世界组织
法律入门：关键概念和定义 ● 国家：职能、结构和政治制度 ● 法律的不同部门 ● 法律渊源 ● 法律的主要形成传统 ● 法律关系的要素 ● 法律的适用 ● 法律的实施 ● 瑞士从起源到20世纪的发展 ● 瑞士的国内法律框架 ● 瑞士的国家结构、政治制度和中立 ● 19世纪末至20世纪中叶国际关系的演变 ● 世界组织 ● 欧洲组织及其与瑞士的关系 ● 基本权利的类别和世代 ● 基本权利的起源 ● 十八世纪末的权利宣言 ● 二十世纪基本权利普遍概念的构建
联合国
联合国组织（UNO）是国际合作历史上的一个重要里程碑，成立于战后不久，旨在防止全球冲突和促进和平。联合国的起源可以追溯到第二次世界大战的黑暗时期，当时世界各国领导人面对国际联盟在维护和平方面的恐怖和失败，感到迫切需要创建一个新的国际组织，建立更强大、更有效的机制来管理冲突和促进国际合作。
1942年1月1日，"联合国 "一词首次使用。这一天，与轴心国作战的 26 个国家的代表签署了《联合国宣言》，标志着他们对轴心国军队和未来基于和平与安全的世界秩序的集体承诺。这一宣言为日后联合国的成立奠定了合作基础。1944 年，美国、英国、苏联和中国的代表齐聚华盛顿特区的邓巴顿橡树园会议。他们讨论了在战后建立一个负责维护世界和平的组织的计划。这些讨论在 1945 年 2 月的雅尔塔会议上得以完成和完善，包括富兰克林-罗斯福、温斯顿-丘吉尔和约瑟夫-斯大林在内的世界领导人在会上为该组织提出了更具体的建议。这些努力的最终结果是旧金山会议，1945 年 6 月 26 日签署了《联合国宪章》。来自 50 个国家的代表参加了这一历史性事件，并签署了一份将塑造战后世界秩序的文件。宪章》经安全理事会五个常任理事国（美国、英国、法国、苏联和中华民国）以及大多数其他签署国批准后，于 1945 年 10 月 24 日生效。
联合国成立之初的目标远大，包括防止战争、促进人权、经济和社会发展以及尊重国际法。联合国的宗旨还包括所有成员国主权平等、和平解决争端和不干涉别国内政。多年来，联合国在许多重大历史事件中发挥了核心作用。它参与了重大冲突的管理和解决，如 20 世纪 50 年代的朝鲜战争、1956 年的苏伊士危机，以及最近在饱受战争蹂躏地区（如 20 世纪 90 年代的卢旺达和 21 世纪的叙利亚）的各种维持和平和人道主义干预努力。此外，联合国还是解决气候变化、妇女和儿童权利以及可持续发展等全球问题的重要论坛。自 1945 年创立以来，联合国不断发展壮大，已成为一个包括世界上绝大多数国家的全球平台。今天，联合国拥有超过 196 个成员，证明了其在全球治理和国际合作中的核心作用。在这些成员中，瑞士因其加入联合国的历史而占有独特的地位。
瑞士以其历史上的中立而闻名于世，自第二次世界大战结束以来，瑞士一直在联合国拥有观察员席位。这一地位使瑞士能够在不是正式成员的情况下参与联合国的讨论和活动。这一中立立场符合瑞士的传统外交政策，即强调不参与国际冲突以及政治和军事联盟。瑞士在成为联合国正式会员国的道路上经历了内部辩论和国际政治气候的变化。1986年，在苏联和西方集团对抗的时期，瑞士就加入联合国问题举行了全民公决，但提案遭到了人民和各州的反对。这一决定反映了瑞士在冷战分裂的世界中保持中立的考虑。
然而，随着冷战的结束和全球政治结构的变化，瑞士的立场开始发生变化。2002年，瑞士举行了新一轮全民公决，瑞士人民和各州投票赞成加入联合国。这次投票标志着瑞士外交政策的转折点，表明瑞士希望在保持中立的历史承诺的同时，更加积极地参与世界事务。瑞士于2002年加入联合国，这不仅对瑞士，而且对联合国来说都是一个重要的时刻，因为它表明联合国正朝着普遍接受和承认其成员外交政策多样性的方向发展。自加入联合国以来，瑞士一直积极参与联合国的各项倡议，在外交、调解和促进和平领域做出了自己独特的贡献，同时保持了中立国的身份。
1945年通过的《联合国宪章》是联合国组织（UNO）的创始文件，也是其活动和使命的基石。宪章》的主要宗旨是促进维护国际和平与安全，促进各国在人权、社会和经济发展以及和平解决冲突等各方面的合作。宪章》还确立了国家主权平等、在国际关系中不使用武力或威胁、干涉他国内政等基本原则。联合国的主要总部设在美国纽约。联合国大会和安理会等大多数主要机构都设在纽约。选择纽约作为联合国总部在当时具有重要意义，象征着世界各国在经历第二次世界大战的破坏后对合作与和平时代的希望和承诺。联合国还在瑞士日内瓦保留了一个重要的欧洲中心。位于日内瓦的联合国欧洲总部在联合国的国际业务中发挥着至关重要的作用。之所以选择日内瓦，是因为它有悠久的中立和外交传统，以及作为国际合作和人道主义组织中心的历史。联合国日内瓦办事处（UNOG）是仅次于纽约的第二大联合国办事处，是就人权、裁军、人道主义援助和经济发展等各种全球性问题进行国际外交谈判、召开各种会议的重要论坛。因此，纽约联合国总部象征着联合国对和平与安全的全球承诺，而日内瓦办事处则代表着联合国在欧洲和国际范围内促进国际合作和解决全球问题的作用。
