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| The state, as a central concept in the study of political science and history, is a subject of considerable complexity and importance. Our exploration of this theme seeks to unravel and understand the multiple facets that make up this essential political entity. By immersing ourselves in an in-depth analysis of the state, we aim to unveil its constituent elements, such as population, territory and sovereignty, and to understand how these components fit together and interact to form the backbone of what we call a state. In our quest to define the concept of the state, we will also examine the various functions it performs, from the creation of law to its enforcement, including the administration of justice. In so doing, we will seek to grasp the various ways in which the state influences and structures society.
| | 国家作为政治学和历史学研究的核心概念，是一个相当复杂和重要的主题。我们对这一主题的探讨旨在揭示和理解构成这一重要政治实体的多个方面。通过沉浸于对国家的深入分析，我们旨在揭示国家的构成要素，如人口、领土和主权，并了解这些要素如何相互配合、相互作用，从而形成我们所说的国家的支柱。在寻求界定国家概念的过程中，我们还将研究国家履行的各种职能，从法律的制定到法律的实施，包括司法。在此过程中，我们将努力把握国家影响和构建社会的各种方式。 |
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| This approach will also lead us to compare different state structures, ranging from unitary states to confederations and federal states. By assessing these various models, we will seek to understand their specific features, their advantages and disadvantages, and the contexts in which each can be most effective. Finally, our study will be enriched by looking at the historical perspective and reflections of emblematic figures who have influenced the understanding and evolution of the concept of the state. Through this exploration, we aim to gain a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of the state, an entity that is both omnipresent and enigmatic in our lives and our history.
| | 这种方法还将引导我们比较不同的国家结构，从单一制国家到邦联和联邦制国家。通过评估这些不同的模式，我们将试图了解它们的具体特点、优缺点以及每种模式在何种情况下最有效。最后，我们将从历史的角度来审视那些对国家概念的理解和演变产生过影响的标志性人物，并通过他们的反思来丰富我们的研究。通过这一探索，我们旨在对国家这一在我们的生活和历史中无处不在又神秘莫测的实体有一个更加细致和全面的了解。 |
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| = What is the State? = | | = 国家是什么？ = |
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| The State is a complex and fundamental entity in the political and social organisation of the modern world. Its definition is based on three key elements that are intertwined and mutually reinforcing.
| | 国家是现代世界政治和社会组织中一个复杂而基本的实体。国家的定义基于三个相互交织、相辅相成的关键要素。 |
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| Firstly, the population constitutes the human aspect of the State. It is made up of all the individuals living in a given territory and subject to the same political authority. These individuals often share a national identity and cultural values and are bound by a common set of laws and regulations. For example, the French population is distinguished by its culture, language and traditions, while being united under the laws and principles of the French Republic.
| | 首先，人口是国家的人的方面。它由生活在特定领土上并受同一政治权力管辖的所有个人组成。这些人通常具有共同的民族身份和文化价值观，并受到一套共同法律法规的约束。例如，法国人因其文化、语言和传统而与众不同，同时又统一在法兰西共和国的法律和原则之下。 |
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| Secondly, the territory is the geographical space over which the State exercises its authority. It includes not only dry land, but also territorial waters, airspace and, in some cases, maritime zones. Controlling and delimiting this territory is crucial. Take China, for example, which controls a vast territory ranging from densely populated coastal regions to isolated mountain and desert areas, with each region integrated into the country's political and administrative structure.
| | 其次，领土是国家行使权力的地理空间。它不仅包括陆地，还包括领水、领空，有时还包括海区。控制和划定这些领土至关重要。以中国为例，中国控制着广袤的领土，从人口稠密的沿海地区到与世隔绝的山区和沙漠地区，每个地区都被纳入国家的政治和行政架构。 |
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| Finally, sovereignty is the principle that gives the State its supreme authority and independence. This means that the state holds ultimate power over its population and territory, without outside interference. Sovereignty manifests itself in the state's ability to create and apply laws, to conduct an independent foreign policy and to defend itself. A striking example is the United States, which exercises its sovereignty through a powerful federal government, autonomous legislation and considerable influence on the international stage.
