particular case. The sentencing specification reflects the application of the rule of law to the established state of facts, demonstrating how justice is dispensed in individual cases in accordance with established norms and laws.

The dispositif is also the part of a judgment that contains the court's actual decision. This is the section where the court explicitly rules on the claims or submissions of the parties involved in the case. In the operative part, the court summarises its decisions on the main issues in dispute. For example, in a civil case, this may include decisions on claims for damages, the performance of a contract, or liability in an accident. In a criminal case, the operative part will contain the court's decision as to the guilt or innocence of the accused and set out the penalties or sanctions, if any. This part of the judgment is crucial because it determines the outcome of the case and the legal consequences for the parties. It must be clear and precise, because it is on the basis of the operative part that enforcement or appeal actions are taken. It is also this part of the judgment that is legally binding and can be enforced by the force of law. The operative part, as the formal legal conclusion of the case, represents the concrete application of the rules of law to the facts established during the trial. It reflects the way in which the court has interpreted the law and taken into account the evidence and arguments presented by the parties. In short, the operative part is the heart of the judicial decision, translating the court's deliberations and legal reasoning into a final and enforceable conclusion.

Dispositive, suppletive or declarative rules[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Dispositive rules (also known as suppletive or declaratory rules) capture an important aspect of civil law. These rules are those that apply in the absence of stipulations to the contrary by the parties concerned in their agreements or contracts.

Dispositive rules function as a frame of reference or default standard. They come into play when the parties to an agreement have not expressed a contrary will or drafted their own clauses to specifically govern their relationship or situation. In other words, these rules offer a standard legal solution that applies automatically, unless the parties have agreed a different arrangement. A classic example of a dispositive rule is the rules governing the distribution of property in the event of the dissolution of a company or marriage without a pre-established contract. If the parties have not drawn up a specific agreement on how to divide the assets, the dispositive rules laid down by law will apply.

These rules are essential because they provide legal certainty and predictability in situations where the parties have not drawn up specific agreements. They also allow a degree of flexibility in the regulation of private affairs, giving parties the freedom to determine their own arrangements while providing a legal safety net in the absence of agreement. Dispositive rules act as a filler, filling in gaps where the parties have not expressed any particular will. In this way, they enable transactions and legal relationships to function smoothly, while providing a basic framework for situations not regulated by private agreements.

Peremptory rules[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

Peremptory rules are legal norms that apply absolutely and unconditionally to all persons falling within their scope. They are designed to be incontestable and cannot be modified by individual agreements or wishes. Unlike dispositive rules, which allow parties to agree their own terms as long as they do not run counter to the rules, mandatory rules leave no room for such private negotiations or arrangements. They are established to protect interests deemed fundamental by society, such as public order, morality, safety and fundamental rights.

For example, in the field of labour law, there are mandatory rules concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours and safety conditions in the workplace. These rules are designed to protect workers against exploitation and dangerous working conditions, and cannot be changed by agreement between employer and employee. Similarly, in family law, certain rules relating to filiation, adoption and marriage are mandatory. They guarantee respect for fundamental rights and the protection of the most vulnerable parties, such as children. Imperative rules are therefore essential to ensure fairness, justice and the protection of vital interests in society. They represent the fundamental values and principles on which the legal order is based and serve as an essential guide in the application and interpretation of laws.

Annexes[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

References[modifier | modifier le wikicode]

[1] Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE

[2] Publications du professeur Victor Monnier

[3] Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE

[1]

[2]

[3]