联合国的主要机构
联合国大会
联合国大会在本组织的运作中发挥着核心作用，作为一个论坛，每个成员国都有一票，体现了各国主权平等的原则。联合国大会每年举行常会，必要时也可举行特别会议。在这些会议上，成员们就从和平与安全到经济、社会和环境问题等各种国际问题进行讨论和表决。
除联大外，联合国还建立了一个专门机构和方案网络，以解决国际关注的特定领域问题。这些机构在一定程度上享有自主权，并专门从事不同领域的工作。例如，联合国难民事务高级专员办事处（UNHCR）成立于 1950 年，负责保护世界各地难民的权利和福利。联合国教育、科学及文化组织（教科文组织）专注于教育、科学、文化和传播，以促进国际和平与安全。此外，国际劳工组织（ILO）致力于促进工人权利、鼓励体面工作条件和发展就业机会。
虽然瑞士在2002年才成为联合国正式会员国，但早在加入联合国之前，瑞士就参与了其中几个专门机构的工作。这符合瑞士的中立和国际合作传统。例如，瑞士于1919年成为国际劳工组织（ILO）的创始国之一，并将该组织总部设在日内瓦。瑞士很早就参与了联合国专门机构的工作，这表明瑞士在正式成为联合国会员国之前就致力于实现联合国的原则和目标。
联合国大会和联合国专门机构共同构成了一个复杂的综合系统，致力于应对众多全球性挑战，反映了会员国对建立一个更加和平、公正和可持续发展的世界的共同承诺。瑞士以观察员和正式成员的身份参与这一体系，凸显了其在国际社会中的积极作用和重要贡献。
安全理事会
联合国安理会是联合国的六个主要机关之一，在维护国际和平与安全方面发挥着至关重要的作用。安理会由15个理事国组成，其结构反映了联合国的历史及其代表世界地缘政治多样性的承诺。其中五个常任理事国是第二次世界大战的战胜国：美国、法国、英国、中国和俄罗斯（1991 年解体前为苏联）。这些常任理事国拥有特殊权力，尤其是否决权，这意味着它们可以阻止任何决议，即使该决议已获得安理会所有其他成员的批准。
安理会其他10个理事国为非常任理事国，由联合国大会选举产生，任期两年。这些非常任理事国的选举旨在确保世界不同地理区域的均衡代表性。这种地域分配旨在确保安理会的决定考虑到世界所有地区的利益和观点。安全理事会对维护国际和平与安全负有主要责任。安理会可通过对联合国会员国具有法律效力的决议，并有权采取从实施经济制裁到授权军事干预等各种行动。安理会还在解决冲突、预防战争和国际危机管理方面发挥着重要作用。
联合国安理会常任理事国的否决权是安理会运作的一个独特而有影响力的特征，尽管其确切性质经常被误解。事实上，否决权在《联合国宪章》中并未明确提及，而是源自第二十七条。根据该条规定，安理会决议要获得通过，必须得到十五个理事国中至少九个国家的批准，其中包括所有常任理事国的同意。实际上，这意味着五个常任理事国（美国、法国、英国、中国和俄罗斯）中只要有一个投反对票，就足以阻止决议获得通过。这通常被称为 "否决权"。
需要注意的是，常任理事国弃权或缺席并不能阻止决议获得通过。即使有一个或多个常任理事国弃权，只要获得必要的九票，决议也能获得通过。这意味着，一个常任理事国的弃权被视为未行使否决权，从而使决议得以通过。这一否决权制度的初衷是确保战后拥有重大全球战略利益的大国同意安理会采取的行动。然而，许多人批评否决权是大国阻止行动的一种手段，即使在国际社会达成广泛共识的情况下也是如此。否决权还被批评为有时会导致安理会在关键问题上陷入瘫痪，因为一个常任理事国的利益与大多数理事国的意愿相冲突。
自苏联解体和冷战结束以来，联合国安理会的运作确实发生了变化。冷战期间，安理会经常因苏联集团和西方集团的对立而瘫痪，美国和苏联经常使用否决权来阻止违背各自利益的决议。1991 年苏联解体后，这种两极态势基本消失，为安理会内部新形式的谈判和决策铺平了道路。安全理事会做法的一个显著变化是越来越倾向于寻求共识。共识不同于以多数票做出的决定，它意味着安理会成员之间达成普遍一致或没有积极的反对意见。在实践中，这意味着决议和决定往往是长时间谈判和妥协的结果，反映了为达成所有成员（包括拥有否决权的常任理事国）都能接受的共同点而做出的努力。