| | 最后，主权是赋予国家最高权威和独立性的原则。这意味着国家对其人口和领土拥有最终权力，不受外来干涉。主权体现在国家有能力制定和实施法律、执行独立的外交政策和进行自卫。美国就是一个鲜明的例子，它通过强大的联邦政府、自主立法和在国际舞台上的巨大影响力来行使主权。 |
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| These three components - population, territory and sovereignty - form the foundation on which the state's existence rests. They define its identity, structure and functioning, and distinguish it from other forms of organisation or institution. The combination of these elements ensures not only the internal stability of the state, but also its recognition and interaction on the international stage.
| | 人口、领土和主权这三个要素构成了国家赖以生存的基础。它们确定了国家的身份、结构和职能，并将国家与其他形式的组织或机构区分开来。这些要素的结合不仅确保了国家的内部稳定，也确保了国家在国际舞台上的认可和互动。 |
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| = The functions of the State = | | = 国家的职能 = |
| The legislative function is an essential pillar in the functioning of a democratic state, its main role being to create rules and pass laws. This function is generally entrusted to a legislative body, such as a parliament or assembly, made up of representatives elected by the population. The process of creating laws is a complex and methodical one. It often begins with the identification of a need or problem within society. For example, an increase in cybercrime could lead to the proposal of new laws on computer security. Members of the legislature, sometimes in collaboration with the executive, then prepare a bill, which is debated, amended and finally passed. Once passed, the law becomes a legal standard that all members of society must respect. Laws can cover a wide range of areas, from civil and commercial law to criminal law, environmental regulations and social protection. They are essential for maintaining order, protecting citizens' rights and guiding interactions within society. The legislative function also plays a crucial role in defining public policy. For example, the adoption of laws favouring renewable energies can guide a country towards an ecological transition. Similarly, laws on education or public health determine the way in which these essential services are organised and financed. The legislative function is therefore a driving force for change and evolution in a society. It enables the legal framework to be adapted to changing realities, ensuring that laws remain relevant, fair and effective in meeting the needs of the population.
| | 立法职能是民主国家运作的重要支柱，其主要作用是制定规则和通过法律。这一职能通常赋予一个立法机构，如议会或大会，由民众选出的代表组成。制定法律的过程复杂而有条不紊。它通常始于确定社会需求或问题。例如，网络犯罪的增加可能导致提出有关计算机安全的新法律。然后，立法机构成员（有时与行政部门合作）起草法案，经过辩论、修正，最终获得通过。一旦通过，法律就成为所有社会成员必须遵守的法律标准。法律可以涵盖从民法和商法到刑法、环境法规和社会保护等广泛领域。法律对于维护秩序、保护公民权利和指导社会互动至关重要。立法职能在确定公共政策方面也发挥着至关重要的作用。例如，通过支持可再生能源的法律可以引导国家向生态转型。同样，有关教育或公共卫生的法律也决定了这些基本服务的组织和供资方式。因此，立法职能是社会变革和发展的推动力。它使法律框架能够适应不断变化的现实，确保法律在满足民众需求方面始终具有相关性、公平性和有效性。 |
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| The executive function is another fundamental pillar in the governance structure of a state. Its main task is to manage the State's day-to-day policy and to apply or enforce the laws drawn up by the legislature and the decisions handed down by the judiciary. This function is generally performed by the government, headed by a head of state (such as a president) or a head of government (such as a prime minister), and comprises various ministries and departments that focus on specific areas such as education, health, defence or the economy. The executive is responsible for implementing the policies and laws passed by the legislature, ensuring that they are applied effectively and in accordance with the legislative intentions. For example, if the legislature passes a new tax law, it is up to the executive to ensure that it is properly applied, by putting in place the necessary structures, informing the public, and ensuring that taxes are collected in accordance with the law. Similarly, the executive plays a crucial role in managing the day-to-day affairs of the state, such as conducting foreign policy, managing crises or implementing economic development plans. The executive is also responsible for ensuring that the legal system is respected, in particular by working with the judiciary. It ensures that legal decisions are applied and that citizens' rights are protected. For example, in the event of a court conviction, it is up to the executive authorities, such as the police and prison services, to carry out the sentence. In this way, the executive acts as a crucial link between laws and the daily lives of citizens, ensuring that decisions taken at legislative level are translated into concrete action and effective public policies. Its role is essential to the stability and proper functioning of the State, and to the implementation of the laws and policies that shape society.