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 | fr = Introduction au Droit : Concepts et Définitions Clés
 | es = Introducción al Derecho : Conceptos clave y definiciones
-| it =
+| it = Introduzione al diritto: concetti chiave e definizioni
-| pt =
+| pt = Introdução ao Direito: Conceitos e Definições
-| de =
+| de = Einführung in das Recht: Schlüsselbegriffe und Definitionen
-| ch =
+| ch = 法律入门：关键概念和定义
 }}
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 == The many meanings of the word "law" ==
-Le mot "droit", provenant du bas latin "directum", suggère l'idée de quelque chose de direct ou de rectiligne, par opposition à ce qui est tortueux ou dévié. Cette origine étymologique illustre bien la conception du droit comme étant un chemin clair et sans détour vers la justice et l'équité. Dans cette perspective, le droit est perçu comme un guide fiable et droit, qui oriente les individus et la société vers des comportements justes et appropriés, et éloigne de la fraude, de la corruption et de l'injustice. Le terme "juridique", quant à lui, se rapporte à tout ce qui appartient au droit, ou "ius" en latin. "Ius" tire son origine du verbe latin "iubere", qui signifie "ordonner". Cette racine souligne l'autorité inhérente au droit - il n'est pas simplement un ensemble de suggestions ou de conseils, mais plutôt un corpus de commandements et d'obligations qui régissent la conduite des individus et des institutions. De plus, "iustus", qui signifie "le juste", est à l'origine du mot "iusticia", c'est-à-dire "la justice". Cela met en évidence la relation intrinsèque entre le droit et la justice. Le droit est ainsi conçu comme un outil au service de la justice, visant à garantir que chaque individu reçoit ce qui lui est dû et que les décisions et les actions sont prises de manière équitable et équilibrée. Ces termes reflètent donc les principes fondateurs de nombreux systèmes juridiques : l'idée que le droit doit mener à des actions droites, justes et ordonnées, et que la justice est le but ultime de toutes les règles et réglementations juridiques.
+The word "law", derived from the Low Latin "directum", suggests the idea of something that is direct or straight, as opposed to something that is tortuous or devious. This etymological origin clearly illustrates the concept of law as a clear and straightforward path to justice and fairness. From this perspective, the law is seen as a reliable and upright guide that steers individuals and society towards just and appropriate behaviour, and away from fraud, corruption and injustice. The term 'juridical', on the other hand, refers to everything that belongs to the law, or 'ius' in Latin. "Ius" derives from the Latin verb "iubere", meaning "to order". This root underlines the authority inherent in law - it is not simply a set of suggestions or advice, but rather a body of commands and obligations that govern the conduct of individuals and institutions. Moreover, 'iustus', meaning 'the just', is the origin of the word 'iusticia', meaning 'justice'. This highlights the intrinsic relationship between law and justice. The law is thus conceived as a tool in the service of justice, aimed at ensuring that each individual receives what is due to him or her and that decisions and actions are taken in a fair and balanced manner. These terms therefore reflect the founding principles of many legal systems: the idea that the law should lead to right, just and orderly actions, and that justice is the ultimate goal of all legal rules and regulations.
-Le droit objectif se réfère à l'ensemble des règles de conduite qui sont établies par une société et qui ont force obligatoire pour ses membres. Ces règles sont caractérisées par leur nature socialement édictée et sanctionnée, ce qui signifie qu'elles sont créées par des institutions reconnues (comme le législateur ou le pouvoir réglementaire) et qu'elles sont assorties de sanctions en cas de non-respect. Ces règles de conduite englobent une vaste gamme de normes, incluant les lois, les règlements, les décrets, et les jurisprudences, qui régissent les interactions au sein de la société. Leur objectif est de maintenir l'ordre, de protéger les droits et les libertés des individus, de réguler les relations entre les personnes et les institutions, et de promouvoir le bien-être général. Le terme "Law" en anglais correspond à cette notion de droit objectif. Il désigne l'ensemble des règles qui sont appliquées dans une juridiction donnée. Cette notion englobe non seulement les lois écrites, mais aussi les principes et les pratiques qui sont reconnus et appliqués par les tribunaux. Le droit objectif forme la structure légale sur laquelle repose la société. Il est essentiel pour assurer la cohésion sociale, l'équité dans le traitement des individus, et la prévisibilité des conséquences juridiques de diverses actions et interactions au sein de la communauté.
+Objective law refers to the set of rules of conduct established by a society and binding on its members. These rules are characterised by their socially enacted and sanctioned nature, which means that they are created by recognised institutions (such as the legislature or the regulatory authority) and are subject to sanctions in the event of non-compliance. These rules of conduct encompass a wide range of norms, including laws, regulations, decrees and case law, which govern interactions within society. Their purpose is to maintain order, protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, regulate relations between people and institutions, and promote the general welfare. The term "Law" corresponds to this notion of objective law. It refers to the set of rules that are applied in a given jurisdiction. This notion encompasses not only written laws, but also the principles and practices that are recognised and applied by the courts. Objective law forms the legal structure on which society is based. It is essential to ensure social cohesion, fairness in the treatment of individuals, and predictability of the legal consequences of various actions and interactions within the community.
-Le droit subjectif est en effet une faculté ou un pouvoir accordé à un individu ou à un groupe par le droit objectif. Cette prérogative permet à son titulaire d'agir d'une certaine manière, d'exiger une certaine conduite d'autrui, ou d'interdire certaines actions, généralement dans son propre intérêt ou parfois dans l'intérêt d'autrui. Ces droits subjectifs peuvent prendre différentes formes, telles que les droits de propriété, les droits contractuels, ou les droits fondamentaux comme le droit à la liberté d'expression ou le droit à la vie privée. Par exemple, un droit de propriété permet à son titulaire de jouir et de disposer de son bien comme il le souhaite, dans le cadre fixé par le droit objectif. De même, dans un contrat, une partie acquiert le droit d'exiger de l'autre partie qu'elle accomplisse certaines actions convenues. La notion de "right" en anglais correspond au droit subjectif en français. Elle se réfère à une revendication ou un intérêt légitimé par le droit objectif. Ces "rights" peuvent être protégés ou appliqués par le biais de l'appareil judiciaire, et leur violation peut entraîner des réparations ou des sanctions. Le droit subjectif est donc un aspect personnel et individualisé du droit, incarnant la manière dont le droit objectif se traduit en prérogatives concrètes pour les individus et les groupes. Il est fondamental dans la protection des intérêts individuels et dans la réalisation de la justice au sein de la société.
+A subjective right is a faculty or power granted to an individual or group by objective law. This prerogative enables its holder to act in a certain way, to require certain conduct from others, or to prohibit certain actions, generally in his own interest or sometimes in the interest of others. These subjective rights can take different forms, such as property rights, contractual rights, or fundamental rights such as the right to freedom of expression or the right to privacy. For example, a property right allows its holder to enjoy and dispose of his property as he wishes, within the framework set by objective law. Similarly, in a contract, one party acquires the right to require the other party to perform certain agreed actions. The concept of "right" in English corresponds to the droit subjectif in French. It refers to a claim or interest legitimised by objective law. These "rights" can be protected or enforced through the legal system, and their violation can lead to reparation or sanctions. Subjective law is therefore a personal and individualised aspect of law, embodying the way in which objective law is translated into concrete prerogatives for individuals and groups. It is fundamental to the protection of individual interests and the achievement of justice in society.
-Le droit positif englobe l'ensemble des règles juridiques qui sont effectivement en vigueur à un moment donné dans une société donnée, qu'elle soit une entité nationale ou la communauté internationale. Ce terme désigne le droit tel qu'il est "posé" ou établi, c'est-à-dire le droit tel qu'il est concrètement formulé, adopté et appliqué. Le droit positif inclut à la fois le droit objectif et le droit subjectif. En tant que droit objectif, il comprend les lois, les règlements, les décrets, et autres normes juridiques édictées par les autorités compétentes. Ces règles définissent le cadre légal général dans lequel les individus et les organisations doivent opérer. Par exemple, le code civil ou le code pénal d'un pays sont des expressions du droit positif en tant que droit objectif. En tant que droit subjectif, le droit positif se manifeste également dans les droits et les prérogatives accordés aux individus ou aux groupes. Ces droits subjectifs sont reconnus et protégés par le droit positif. Par exemple, le droit à la propriété ou le droit à un procès équitable sont des aspects du droit positif qui concernent les droits individuels. Le droit positif est donc le droit effectivement appliqué et reconnu dans une juridiction donnée. Il est distinct du "droit naturel", qui est fondé sur des notions théoriques de justice et de moralité, et du "droit idéal", qui représente le droit tel qu'il devrait être dans une société idéale. Le droit positif est un concept dynamique, évoluant avec les changements législatifs, les décisions judiciaires et les transformations sociales. Il est la manifestation concrète du droit dans la vie quotidienne des sociétés.
+Positive law encompasses all the legal rules that are effectively in force at a given time in a given society, be it a national entity or the international community. The term refers to the law as it is "laid down" or established, i.e. the law as it is actually formulated, adopted and applied. Positive law includes both objective and subjective law. As objective law, it includes laws, regulations, decrees and other legal norms enacted by the competent authorities. These rules define the general legal framework within which individuals and organisations must operate. For example, a country's civil code or criminal code are expressions of positive law as objective law. As subjective law, positive law also manifests itself in the rights and prerogatives granted to individuals or groups. These subjective rights are recognised and protected by positive law. For example, the right to property or the right to a fair trial are aspects of positive law that concern individual rights. Positive law is therefore the law that is actually applied and recognised in a given jurisdiction. It is distinct from "natural law", which is based on theoretical notions of justice and morality, and from "ideal law", which represents the law as it should be in an ideal society. Positive law is a dynamic concept, evolving with legislative changes, judicial decisions and social transformations. It is the concrete manifestation of law in the everyday life of societies.