协商一致技术的好处在于，它避免了否决权的使用，并鼓励以更具协作性、更少对抗的方式来解决国际问题。虽然有时决议的目标不那么远大，但却更有可能得到安理会所有成员的接受和执行。然而，建立共识也有其缺点。批评者指出，它可能导致决议被淡化，即最有力的条款或最果断的行动被淡化，以赢得所有人的赞同。此外，达成共识的谈判过程可能漫长而复杂，有时会延误安理会就紧急危机采取行动。
总秘书处
联合国总秘书处在协调和管理本组织活动方面发挥着至关重要的作用。秘书长是秘书处的首长，这是一个集政治和行政职责于一身的重要职位。自 2017 年 1 月 1 日起，这一职位由葡萄牙外交官和政治家安东尼奥-古特雷斯担任。他接替了于 2016 年 12 月结束任期的潘基文。秘书长的遴选过程涉及联合国的两个主要机构：安全理事会和联合国大会。候选人首先由安理会推荐，然后由大会进行选举。这一程序旨在确保秘书长人选反映国际社会的共识。
秘书长的职责主要是政治性的。他调解国际冲突，致力于促进全球和平与安全，并动员会员国和联合国各机构努力解决可持续发展、人权、气候变化和人道主义援助等全球性问题。作为联合国的发言人和代表人物，秘书长还在提高公众认识和影响世界舆论方面发挥着重要作用。秘书处是联合国的行政机构，协助秘书长履行职责。秘书处由从事不同领域工作的国际工作人员组成，从行政管理到联合国计划和政策的实施。他们的努力对本组织的日常运作以及支持秘书长的外交举措和调解任务至关重要。
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), often referred to as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, plays an essential role in the international system by facilitating the peaceful settlement of disputes between States and contributing to the development of international law. The ICJ is composed of 15 judges, who are elected jointly by the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council.
ICJ judges are chosen from among persons of high moral character who possess the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices, or who are jurisconsults of recognised competence in international law. This requirement ensures that ICJ judges are experts in international law, capable of ruling on complex legal issues. One of the ICJ's main objectives is to settle, in accordance with international law, disputes submitted to it by States. These disputes may concern a variety of issues, ranging from territorial and maritime boundaries to rights of passage, diplomatic disputes and other international disputes. By issuing judgments and advisory opinions, the ICJ contributes to the development of international law and its consistent application.