| | 行政职能是国家治理结构的另一个基本支柱。其主要任务是管理国家的日常政策，适用或执行立法机构制定的法律和司法机构做出的裁决。这一职能一般由政府履行，政府由国家元首（如总统）或政府首脑（如总理）领导，由专注于教育、卫生、国防或经济等特定领域的各部委组成。行政部门负责执行立法机构通过的政策和法律，确保这些政策和法律按照立法意图得到有效实施。例如，如果立法机构通过了一项新的税法，那么行政部门就要通过建立必要的机构、向公众进行宣传以及确保依法征税等方式，确保税法得到正确实施。同样，行政部门在管理国家日常事务方面也发挥着至关重要的作用，如执行外交政策、管理危机或实施经济发展计划。行政部门还负责确保法律制度得到尊重，特别是通过与司法部门合作。它确保法律决定得到执行，公民权利得到保护。例如，在法院定罪的情况下，应由警察和监狱部门等行政部门执行判决。这样，行政部门就成为法律与公民日常生活之间的重要纽带，确保立法层面的决定转化为具体行动和有效的公共政策。行政部门的作用对于国家的稳定和正常运转，以及对于影响社会的法律和政策的实施至关重要。 |
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| The judicial function, often referred to as the judiciary, plays a vital role in the governance of a state. Its primary mission is to dispense justice and determine the applicable law in the various disputes that come before it. This function is essential for maintaining order and fairness in society, and for ensuring respect for the law and the rights of individuals. Judicial power is embodied in the courts and tribunals, which are responsible for trying cases and resolving disputes. This process involves interpreting the laws laid down by the legislature and applying them to specific cases. Judges and magistrates, as the main players in this function, assess the evidence, hear the arguments of the parties in dispute, and hand down decisions based on the legal framework in place. A crucial aspect of the judicial function is its independence from the other powers of the State. This independence ensures that judgements are handed down impartially and fairly, without outside influence or political pressure. For example, in a commercial dispute, a court must judge solely on the basis of the relevant laws and the facts presented, without regard to political or personal interests. The jurisdictional function also extends beyond the resolution of disputes between private parties. It includes the adjudication of criminal offences, where the state, through the public prosecutor, prosecutes individuals or entities accused of breaking the law. In such cases, the judiciary is responsible for determining the guilt or innocence of the accused and imposing appropriate penalties, in accordance with the laws in force. The judicial function is crucial to the maintenance of law and order and the protection of individual rights and freedoms. It ensures that laws are not just words on paper, but living principles that actually govern life in society. Through its role as impartial arbiter, the judiciary helps to establish a climate of trust and respect for the rules that is fundamental to any democratic and equitable society.
| | 司法职能（通常称为司法机构）在国家治理中发挥着至关重要的作用。它的主要任务是伸张正义，并确定提交给它的各种争端的适用法律。这一职能对于维护社会秩序和公平、确保尊重法律和个人权利至关重要。司法权体现在负责审理案件和解决争端的法院和法庭中。这一过程涉及解释立法机构制定的法律并将其适用于具体案件。法官和治安法官是这一职能的主要参与者，他们评估证据，听取争议各方的论点，并根据现行法律框架做出裁决。司法职能的一个重要方面是独立于国家的其他权力。这种独立性确保判决公正公平，不受外界影响或政治压力。例如，在商业纠纷中，法院必须完全依据相关法律和所陈述的事实做出判决，而不考虑政治或个人利益。司法职能还超出了解决私人当事方之间争端的范围。它包括对刑事犯罪的裁决，即国家通过检察官起诉被控违法的个人或实体。在此类案件中，司法机构负责确定被告是否有罪，并根据现行法律处以适当刑罚。司法职能对于维护法律和秩序以及保护个人权利和自由至关重要。它确保法律不仅仅是一纸空文，而是实际指导社会生活的活生生的原则。通过发挥公正仲裁者的作用，司法机构有助于建立信任和尊重规则的氛围，这对于任何民主和公平的社会都是至关重要的。 |
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| = The structures of states = | | = 国家结构 = |
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| == The unitary state == | | == 单一制国家 == |
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| [[Image:Map of unitary states.png|thumb|right|200px|Carte des États unitaires.]] | | [[Image:Map of unitary states.png|thumb|right|200px|单一制国家地图。]] |
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| The unitary state is a form of state organisation in which political authority is centralised. In such a system, there is no intermediate political power between the citizens and the central state. Administrative subdivisions, such as départements, regions or communes, exist primarily to facilitate the management and administration of the territory, but they have no significant political autonomy. They are subject to the directives and authority of the central state.