-Le droit naturel est perçu comme un ensemble de principes et de valeurs qui transcendent le droit positif. Ces principes sont censés découler de la nature humaine, de la raison ou d'un ordre moral supérieur, et servent de fondement à la conception de la justice et de l'équité. Le droit naturel est souvent associé à des notions de justice idéale et de devoir moral. Contrairement au droit positif, qui est le droit tel qu'il est établi et appliqué dans une société donnée, le droit naturel est considéré comme universel et immuable. Il n'est pas écrit dans des textes de loi, mais est plutôt perçu comme inhérent à la condition humaine ou dérivé de la raison humaine. Les principes du droit naturel servent souvent d'inspiration pour la création et l'interprétation du droit positif. Ils sont invoqués pour évaluer ou critiquer les lois existantes et pour guider l'élaboration de nouvelles lois. Par exemple, des concepts tels que l'égalité fondamentale de tous les êtres humains ou le droit à la liberté sont des idées issues du droit naturel qui ont influencé de nombreuses législations à travers le monde. En raison de son caractère abstrait et de sa généralité, le droit naturel sert souvent de référence pour juger de la justesse ou de la légitimité des lois positives. Dans l'histoire, le droit naturel a été invoqué pour contester et changer des lois et des pratiques jugées iniques ou oppressives, telles que l'esclavage, la ségrégation ou la privation de droits civiques. Le droit naturel se situe au niveau des principes moraux et éthiques universels. Il représente un idéal de justice vers lequel tend le droit positif et fournit un cadre pour évaluer et améliorer les systèmes juridiques existants.
+Natural law is seen as a set of principles and values that transcend positive law. These principles are supposed to derive from human nature, reason or a higher moral order, and serve as the basis for the conception of justice and equity. Natural law is often associated with notions of ideal justice and moral duty. Unlike positive law, which is the law as established and applied in a given society, natural law is considered to be universal and immutable. It is not written down in legal texts, but is seen as inherent in the human condition or derived from human reason. The principles of natural law often serve as inspiration for the creation and interpretation of positive law. They are invoked to evaluate or criticise existing laws and to guide the drafting of new laws. For example, concepts such as the fundamental equality of all human beings or the right to liberty are ideas derived from natural law that have influenced many laws throughout the world. Because of its abstract nature and generality, natural law is often used as a reference for judging the correctness or legitimacy of positive laws. Throughout history, natural law has been invoked to challenge and change laws and practices deemed iniquitous or oppressive, such as slavery, segregation or the deprivation of civil rights. Natural law is concerned with universal moral and ethical principles. It represents an ideal of justice towards which positive law tends and provides a framework for evaluating and improving existing legal systems.
-Le Code civil français de 1804, aussi connu sous le nom de Code Napoléon, a été une étape majeure dans la consolidation des lois en France après la Révolution française, représentant un effort significatif pour unifier et systématiser le droit civil à travers le pays. Le Code civil français a été conçu avec l'objectif de créer un ensemble de lois civiles qui serait applicable de manière uniforme à tous les citoyens français, indépendamment de la région dans laquelle ils résidaient. Avant l'adoption de ce code, la France était régie par une multitude de lois locales et de coutumes régionales, ce qui rendait le système juridique complexe et incohérent. Le Code civil a introduit un système juridique plus uniforme et centralisé, ce qui a contribué à l'unification juridique et administrative de la France.
+The French Civil Code of 1804, also known as the Napoleonic Code, was a major step in the consolidation of law in France after the French Revolution, representing a significant effort to unify and systematise civil law across the country. The French Civil Code was conceived with the objective of creating a body of civil law that would be uniformly applicable to all French citizens, regardless of the region in which they resided. Prior to the adoption of the Code, France was governed by a multitude of local laws and regional customs, which made the legal system complex and inconsistent. The Civil Code introduced a more uniform and centralised legal system, which contributed to the legal and administrative unification of France.
-L'article 1er du Code civil était particulièrement remarquable, car il énonçait l'existence d'un "droit universel et immuable", considéré comme la source de toutes les lois positives. Cette formulation reflétait l'influence des idées du droit naturel, soulignant l'idée que les lois positives devraient être fondées sur des principes de raison naturelle qui gouvernent les relations humaines. Cela signifiait une reconnaissance implicite que les lois édictées devraient être en harmonie avec certains principes universels et rationnels, un concept qui a profondément influencé la pensée juridique moderne. Le Code civil a eu une influence considérable non seulement en France, mais aussi dans de nombreux autres pays, où il a servi de modèle pour la réforme et l'élaboration de systèmes juridiques. Il a marqué une étape décisive dans l'histoire du droit, en mettant l'accent sur la codification des lois civiles et sur l'importance de principes universels et rationnels dans l'élaboration du droit.[[Fichier:Code civil 1804 article 1.png|700px|vignette|centré|Code Civil de 1804 - Article 1er]]
+Article 1 of the Civil Code was particularly noteworthy, as it stated the existence of a "universal and immutable law", considered to be the source of all positive laws. This formulation reflected the influence of natural law ideas, emphasising the idea that positive laws should be based on principles of natural reason that govern human relationships. This meant an implicit recognition that the laws enacted should be in harmony with certain universal and rational principles, a concept that has profoundly influenced modern legal thought. The Civil Code had a considerable influence not only in France, but also in many other countries, where it served as a model for the reform and development of legal systems. It marked a decisive stage in the history of law, emphasising the codification of civil laws and the importance of universal and rational principles in the development of law.[[Fichier:Code civil 1804 article 1.png|700px|vignette|centré|Code Civil de 1804 - Article 1er]]
-Le Code civil français a eu un impact considérable et durable, non seulement en France mais aussi dans de nombreuses autres régions d'Europe, particulièrement celles qui étaient sous l'influence ou la domination française au début du 19ème siècle. Même si le titre initial évoquant l'idée d'un droit universel et immuable ne fut pas retenu dans la version définitive du Code civil, l'influence de ses principes et de sa structure sur le droit européen a été profonde. Sous l'ère napoléonienne, la France a étendu son influence bien au-delà de ses frontières traditionnelles, amenant avec elle le Code civil dans les territoires occupés ou annexés. Par exemple, lorsque Genève est devenue la préfecture du département du Léman, elle était sous l'administration française, et par conséquent, le Code civil français s'appliquait aussi aux Genevois. Cette adoption du Code civil en dehors de la France métropolitaine illustre la propagation des idées juridiques françaises à travers l'Europe. Quant au Jura, qui avait été annexé par la France, il a conservé le Code civil même après avoir été rattaché au canton de Berne en Suisse. Ce fait témoigne de l'adhésion durable à certains principes et structures juridiques introduits par le Code, même après la fin de la domination française. L'adoption et la persistance du Code civil dans ces régions démontrent son influence significative en tant qu'outil de modernisation et d'unification juridique. Le Code Napoléon a servi de modèle pour la réforme du droit civil dans de nombreux pays européens et a eu un impact durable sur la conception et la pratique du droit dans le monde occidental.
+The French Civil Code had a considerable and lasting impact, not only in France but also in many other parts of Europe, particularly those under French influence or domination in the early 19th century. Although the original title, which evoked the idea of universal and immutable law, was not retained in the final version of the Civil Code, the influence of its principles and structure on European law was profound. During the Napoleonic era, France extended its influence far beyond its traditional borders, bringing the Civil Code with it to occupied or annexed territories. For example, when Geneva became the prefecture of the Department of Lake Geneva, it was under French administration, so the French Civil Code also applied to the people of Geneva. This adoption of the Civil Code outside metropolitan France illustrates the spread of French legal ideas across Europe. As for Jura, which had been annexed by France, it retained the Civil Code even after becoming part of the Swiss canton of Berne. This fact testifies to the enduring adherence to certain legal principles and structures introduced by the Code, even after the end of French rule. The adoption and persistence of the Civil Code in these regions demonstrates its significant influence as a tool for legal modernisation and unification. The Napoleonic Code served as a model for civil law reform in many European countries and had a lasting impact on the conception and practice of law in the Western world.
-Pour les positivistes, le droit est strictement défini par les lois et règlements qui ont été officiellement établis et adoptés par les autorités compétentes. Selon cette vision, seules les normes et les règles qui font partie du corpus du droit positif ont une force obligatoire et peuvent influencer légitimement les décisions judiciaires. Dans le cadre de la pensée positiviste, les concepts du droit naturel ou des principes moraux n'ont pas, en eux-mêmes, de statut juridique contraignant, à moins qu'ils ne soient explicitement incorporés dans le droit positif. Cela signifie que pour un juge, un avocat, un législateur ou tout autre juriste, l'application du droit se limite aux textes de loi et aux réglementations officielles. Les notions de justice, d'équité, ou de morale qui ne sont pas formalisées dans ces textes n'ont pas de poids juridique dans le processus de prise de décision.
+For positivists, the law is strictly defined by the laws and regulations that have been officially established and adopted by the competent authorities. According to this view, only those norms and rules that form part of the corpus of positive law have binding force and can legitimately influence judicial decisions. In positivist thinking, concepts of natural law or moral principles have no binding legal status in themselves, unless they are explicitly incorporated into positive law. This means that for a judge, lawyer, legislator or any other jurist, the application of the law is limited to legal texts and official regulations. Notions of justice, equity or morality that are not formalised in these texts have no legal weight in the decision-making process.