In addition to deciding contentious cases between States, the ICJ also has the capacity to provide advisory opinions on legal questions at the request of other authorised organs or agencies of the United Nations. These advisory opinions, although not binding, are respected and considered to have great authority and influence in the development of international law. The International Court of Justice is located in The Hague, the Netherlands, which sometimes earns it the nickname "The Hague Court". Its role and decisions are of paramount importance in maintaining the international legal order and promoting the peaceful resolution of disputes between nations in accordance with the principles of justice and international law.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), established in 1945 as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice of the League of Nations, plays an essential role in the peaceful settlement of disputes between states. Based in The Hague in the Netherlands, the ICJ reflects the evolution and consolidation of international law in the post-Second World War world. The ICJ's jurisdiction is dedicated exclusively to cases brought by states, not by individuals, organisations or companies. This restriction underlines the importance of state sovereignty in the international legal system. A notable example of the ICJ's intervention is the case of Nicaragua v. United States in 1984, where Nicaragua accused the United States of violations of international law for its support of the Contras in the Nicaraguan civil war. The ICJ ruling in favour of Nicaragua was a landmark moment, although the US chose not to comply with the judgement. The principle of state consent is fundamental to the ICJ. No state can be forced to submit a dispute to the Court without its consent. This means that states must voluntarily accept the jurisdiction of the ICJ in order for it to hear their case. This principle has been highlighted in cases such as the Aegean Sea case (Greece v Turkey), where the Court's jurisdiction was challenged.
In addition, although states may recognise the ICJ's compulsory jurisdiction, they often have the option of limiting or conditioning this recognition. The declaration of compulsory jurisdiction allows the ICJ to hear cases without requiring specific consent for each case, but practice shows that states are sometimes reluctant to make an unconditional commitment. This dynamic reflects the tension between the need for an international legal order and the desire of states to maintain a degree of autonomy. The ICJ has therefore played, and continues to play, a crucial role in the promotion of international law and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. It represents a significant advance in the way international affairs are managed, by favouring law and negotiation over conflict and force. Its decisions, although sometimes contested or ignored, have contributed to the development of a more robust international legal framework and have often served as a benchmark for the resolution of subsequent international conflicts.
The International Court of Justice (ICJ), as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has a jurisdiction that is defined by several key criteria. Its ability to hear and decide cases depends first and foremost on the recognition of its jurisdiction by the States concerned. This recognition can manifest itself in different ways, each reflecting the commitment of States to international law and the peaceful settlement of disputes. Firstly, a State may recognise the jurisdiction of the ICJ either generally or specifically. General recognition is often established by a declaration in which the state accepts the ICJ's jurisdiction as binding for certain types of dispute. This form of recognition allows the ICJ to hear cases without the States concerned having to give their specific consent for each case. However, States may condition their recognition or exclude certain types of dispute from the jurisdiction of the ICJ. Secondly, the ICJ's jurisdiction extends to disputes concerning the interpretation or application of a treaty. In many international treaties, the parties include clauses that refer to the ICJ for the resolution of disputes relating to those treaties. These specific treaty clauses provide a clear mechanism for managing disagreements on the interpretation or application of the treaty, thus contributing to the stability and predictability of international law. Finally, the ICJ is competent to hear cases when two States in conflict decide, on their own initiative, to submit their dispute to the Court. This form of voluntary referral is an example of the use of international law to resolve conflicts peacefully. It demonstrates the willingness of states to abide by legal principles rather than resort to force or coercion. Historic cases such as the border dispute between Burkina Faso and Mali (1986) illustrate how states have chosen to resolve their disputes peacefully through the ICJ. Thus, the jurisdiction of the ICJ, although conditioned by the will of States, is an essential pillar of the international legal system, facilitating the settlement of disputes between States within a legal and structured framework. It symbolises the commitment of the nations of the world to the principle of international justice and the peaceful resolution of disagreements.