-Cette approche souligne une séparation claire entre le droit et la morale, considérant que le rôle du système juridique n'est pas d'interpréter ou d'appliquer des principes moraux abstraits, mais plutôt d'appliquer le droit tel qu'il est écrit. Pour les positivistes, l'autorité du droit provient de son adoption formelle par les institutions reconnues, et non de sa conformité à des principes moraux ou naturels extérieurs. Cette perspective a des implications significatives pour la pratique du droit. Elle limite le rôle du juge à l'interprétation et à l'application des lois existantes, sans recours à des considérations extérieures au droit positif. Bien que cette approche ait ses critiques, notamment ceux qui soutiennent que le droit devrait être informé par des considérations morales ou éthiques, elle reste une pierre angulaire de la pensée juridique dans de nombreux systèmes légaux à travers le monde.
+This approach emphasises a clear separation between law and morality, considering that the role of the legal system is not to interpret or apply abstract moral principles, but rather to apply the law as written. For positivists, the authority of the law derives from its formal adoption by recognised institutions, not from its conformity with external moral or natural principles. This perspective has significant implications for the practice of law. It limits the role of the judge to the interpretation and application of existing laws, without recourse to considerations external to positive law. Although this approach has its critics, notably those who argue that the law should be informed by moral or ethical considerations, it remains a cornerstone of legal thinking in many legal systems around the world.
-Il faut souligner un développement important dans l'évolution du droit au cours des dernières décennies : l'incorporation de principes autrefois considérés comme relevant du droit naturel, tels que la liberté et l'égalité, dans le droit positif à travers les constitutions et les législations. Ce phénomène reflète une tendance mondiale où des valeurs et des principes universels deviennent codifiés et reconnus officiellement dans les systèmes juridiques nationaux. Il y a 150 ans, des concepts tels que la liberté et l'égalité étaient souvent vus comme des idéaux moraux ou philosophiques plutôt que comme des droits légalement protégés. Cependant, au fil du temps, la reconnaissance croissante de l'importance de ces principes pour une société juste et équitable a conduit à leur intégration progressive dans le cadre du droit positif. Cela s'est souvent produit par le biais d'amendements constitutionnels ou de nouvelles législations.
+An important development in the evolution of the law in recent decades is the incorporation of principles once considered to be natural law, such as liberty and equality, into positive law through constitutions and legislation. This phenomenon reflects a worldwide trend whereby universal values and principles are becoming codified and officially recognised in national legal systems. 150 years ago, concepts such as freedom and equality were often seen as moral or philosophical ideals rather than legally protected rights. However, over time, the growing recognition of the importance of these principles for a just and equitable society has led to their gradual incorporation into the framework of positive law. This has often happened through constitutional amendments or new legislation.
-L'inclusion de ces principes dans les constitutions modernes signifie qu'ils ont acquis une force juridique contraignante. Par exemple, la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme de 1948 a été un jalon important dans cette évolution, établissant des normes internationales en matière de droits humains qui ont ensuite été adoptées dans de nombreuses législations nationales. Aujourd'hui, des principes tels que la non-discrimination, le droit à la liberté d'expression et le droit à un procès équitable sont considérés comme des composantes fondamentales de nombreux systèmes juridiques. Cette évolution illustre comment les sociétés et leurs systèmes juridiques s'adaptent et changent en réponse aux valeurs et aux exigences morales en évolution. Elle marque également la diminution de la séparation traditionnelle entre le droit naturel et le droit positif, avec une reconnaissance croissante que les principes moraux et éthiques peuvent et doivent jouer un rôle dans la formation du droit officiel.
+The inclusion of these principles in modern constitutions means that they have acquired binding legal force. For example, the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights was an important milestone in this development, setting international human rights standards that were subsequently adopted in many national laws. Today, principles such as non-discrimination, the right to freedom of expression and the right to a fair trial are considered fundamental components of many legal systems. This development illustrates how societies and their legal systems adapt and change in response to evolving values and moral requirements. It also marks the diminishing of the traditional separation between natural law and positive law, with a growing recognition that moral and ethical principles can and should play a role in the formation of formal law.
-Il est important de comprendre et de différencier le droit positif du droit naturel, deux concepts fondamentaux en théorie juridique. Le droit positif fait référence aux lois et règlements qui sont officiellement établis et adoptés par les autorités législatives et gouvernementales. Ce sont des normes concrètement formulées, inscrites dans des textes de loi, et appliquées par le système judiciaire. Le droit positif est spécifique à chaque société et peut évoluer avec le temps, reflétant les changements dans les valeurs, les besoins et les circonstances de la société. En revanche, le droit naturel se base sur des principes considérés comme universels et immuables, souvent liés à la morale, à l'éthique ou à des notions de justice idéale. Le droit naturel n'est pas écrit dans des textes législatifs spécifiques, mais est plutôt perçu comme inhérent à la nature humaine ou dérivé de la raison humaine. Les partisans du droit naturel soutiennent que certaines vérités ou principes moraux devraient guider la création et l'application des lois. Il est crucial de comprendre l'interaction entre ces deux types de droit. Historiquement, le droit naturel a souvent servi de fondement pour critiquer ou réformer le droit positif, en particulier lorsque les lois en vigueur sont perçues comme injustes ou dépassées. De même, le droit positif, en s'inspirant des principes du droit naturel, peut évoluer pour mieux refléter les idéaux de justice et d'égalité. Dans la pratique juridique moderne, il existe souvent un dialogue entre le droit naturel et le droit positif, les principes universels influençant l'élaboration et l'interprétation des lois. La compréhension de cette dynamique est essentielle pour ceux qui étudient le droit, travaillent dans le domaine juridique, ou s'intéressent à la façon dont les lois affectent et sont affectées par les notions de justice et d'éthique.
+It is important to understand and differentiate between positive law and natural law, two fundamental concepts in legal theory. Positive law refers to laws and regulations that are officially established and adopted by legislative and governmental authorities. These are norms that are formulated in concrete terms, enshrined in legal texts and applied by the judicial system. Positive law is specific to each society and may evolve over time, reflecting changes in society's values, needs and circumstances. Natural law, on the other hand, is based on principles that are considered universal and immutable, often linked to morality, ethics or notions of ideal justice. Natural law is not written down in specific legislative texts, but is rather seen as inherent in human nature or derived from human reason. Proponents of natural law argue that certain moral truths or principles should guide the creation and application of laws. It is crucial to understand the interaction between these two types of law. Historically, natural law has often been used as a basis for criticising or reforming positive law, particularly when existing laws are perceived to be unjust or outdated. Similarly, positive law, by drawing on the principles of natural law, can evolve to better reflect the ideals of justice and equality. In modern legal practice, there is often a dialogue between natural law and positive law, with universal principles influencing the drafting and interpretation of laws. Understanding this dynamic is essential for those who study law, work in the legal field, or are interested in how laws affect and are affected by notions of justice and ethics.
-= La règle de droit =
+= The rule of law =
-La règle de droit, ou règle juridique, est un élément fondamental du système juridique, agissant comme une norme qui oriente et réglemente la conduite des individus dans leurs interactions sociales. Ces règles se caractérisent par leur généralité, leur abstraction et leur caractère obligatoire, et sont soutenues par la puissance de sanction de l'État. En tant que normes générales, elles s'appliquent à une vaste gamme de situations et ne se limitent pas à des cas spécifiques ou à des individus particuliers. Leur abstraction signifie qu'elles traitent de situations générales ou de comportements types, plutôt que de détails spécifiques. L'aspect obligatoire de la règle de droit est un de ses attributs les plus importants. La violation de ces règles peut entraîner des sanctions, qui sont mises en œuvre par les autorités publiques telles que les cours de justice et les forces de l'ordre. Cela signifie que les règles de droit ne sont pas de simples recommandations, mais des directives qui doivent être respectées sous peine de conséquences légales.
+The rule of law, or legal rule, is a fundamental element of the legal system, acting as a norm that guides and regulates the conduct of individuals in their social interactions. These rules are characterised by their generality, abstraction and binding nature, and are supported by the sanctioning power of the state. As general norms, they apply to a wide range of situations and are not limited to specific cases or particular individuals. Their abstraction means that they deal with general situations or patterns of behaviour, rather than specific details. The mandatory aspect of the rule of law is one of its most important attributes. Breach of these rules can result in sanctions, which are enforced by public authorities such as courts and law enforcement agencies. This means that the rules of law are not mere recommendations, but directives that must be complied with on pain of legal consequences.
-En ce qui concerne la loi, elle est un ensemble de règles de droit, souvent formulées et adoptées par un corps législatif, comme un parlement. La loi est une expression formelle de ces règles et sert de guide détaillé pour le comportement acceptable dans la société. Elle couvre une variété de domaines, allant du droit civil, qui régit les relations entre les individus, au droit pénal, qui traite des crimes et des peines. Les lois établissent des normes claires et précises que les individus et les organisations doivent suivre, et elles jouent un rôle crucial dans le maintien de l'ordre et la justice dans la société.
+As far as the law is concerned, it is a set of rules of law, often formulated and adopted by a legislative body, such as a parliament. The law is a formal expression of these rules and serves as a detailed guide to acceptable behaviour in society. It covers a variety of areas, from civil law, which governs relationships between individuals, to criminal law, which deals with crimes and penalties. Laws establish clear and precise standards that individuals and organisations must follow, and they play a crucial role in maintaining order and justice in society.
-L'importance de la règle de droit et de la loi réside dans leur capacité à structurer et à stabiliser les interactions sociales, économiques et politiques. Elles assurent une certaine prévisibilité et équité dans la société, permettant aux individus de comprendre les conséquences de leurs actions et de planifier en conséquence. De plus, elles servent à protéger les droits et les libertés des individus, en établissant des limites à ce qui est permis et en offrant des mécanismes pour résoudre les conflits. En définitive, les règles de droit et les lois sont indispensables pour une société organisée et fonctionnelle, où la justice et l'ordre sont maintenus.
+The importance of the rule of law and the law lies in their ability to structure and stabilise social, economic and political interactions. They ensure a degree of predictability and fairness in society, enabling individuals to understand the consequences of their actions and to plan accordingly. They also serve to protect the rights and freedoms of individuals, by setting limits on what is permissible and providing mechanisms for resolving conflicts. Ultimately, rules of law and legislation are essential for an organised and functional society, where justice and order are maintained.
-== La distinction entre le droit public et le droit privé ==
+== The distinction between public and private law ==
-=== Le caractère obligatoire, général et abstrait ===
+=== Mandatory, general and abstract ===
-Le caractère obligatoire des règles de droit est en effet un élément fondamental qui apparaît de manière évidente dans tout système juridique. Cette caractéristique signifie que les règles de droit ne sont pas de simples suggestions ou conseils, mais des normes impératives auxquelles les individus et les organisations sont légalement tenus de se conformer. Le non-respect de ces règles entraîne des conséquences juridiques, telles que des sanctions, des pénalités ou d'autres formes de réparation légale. Ce caractère obligatoire est assuré par la puissance publique, notamment les institutions judiciaires et les forces de l'ordre. Les tribunaux jouent un rôle crucial dans l'interprétation des lois et dans la détermination des sanctions en cas de violation. Les forces de l'ordre, quant à elles, sont chargées de faire respecter les lois et de maintenir l'ordre public. L'obligation juridique est un principe qui distingue le droit des autres systèmes de normes, comme les règles morales ou les conventions sociales. Alors que ces dernières peuvent influencer le comportement, elles n'ont pas la même force contraignante que les lois. Par exemple, une règle morale peut dicter un comportement éthique, mais sa violation n'entraîne généralement pas de sanctions légales. En revanche, la violation d'une loi entraîne des conséquences juridiquement définies et appliquées par l'État. Cette obligation est essentielle pour assurer l'ordre et la stabilité dans la société. Elle garantit que les individus et les institutions se conforment à un ensemble de règles convenues, facilitant ainsi la coopération, la prévisibilité et l'équité dans les relations sociales. En somme, le caractère obligatoire des règles de droit est un pilier qui soutient la structure et le fonctionnement de toute société organisée et juste.
+The mandatory nature of legal rules is a fundamental element that is evident in any legal system. This characteristic means that the rules of law are not mere suggestions or advice, but imperative standards with which individuals and organisations are legally bound to comply. Failure to comply with these rules entails legal consequences, such as sanctions, penalties or other forms of legal redress. This binding nature is ensured by public authorities, in particular the judiciary and law enforcement agencies. The courts play a crucial role in interpreting laws and determining penalties for violations. The police are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining public order. Legal obligation is a principle that distinguishes the law from other systems of norms, such as moral rules or social conventions. While the latter can influence behaviour, they do not have the same binding force as laws. For example, a moral rule may dictate ethical behaviour, but its violation does not generally result in legal sanctions. On the other hand, the violation of a law entails consequences that are legally defined and applied by the State. This obligation is essential to ensure order and stability in society. It ensures that individuals and institutions abide by an agreed set of rules, thereby facilitating cooperation, predictability and fairness in social relations. In short, the binding nature of legal rules is a pillar that underpins the structure and functioning of any organised and just society.
-Le caractère général des règles de droit est une autre caractéristique essentielle qui contribue à leur efficacité et à leur justesse. Cette généralité signifie que les règles de droit s'appliquent à un nombre indéterminé de personnes et à une multitude de situations, sans distinction spécifique ou personnelle. Contrairement aux décisions qui s'adressent à des individus ou à des groupes spécifiques, les règles de droit sont formulées de manière à couvrir des catégories générales de comportements ou de situations. Par exemple, une loi qui interdit le vol s'applique à tous les membres de la société, sans égard à leur statut personnel, leur profession, ou toute autre caractéristique individuelle. Cette universalité garantit que les règles de droit sont impartiales et équitables, s'appliquant de la même manière à tous ceux qui se trouvent dans des circonstances similaires. Cette généralité est fondamentale pour assurer l'égalité devant la loi, un principe de base dans de nombreux systèmes juridiques. Elle permet aux lois de servir d'instruments de justice et d'ordre public, en établissant des normes claires et uniformes pour la conduite des individus et des institutions. En outre, elle contribue à la prévisibilité et à la stabilité du système juridique, car les individus peuvent comprendre et anticiper les conséquences légales de leurs actions. Le caractère général des règles de droit est un élément clé qui assure l'impartialité et l'efficacité du système juridique, permettant ainsi de maintenir l'ordre et la justice dans une société.
+The general nature of legal rules is another essential feature that contributes to their effectiveness and fairness. This generality means that legal rules apply to an indefinite number of people and a multitude of situations, without any specific or personal distinction. Unlike decisions that are addressed to specific individuals or groups, legal rules are formulated to cover general categories of behaviour or situations. For example, a law prohibiting theft applies to all members of society, regardless of their personal status, profession or any other individual characteristic. This universality ensures that the rules of law are impartial and fair, applying in the same way to all those in similar circumstances. This generality is fundamental to ensuring equality before the law, a basic principle in many legal systems. It enables laws to serve as instruments of justice and public order, establishing clear and uniform standards for the conduct of individuals and institutions. It also contributes to the predictability and stability of the legal system, because individuals can understand and anticipate the legal consequences of their actions. The general nature of legal rules is a key element in ensuring the impartiality and effectiveness of the legal system, thereby helping to maintain order and justice in a society.
-Le caractère abstrait des règles de droit est une caractéristique essentielle qui leur permet de couvrir un large éventail de situations. Cette abstraction signifie que les règles de droit ne sont pas formulées pour des circonstances ou des cas spécifiques, mais sont plutôt conçues pour s'appliquer à un nombre indéterminé de situations qui pourraient se présenter. Cette qualité abstraite est cruciale car elle confère aux règles de droit la flexibilité nécessaire pour être applicables dans une variété de contextes différents, sans avoir besoin d'être constamment modifiées ou adaptées. Par exemple, une loi qui interdit de causer un préjudice à autrui de manière intentionnelle est suffisamment abstraite pour couvrir de nombreux types de comportements nuisibles, sans avoir à énumérer chaque acte spécifique qui pourrait constituer un préjudice. L'abstraction permet également aux tribunaux d'interpréter et d'appliquer la loi de manière cohérente dans une multitude de situations différentes. Cela aide à assurer que des cas similaires sont traités de manière similaire, contribuant ainsi à l'équité et à la prévisibilité du système juridique. De plus, cela permet au droit de s'adapter aux évolutions et aux changements de la société sans nécessiter une réécriture constante des lois. Le caractère abstrait des règles de droit est fondamental pour leur efficacité et leur pertinence à long terme. Il permet au système juridique d'englober une vaste gamme de comportements et de situations, tout en maintenant l'équité et la justice dans son application.
+The abstract nature of legal rules is an essential feature that enables them to cover a wide range of situations. This abstraction means that legal rules are not formulated for specific circumstances or cases, but rather are designed to apply to any number of situations that might arise. This abstract quality is crucial because it gives rules of law the flexibility to be applicable in a variety of different contexts, without needing to be constantly modified or adapted. For example, a law that prohibits intentionally causing harm to others is sufficiently abstract to cover many types of harmful behaviour, without having to list every specific act that might constitute harm. Abstraction also allows the courts to interpret and apply the law consistently in a multitude of different situations. This helps to ensure that similar cases are treated in similar ways, contributing to the fairness and predictability of the legal system. In addition, it allows the law to adapt to developments and changes in society without the need to constantly rewrite laws. The abstract nature of legal rules is fundamental to their effectiveness and long-term relevance. It allows the legal system to encompass a wide range of behaviours and situations, while maintaining fairness and justice in its application.
-=== Le caractère coercitif : implique une contrainte ===
+=== Coercive nature: implies constraint ===
-Un aspect fondamental des règles de droit est la présence d'une sanction garantie par l'autorité publique. Cette caractéristique distingue les règles de droit des autres types de normes sociales, comme les règles morales ou les conventions. La sanction dans le contexte juridique se réfère à une conséquence légale ou une pénalité imposée en réponse à la violation d'une règle de droit. Ces sanctions peuvent prendre diverses formes, telles que des amendes, des peines de prison, des ordonnances de réparation, ou d'autres mesures disciplinaires. Le rôle de la sanction est non seulement de punir les infractions, mais aussi de dissuader de futurs comportements illégaux et de maintenir l'ordre social. L'autorité publique, ou le pouvoir public, joue un rôle crucial dans l'assurance et l'application de ces sanctions. Les organes de l'État, tels que les tribunaux, la police et les différentes agences administratives, fonctionnent comme les instruments par lesquels les règles de droit sont appliquées et les sanctions imposées. Ces organes assurent le respect des lois, traitent les infractions et mettent en œuvre les décisions judiciaires. Les tribunaux, en particulier, jouent un rôle central dans ce processus. Ils interprètent les lois, jugent les cas d'infractions et déterminent les sanctions appropriées. Les forces de l'ordre, quant à elles, sont responsables de l'application des lois et de la maintenance de l'ordre public, y compris l'arrestation et la détention des contrevenants. La garantie d'une sanction par l'autorité publique est un élément clé qui confère aux règles de droit leur force et leur efficacité. Cela permet de s'assurer que le système juridique est respecté et suivi, et que les infractions sont traitées de manière adéquate, contribuant ainsi à la stabilité et à la justice au sein de la société.