Article 93 of the United Nations Charter offers an interesting and important possibility for access to the International Court of Justice (ICJ). Under this article, even states that are not members of the United Nations have the opportunity to participate in the ICJ, thereby extending the Court's reach and influence beyond the borders of the UN. Article 93 stipulates that all members of the United Nations are de facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. This means that, by becoming a member of the UN, a State also accepts the jurisdiction and authority of the ICJ. However, Article 93 goes further by providing that States which are not members of the UN may also become parties to the Statute of the Court, subject to certain conditions. To do so, these States must first be invited by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council to become parties to the ICJ Statute. They must then accept the terms and conditions set by the General Assembly, which may include financial obligations as well as acceptance of the jurisdiction and decisions of the ICJ. This provision is significant because it recognises the reality of a world in which some territories and political entities are not members of the UN, while underlining the importance of international law and the judicial resolution of conflicts at a global level. By allowing non-UN member states to join the ICJ, Article 93 contributes to the UN's broader objective of promoting peace, justice and international cooperation. Historically, this provision has enabled entities that are not members of the UN, for a variety of reasons, to seek judicial resolution of their international disputes within a legal and structured framework. This reinforces the role of the ICJ as a central judicial body in the international system and underlines the universality of the principles of international law.
The example of Switzerland in 1948 is a perfect illustration of the application of Article 93 of the UN Charter. Before becoming a member of the United Nations in 2002, Switzerland demonstrated its commitment to international law and the global legal system by becoming a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in 1948. Although Switzerland maintained a policy of strict neutrality and chose to remain outside the United Nations for much of the 20th century, its decision to join the ICJ reflects its recognition of the importance of international justice and the peaceful settlement of disputes. By acceding to the ICJ Statute, Switzerland accepted the Court's jurisdiction to settle international disputes, thereby demonstrating its support for the principles of international law, even in the absence of full UN membership. This action enabled Switzerland to participate actively in the international legal system and to contribute to the promotion of world peace and stability. It also demonstrated that commitment to international law could transcend UN membership statutes, underlining the importance of the ICJ as an institution accessible to all states concerned with justice and the legal resolution of disputes. Switzerland's situation prior to 2002 is therefore a notable example of how non-UN member states can interact with and participate in international institutions, thereby contributing to international dialogue and cooperation within the framework of international law.
Specialised institutions
In the wake of the United Nations, a network of specialised organisations has been created to tackle various aspects of peace and global development. Each of these entities plays a specific role, contributing to an aspect of international cooperation and global well-being.
Among these organisations, the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), founded in 1967, stands out for its work in protecting and promoting intellectual property. WIPO encourages innovation and creativity, which are essential to economic and cultural progress. Its creation was an important step in recognising the importance of intellectual property in international relations. UNESCO, established in 1945, plays a key role in promoting education, science and culture. Through its educational programmes, the preservation of world heritage and the defence of press freedom, UNESCO aims to strengthen peace and security by encouraging collaboration between nations. The World Health Organisation, created in 1948, is another cornerstone of this network. It coordinates international efforts in the field of public health, working to improve health conditions and respond to global health crises. Its role has been crucial in initiatives such as the eradication of smallpox and the response to pandemics. Finally, the International Labour Organisation, founded in 1919, well before the creation of the UN, has been a pioneer in promoting workers' rights. It has played a key role in shaping international labour policies, establishing standards and conventions that have shaped working conditions around the world.
Switzerland, known for its political neutrality and commitment to international cooperation, was involved in these organisations long before it joined the UN in 2002. As early as 1919, it was a member of the ILO, demonstrating its early support for social rights and labour standards. Its continued involvement in WIPO, UNESCO and WHO before joining the UN is testimony to its significant contribution to global efforts in the fields of intellectual property, education, culture and public health.
These organisations, with the support of states like Switzerland, illustrate how the international community strives to work together to promote peace, development and human well-being across a variety of specialised fields. They are a crucial part of the architecture of international cooperation, each making its own unique contribution to the overall goal of building a more just and peaceful world.
Annexes
- Université de Genève. “International Organizations Management.” Coursera, https://www.coursera.org/learn/international-organizations-management.