+A fundamental aspect of legal rules is the presence of a sanction guaranteed by public authority. This feature distinguishes legal rules from other types of social norms, such as moral rules or conventions. Sanction in the legal context refers to a legal consequence or penalty imposed in response to the violation of a rule of law. Sanctions can take various forms, such as fines, prison sentences, reparation orders or other disciplinary measures. The role of sanctions is not only to punish offences, but also to deter future illegal behaviour and maintain social order. The public authority, or public power, plays a crucial role in ensuring and applying these sanctions. State bodies, such as the courts, the police and the various administrative agencies, function as the instruments by which the rules of law are applied and sanctions imposed. These bodies ensure compliance with the law, deal with offences and implement judicial decisions. The courts, in particular, play a central role in this process. They interpret the law, adjudicate on offences and determine the appropriate penalties. The police, for their part, are responsible for enforcing the law and maintaining public order, including the arrest and detention of offenders. The guarantee of a sanction by the public authority is a key element that gives the rules of law their strength and effectiveness. It ensures that the legal system is respected and followed, and that offences are dealt with appropriately, thereby contributing to stability and justice within society.
-Dans la plupart des systèmes juridiques modernes, y compris en Suisse, les règles de droit sont distinctes des règles religieuses. Les systèmes juridiques contemporains sont généralement fondés sur des principes de droit positif, qui sont établis et appliqués indépendamment des doctrines ou des prescriptions religieuses. Cependant, il est vrai que certaines règles ou principes issus de traditions religieuses ont influencé ou se sont retrouvés intégrés dans le droit positif de nombreux pays, y compris la Suisse. Par exemple, le commandement "Tu ne tueras point", issu de nombreux textes religieux, est reflété dans les lois pénales qui interdisent le meurtre. Cette incorporation n'est pas tant une question d'autorité religieuse sur le droit, mais plutôt une coïncidence où certaines normes morales universellement reconnues, présentes dans de nombreuses traditions religieuses, coïncident avec les principes de justice et d'ordre public considérés comme essentiels dans le droit séculier.
+In most modern legal systems, including Switzerland, legal rules are distinct from religious rules. Contemporary legal systems are generally based on principles of positive law, which are established and applied independently of religious doctrines or prescriptions. However, it is true that certain rules or principles stemming from religious traditions have influenced or found their way into the positive law of many countries, including Switzerland. For example, the commandment "Thou shalt not kill", derived from many religious texts, is reflected in criminal laws that prohibit murder. This incorporation is not so much a question of religious authority over the law, but rather a coincidence whereby certain universally recognised moral standards, present in many religious traditions, coincide with the principles of justice and public order considered essential in secular law.
-Il est important de noter que lorsque de telles règles sont intégrées dans le droit positif, elles le sont non pas en tant que doctrines religieuses, mais en tant que normes juridiques autonomes justifiées par des considérations laïques d'ordre public, de sécurité et de bien-être social. Leur validité et leur application ne dépendent pas de leur origine religieuse, mais de leur incorporation formelle dans le cadre législatif et de leur conformité avec les principes généraux du droit. Bien que les systèmes juridiques modernes et le droit positif fonctionnent indépendamment des règles religieuses, il existe des cas où certaines normes morales communes à plusieurs traditions religieuses sont intégrées dans le droit positif. Cependant, ces normes sont appliquées en tant que lois séculières, reflétant des valeurs universelles plutôt que des prescriptions religieuses spécifiques.[[Fichier:Code pénal suisse - article 111.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/ Code pénal suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/index.html#a111 article 111]]]L'article 111 du Code pénal suisse illustre parfaitement comment une norme éthique, souvent présente dans diverses traditions religieuses et morales, est intégrée dans le droit positif sous forme d'une loi séculière. L'article 111 du Code pénal suisse stipule clairement les conséquences légales du meurtre, définissant ainsi une interdiction juridique claire de tuer intentionnellement une autre personne. Cette disposition légale reflète un principe largement reconnu dans de nombreuses cultures et sociétés, à savoir que le meurtre est une transgression grave contre l'individu et la société. Cependant, dans le contexte du droit positif, cette interdiction est formulée et appliquée indépendamment de toute considération religieuse.
+It is important to note that when such rules are incorporated into positive law, they do so not as religious doctrines, but as autonomous legal norms justified by secular considerations of public order, security and social welfare. Their validity and application do not depend on their religious origin, but on their formal incorporation into the legislative framework and their conformity with the general principles of law. Although modern legal systems and positive law operate independently of religious rules, there are cases where certain moral standards common to several religious traditions are incorporated into positive law. However, these norms are applied as secular laws, reflecting universal values rather than specific religious prescriptions.[[Fichier:Code pénal suisse - article 111.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/ Code pénal suisse] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19370083/index.html#a111 article 111]]]Article 111 of the Swiss Penal Code is a perfect example of how an ethical norm, often found in various religious and moral traditions, is incorporated into positive law in the form of secular law. Article 111 of the Swiss Penal Code clearly stipulates the legal consequences of murder, thus defining a clear legal prohibition on intentionally killing another person. This legal provision reflects a principle widely recognised in many cultures and societies, namely that murder is a serious transgression against the individual and society. However, in the context of positive law, this prohibition is formulated and applied independently of any religious considerations.
-Le Code pénal suisse, comme d'autres systèmes juridiques, base ses lois sur des principes de justice, d'ordre public et de protection des droits individuels. En établissant des peines pour des infractions telles que le meurtre, il cherche à prévenir les actes criminels, à protéger les citoyens et à maintenir l'ordre social. L'accent est mis sur la protection de la vie humaine et la dissuasion de comportements dangereux pour la société. Cet exemple montre comment le droit positif peut incorporer des principes qui sont également valorisés dans les traditions religieuses et morales, mais le fait dans le cadre d'un système juridique laïc, avec des justifications et des applications centrées sur les besoins et les valeurs de la société civile.
+The Swiss Penal Code, like other legal systems, bases its laws on principles of justice, public order and the protection of individual rights. By establishing penalties for offences such as murder, it seeks to prevent criminal acts, protect citizens and maintain social order. The emphasis is on protecting human life and deterring behaviour that is dangerous to society. This example shows how positive law can incorporate principles that are also valued in religious and moral traditions, but does so within the framework of a secular legal system, with justifications and applications centred on the needs and values of civil society.
-== Les éléments de la règle de droit ==
+== The elements of a rule of law ==
-Les institutions juridiques sont des éléments fondamentaux dans l'aménagement des rapports sociaux dans toute société. Elles sont constituées d'ensembles cohérents de règles de droit qui ont pour but de structurer des aspects spécifiques des interactions humaines. Ces institutions offrent un cadre légal qui définit clairement les droits, les obligations, et les procédures relatives à ces interactions, reflétant ainsi les valeurs et les besoins sociaux.
+Legal institutions are fundamental elements in the organisation of social relations in any society. They are made up of coherent sets of legal rules designed to structure specific aspects of human interaction. These institutions provide a legal framework that clearly defines the rights, obligations and procedures relating to these interactions, reflecting social values and needs.
-Prenons l'exemple du mariage, qui est une institution juridique centrale dans de nombreuses sociétés. Le mariage, en tant qu'institution, est encadré par des lois qui déterminent comment deux personnes peuvent légalement s'unir et quelles sont les conséquences juridiques de cette union. Ces lois couvrent des aspects tels que les conditions de validité du mariage, les responsabilités mutuelles des conjoints, la gestion des biens communs, et les procédures en cas de séparation ou de divorce. Cette réglementation vise à garantir un équilibre entre les droits individuels et les intérêts collectifs, tout en protégeant les parties impliquées, en particulier dans des situations de rupture ou de conflit.
+Take the example of marriage, which is a central legal institution in many societies. As an institution, marriage is governed by laws that determine how two people can legally come together and what the legal consequences of this union are. These laws cover aspects such as the conditions under which a marriage is valid, the mutual responsibilities of the spouses, the management of joint property, and procedures in the event of separation or divorce. These regulations aim to ensure a balance between individual rights and collective interests, while protecting the parties involved, particularly in situations of breakdown or conflict.
-De même, l'adoption est une institution juridique qui permet de créer des liens de parenté légaux entre des individus non liés biologiquement. Les règles encadrant l'adoption sont conçues pour assurer le bien-être et la protection des enfants adoptés. Elles définissent les critères d'admissibilité des adoptants, les procédures à suivre pour l'adoption, et les effets légaux de l'adoption sur les relations familiales. L'objectif est de fournir un environnement familial stable et aimant pour l'enfant, tout en respectant ses droits et ceux de ses parents biologiques et adoptifs.
+Similarly, adoption is a legal institution that makes it possible to create legal ties of kinship between individuals who are not biologically related. The rules governing adoption are designed to ensure the welfare and protection of adopted children. They define the eligibility criteria for adopters, the procedures to be followed for adoption, and the legal effects of adoption on family relationships. The aim is to provide a stable and loving family environment for the child, while respecting his or her rights and those of his or her biological and adoptive parents.
-Ces institutions, telles que le mariage et l'adoption, illustrent la manière dont le droit peut influencer et façonner les structures sociales fondamentales. En fournissant un cadre juridique détaillé et structuré, elles contribuent à la stabilité sociale et au respect des droits et des devoirs des individus au sein de la société. Leur évolution au fil du temps reflète également les changements dans les attitudes sociales et les normes, montrant comment le droit s'adapte pour répondre aux besoins changeants de la société.
+These institutions, such as marriage and adoption, illustrate how the law can influence and shape fundamental social structures. By providing a detailed and structured legal framework, they contribute to social stability and respect for the rights and duties of individuals within society. Their evolution over time also reflects changes in social attitudes and norms, showing how the law adapts to meet society's changing needs.
-=== L'état de fait ===
+=== The state of affairs ===
-L'état de fait fait référence aux circonstances ou aux faits concrets qui sont à la base d'une situation juridique ou d'un litige. Il sert de fondement pour l'application de la loi et pour les décisions judiciaires. Dans le cadre de l'application d'une règle de droit, l'état de fait agit comme une proposition conditionnelle qui détermine quand et comment la règle doit être appliquée. Cela signifie que la règle de droit ne s'applique que si certaines conditions factuelles, décrites dans l'état de fait, sont remplies. Par exemple, dans une affaire de vol, l'état de fait détaillera les circonstances du vol, comme le lieu, le moment et la manière dont l'acte a été commis. Ces détails sont essentiels pour déterminer si les faits correspondent aux critères légaux définissant le vol et pour décider de l'application appropriée de la loi.
+The state of affairs refers to the concrete facts or circumstances that form the basis of a legal situation or dispute. It serves as the basis for the application of the law and for judicial decisions. In the application of a rule of law, the state of facts acts as a conditional proposition that determines when and how the rule should be applied. This means that the rule of law only applies if certain factual conditions, described in the state of facts, are met. For example, in a theft case, the statement of fact will detail the circumstances of the theft, such as where, when and how the act was committed. These details are essential to determine whether the facts meet the legal criteria defining theft and to decide on the appropriate application of the law.
-Dans le contexte d'un jugement, l'état de fait d'une affaire comprend un exposé complet et chronologique des faits pertinents. Il inclut l'identification des parties impliquées, la description des événements qui ont conduit au litige, les étapes clés de la procédure judiciaire, et les revendications ou conclusions de chaque partie. Cette exposition factuelle est cruciale car elle fournit le cadre dans lequel le juge ou le tribunal évaluera l'affaire, interprétera la loi applicable, et prendra une décision. La précision et l'exhaustivité de l'état de fait sont donc essentielles pour garantir une décision juste et éclairée. L'état de fait joue un rôle fondamental à la fois dans l'application des règles de droit et dans le processus de jugement. Il assure que les décisions juridiques sont prises sur la base d'une compréhension claire et détaillée des faits spécifiques de chaque cas, garantissant ainsi l'adéquation et la justesse de l'application de la loi.
+In the context of a judgment, the statement of facts of a case comprises a complete and chronological statement of the relevant facts. It includes the identification of the parties involved, a description of the events leading up to the dispute, the key stages of the legal proceedings, and the claims or conclusions of each party. This factual exposition is crucial as it provides the framework within which the judge or court will assess the case, interpret the applicable law, and reach a decision. The accuracy and completeness of the statement of facts is therefore essential to ensure a fair and informed decision. The state of facts plays a fundamental role both in the application of the rules of law and in the judging process. It ensures that legal decisions are taken on the basis of a clear and detailed understanding of the specific facts of each case, thus guaranteeing the adequacy and fairness of the application of the law.
-L'exemple de « celui qui aura intentionnellement tué », illustre bien comment un état de fait spécifique peut déterminer l'application d'une règle de droit. Dans ce cas, l'état de fait concerne l'acte intentionnel de tuer une autre personne. Dans le contexte juridique, cette phrase indiquerait les conditions factuelles nécessaires pour l'application d'une loi pénale relative au meurtre. Pour qu'un individu soit jugé en vertu de cette loi, il doit être établi que l'acte de tuer a été accompli intentionnellement. Autrement dit, l'intention (ou la "mens rea" en termes juridiques) est un élément crucial de l'état de fait qui doit être prouvé pour qu'une condamnation pour meurtre puisse avoir lieu.
+The example of "he who intentionally kills" is a good illustration of how a specific state of affairs can determine the application of a rule of law. In this case, the state of affairs concerns the intentional act of killing another person. In the legal context, this sentence would indicate the factual conditions necessary for the application of a criminal law relating to murder. For an individual to be tried under this law, it must be established that the act of killing was carried out intentionally. In other words, intent (or 'mens rea' in legal terms) is a crucial element of the state of facts that must be proved for a murder conviction to proceed.
-Dans un procès pour meurtre, par exemple, le tribunal examinera les preuves et les circonstances entourant le cas pour déterminer si l'accusé a agi avec l'intention de tuer. Cela inclut l'examen des actions de l'accusé, de son état d'esprit au moment des faits, et de tout autre facteur pertinent qui pourrait éclairer ses intentions. Si l'intention de tuer est prouvée, alors l'état de fait correspond à la règle de droit applicable au meurtre, et le tribunal peut procéder à l'application de la sanction appropriée. Cet exemple illustre comment l'état de fait sert de base pour l'application des règles juridiques, soulignant l'importance de l'analyse factuelle détaillée dans le processus de prise de décision judiciaire.
+In a murder trial, for example, the court will examine the evidence and circumstances surrounding the case to determine whether the accused acted with intent to kill. This includes examining the accused's actions, his state of mind at the time, and any other relevant factors that may shed light on his intentions. If the intention to kill is proven, then the state of affairs corresponds to the rule of law applicable to murder, and the court can proceed to apply the appropriate sanction. This example illustrates how the state of facts serves as the basis for the application of legal rules, underlining the importance of detailed factual analysis in the judicial decision-making process.
-=== Le dispositif ===
+=== The operative part ===
-Le dispositif est une composante essentielle d'un jugement ou d'une décision de justice, formulant la conclusion juridique de l'affaire. Il stipule clairement l'effet juridique de la décision du tribunal, indiquant les actions spécifiques que les parties doivent entreprendre ou éviter suite au jugement. Cette partie du jugement est cruciale car elle détermine les implications pratiques et les conséquences juridiques pour les parties impliquées. Dans un dispositif, le tribunal peut prononcer différentes formes d'effets juridiques. Il peut émettre une interdiction, empêchant une partie de réaliser certaines actions. Par exemple, dans un cas de violation de droits d'auteur, le dispositif peut interdire à l'accusé de continuer à utiliser le contenu protégé. En outre, le dispositif peut imposer une obligation de faire, requérant qu'une partie accomplisse une action spécifique. Cela est fréquent dans les litiges contractuels où le tribunal ordonne à une partie de s'acquitter de ses obligations contractuelles. Alternativement, le dispositif peut imposer une obligation de ne pas faire certaines choses, comme arrêter une activité génératrice de nuisances pour les autres. Le rôle du dispositif ne se limite pas à la simple énonciation de ces obligations ou interdictions. Il a une autorité juridique contraignante, signifiant que les parties sont légalement obligées de respecter ses termes. En cas de non-conformité, des sanctions peuvent être appliquées ou des mesures d'exécution peuvent être prises pour assurer le respect de la décision. Ainsi, le dispositif joue un rôle déterminant dans la mise en œuvre effective de la justice, traduisant les conclusions juridiques du tribunal en actions concrètes et exécutoires.
+The operative part is an essential component of a court judgment or decision, setting out the legal conclusion of the case. It clearly states the legal effect of the court's decision, indicating the specific actions that the parties must take or avoid as a result of the judgment. This part of the judgment is crucial because it determines the practical implications and legal consequences for the parties involved. In a dispositif, the court may pronounce different forms of legal effect. It may issue a prohibition, preventing a party from carrying out certain actions. For example, in a case of copyright infringement, the writ may prohibit the defendant from continuing to use the protected content. In addition, the device may impose an obligation to do, requiring a party to perform a specific action. This is common in contractual disputes where the court orders a party to perform its contractual obligations. Alternatively, the device may impose an obligation not to do certain things, such as stopping an activity that causes a nuisance to others. The role of the arrangement is not limited to simply stating these obligations or prohibitions. It has binding legal authority, meaning that the parties are legally obliged to comply with its terms. In the event of non-compliance, sanctions may be applied or enforcement measures taken to ensure compliance. In this way, the mechanism plays a decisive role in the effective implementation of justice, translating the court's legal conclusions into concrete, enforceable actions.
-L'exemple de qui « sera privé d’une peine privative de 5 ans au moins », illustre un type de dispositif que l'on pourrait trouver dans une décision de justice, spécifiant la sanction imposée à une personne reconnue coupable d'une infraction. Toutefois, il semble y avoir une petite erreur dans la formulation. Habituellement, dans le contexte juridique, un dispositif énoncerait plutôt que la personne est "condamnée à une peine privative de liberté de 5 ans au moins". Dans ce cas, le dispositif indique clairement que la sanction pour l'infraction commise est une peine d'emprisonnement d'au moins cinq ans. Cela signifie que, suite au jugement, l'individu reconnu coupable sera requis par la loi de purger une peine de prison pour la durée spécifiée. Ce type de dispositif est typique dans les affaires pénales où le tribunal détermine la peine appropriée en fonction de la gravité de l'infraction et d'autres facteurs pertinents liés à l'affaire. Ce dispositif traduit la décision du tribunal en termes d'action concrète, indiquant la manière dont la loi doit être appliquée dans ce cas particulier. La spécification de la peine reflète l'application de la règle de droit à l'état de fait établi, démontrant comment la justice est rendue dans des cas individuels en fonction des normes et des lois établies.
+The example of who "shall be deprived of a custodial sentence of not less than 5 years", illustrates a type of device that might be found in a court decision, specifying the penalty imposed on a person found guilty of an offence. However, there seems to be a slight error in the wording. Normally, in the legal context, a disposition would state that the person is "sentenced to a custodial sentence of at least 5 years". In this case, the provision clearly indicates that the penalty for the offence committed is a prison sentence of at least five years. This means that, following sentencing, the convicted individual will be required by law to serve a prison sentence for the specified period. This type of device is typical in criminal cases where the court determines the appropriate sentence based on the seriousness of the offence and other relevant factors relating to the case. This device translates the court's decision into concrete action, indicating how the law should be applied in that particular case. The sentencing specification reflects the application of the rule of law to the established state of facts, demonstrating how justice is dispensed in individual cases in accordance with established norms and laws.
-Le dispositif est aussi la partie d'un jugement qui contient la décision proprement dite du tribunal. Il s'agit de la section où le tribunal statue explicitement sur les demandes ou les conclusions des parties impliquées dans l'affaire. Dans le dispositif, le tribunal résume ses décisions concernant les principales questions en litige. Par exemple, dans une affaire civile, cela peut inclure des décisions sur des demandes de dommages-intérêts, l'exécution d'un contrat, ou la responsabilité dans un accident. Dans une affaire pénale, le dispositif contiendra la décision du tribunal quant à la culpabilité ou l'innocence de l'accusé et énoncera les peines ou sanctions, le cas échéant. Cette partie du jugement est cruciale car elle détermine l'issue de l'affaire et les conséquences juridiques pour les parties. Elle doit être claire et précise, car c'est sur la base du dispositif que s'opèrent les actions d'exécution ou d'appel. C'est également cette partie du jugement qui est juridiquement contraignante et qui peut être mise en œuvre par la force de la loi. Le dispositif, en tant que conclusion juridique formelle de l'affaire, représente l'application concrète des règles de droit aux faits établis durant le procès. Il reflète la manière dont le tribunal a interprété la loi et a pris en compte les preuves et les arguments présentés par les parties. En somme, le dispositif est le cœur de la décision de justice, traduisant les délibérations et les raisonnements juridiques du tribunal en une conclusion définitive et exécutoire.
+The dispositif is also the part of a judgment that contains the court's actual decision. This is the section where the court explicitly rules on the claims or submissions of the parties involved in the case. In the operative part, the court summarises its decisions on the main issues in dispute. For example, in a civil case, this may include decisions on claims for damages, the performance of a contract, or liability in an accident. In a criminal case, the operative part will contain the court's decision as to the guilt or innocence of the accused and set out the penalties or sanctions, if any. This part of the judgment is crucial because it determines the outcome of the case and the legal consequences for the parties. It must be clear and precise, because it is on the basis of the operative part that enforcement or appeal actions are taken. It is also this part of the judgment that is legally binding and can be enforced by the force of law. The operative part, as the formal legal conclusion of the case, represents the concrete application of the rules of law to the facts established during the trial. It reflects the way in which the court has interpreted the law and taken into account the evidence and arguments presented by the parties. In short, the operative part is the heart of the judicial decision, translating the court's deliberations and legal reasoning into a final and enforceable conclusion.
-=== Règles dispositives ou supplétives ou déclaratives ===
+=== Dispositive, suppletive or declarative rules ===
-Les règles dispositives (également connues sous les termes de règles supplétives ou déclaratives) capturent un aspect important du droit civil. Ces règles sont celles qui s'appliquent en l'absence de stipulations contraires établies par les parties concernées dans leurs accords ou contrats.
+Dispositive rules (also known as suppletive or declaratory rules) capture an important aspect of civil law. These rules are those that apply in the absence of stipulations to the contrary by the parties concerned in their agreements or contracts.
-Les règles dispositives fonctionnent comme un cadre de référence ou une norme par défaut. Elles entrent en jeu lorsque les parties à un accord n'ont pas exprimé une volonté contraire ou n'ont pas rédigé leurs propres clauses pour régir spécifiquement leur relation ou situation. En d'autres termes, ces règles offrent une solution légale standard qui s'applique automatiquement, sauf si les parties ont convenu d'une arrangement différent. Un exemple classique de règle dispositive est celui des règles régissant la répartition des biens en cas de dissolution d'une société ou d'un mariage sans contrat préétabli. Si les parties n'ont pas élaboré un accord spécifique sur la manière de diviser les biens, les règles dispositives prévues par la loi s'appliqueront.
+Dispositive rules function as a frame of reference or default standard. They come into play when the parties to an agreement have not expressed a contrary will or drafted their own clauses to specifically govern their relationship or situation. In other words, these rules offer a standard legal solution that applies automatically, unless the parties have agreed a different arrangement. A classic example of a dispositive rule is the rules governing the distribution of property in the event of the dissolution of a company or marriage without a pre-established contract. If the parties have not drawn up a specific agreement on how to divide the assets, the dispositive rules laid down by law will apply.
-Ces règles sont essentielles car elles fournissent une sécurité juridique et une prévisibilité dans les situations où les parties n'ont pas formulé d'accords spécifiques. Elles permettent également une certaine flexibilité dans la régulation des affaires privées, donnant aux parties la liberté de déterminer leurs propres arrangements tout en offrant un filet de sécurité juridique en cas d'absence d'accord. Les règles dispositives jouent un rôle de remplissage, comblant les lacunes lorsque les parties n'ont pas exprimé de volonté particulière. Elles permettent ainsi aux transactions et aux relations juridiques de fonctionner de manière fluide, tout en offrant un cadre de base pour les situations non réglementées par des accords privés.
+These rules are essential because they provide legal certainty and predictability in situations where the parties have not drawn up specific agreements. They also allow a degree of flexibility in the regulation of private affairs, giving parties the freedom to determine their own arrangements while providing a legal safety net in the absence of agreement. Dispositive rules act as a filler, filling in gaps where the parties have not expressed any particular will. In this way, they enable transactions and legal relationships to function smoothly, while providing a basic framework for situations not regulated by private agreements.
-=== Règles impératives ===
+=== Peremptory rules ===
-Les règles impératives sont des normes juridiques qui s'appliquent de manière absolue et inconditionnelle à toutes les personnes relevant de leur champ d'application. Elles sont conçues pour être incontestables et non modifiables par les accords ou les volontés individuelles. Contrairement aux règles dispositives, qui permettent aux parties de convenir de leurs propres termes tant qu'ils ne vont pas à l'encontre de ces règles, les règles impératives ne laissent aucune place à de telles négociations ou arrangements privés. Elles sont établies pour protéger des intérêts jugés fondamentaux par la société, tels que l'ordre public, la morale, la sécurité, et les droits fondamentaux.
+Peremptory rules are legal norms that apply absolutely and unconditionally to all persons falling within their scope. They are designed to be incontestable and cannot be modified by individual agreements or wishes. Unlike dispositive rules, which allow parties to agree their own terms as long as they do not run counter to the rules, mandatory rules leave no room for such private negotiations or arrangements. They are established to protect interests deemed fundamental by society, such as public order, morality, safety and fundamental rights.
-Par exemple, dans le domaine du droit du travail, il existe des règles impératives concernant le salaire minimum, les heures de travail maximales, et les conditions de sécurité sur le lieu de travail. Ces règles visent à protéger les travailleurs contre l'exploitation et les conditions de travail dangereuses, et ne peuvent être modifiées par un accord entre l'employeur et l'employé. De même, dans le droit de la famille, certaines règles relatives à la filiation, à l'adoption ou au mariage sont impératives. Elles garantissent le respect des droits fondamentaux et la protection des parties les plus vulnérables, comme les enfants. Les règles impératives sont donc essentielles pour assurer l'équité, la justice et la protection des intérêts vitaux dans la société. Elles représentent les valeurs et les principes fondamentaux sur lesquels repose l'ordre juridique et servent de guide incontournable dans l'application et l'interprétation des lois.
+For example, in the field of labour law, there are mandatory rules concerning minimum wages, maximum working hours and safety conditions in the workplace. These rules are designed to protect workers against exploitation and dangerous working conditions, and cannot be changed by agreement between employer and employee. Similarly, in family law, certain rules relating to filiation, adoption and marriage are mandatory. They guarantee respect for fundamental rights and the protection of the most vulnerable parties, such as children. Imperative rules are therefore essential to ensure fairness, justice and the protection of vital interests in society. They represent the fundamental values and principles on which the legal order is based and serve as an essential guide in the application and interpretation of laws.
 = Annexes =
-*[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k1061517.r=.langFR Code Civil des français de 1804]
+= References =
-*Université de Genève. “Introduction Aux Droits De L'Homme.” Coursera, https://www.coursera.org/learn/droits-de-lhomme.
-= Références =
 <references />
 [[Category:droit]]
 [[Category:Victor Monnier]]

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