| | 单一制国家是一种政治权力集中的国家组织形式。在这种体制下，公民与中央政府之间没有中间政治权力。行政分区，如省、地区或市镇，主要是为了便于领土的管理和行政，但它们没有重大的政治自主权。它们服从中央政府的指令和权力。 |
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| In a unitary state, there is a single centre of political impetus. This means that major decisions concerning legislation, policy and administration are taken by the central government. This central government has the legislative power to create rules of law that are uniform throughout the country. This ensures consistency and uniformity in the implementation of laws and policies throughout the country. The existence of a single Constitution in a unitary state also underlines this centralisation. The Constitution establishes the fundamental principles of government, the rights of citizens and the limits of state power. In a unitary state, this Constitution applies uniformly throughout the territory, without there being separate constitutions or charters for regions or local authorities. The main advantage of the unitary state is its simplicity and efficiency. The centralisation of power means that decisions are taken more quickly, policies are more coherent and the administration is more uniform. However, it can also lead to a certain distance between central government and local needs, and an excessive concentration of power. Examples of unitary states include France and Japan. In these countries, although local governments exist, their powers and responsibilities are largely defined and limited by the central government. This structure reflects the ideal of uniformity and centralisation of authority within the state.
| | 在单一制国家，只有一个政治推动中心。这意味着有关立法、政策和行政管理的重大决策都由中央政府作出。中央政府拥有立法权，可以制定全国统一的法律规则。这确保了在全国范围内执行法律和政策的一致性和统一性。单一制国家的单一宪法也强调了这种中央集权。宪法规定了政府的基本原则、公民权利和国家权力的限制。在单一制国家中，《宪法》统一适用于整个领土，各地区或地方当局没有单独的宪法或宪章。单一制国家的主要优点是简单高效。权力集中意味着决策更迅速、政策更连贯、管理更统一。然而，它也可能导致中央政府与地方需求之间存在一定距离，以及权力过度集中。单一制国家的例子包括法国和日本。在这些国家，虽然存在地方政府，但其权力和责任主要由中央政府界定和限制。这种结构反映了国家内部权力统一和集中的理想。 |
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| == The confederation of states == | | == 邦联 == |
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| A confederation of states is a model of organisation in which several sovereign states decide to join forces to achieve specific objectives. Unlike other forms of political integration, this union maintains the sovereignty and independence of each member state. The aims pursued by a confederation are generally limited and focus on common interests such as defence, foreign policy or trade.
| | 国家联盟是一种组织模式，其中几个主权国家决定联合起来实现特定目标。与其他形式的政治一体化不同，这种联盟维护每个成员国的主权和独立。邦联追求的目标通常是有限的，侧重于共同利益，如国防、外交政策或贸易。 |
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| The creation of a confederation is based on an international treaty, which is a formal agreement between the participating states. This treaty defines the terms of cooperation, the areas of competence of the joint body and the decision-making procedures. Unlike a federal state, where the central government has direct authority over its citizens, in a confederation the central government acts through the governments of the member states. The joint body set up by the confederation may be responsible for various functions, such as coordinating foreign policy, managing common defence or implementing cross-border economic regulations. However, the scope of its powers is strictly limited to the areas specified in the treaty. Decisions taken by this body must often be approved by the Member States, reflecting the principle of sovereignty and equality between them.
| | 邦联的建立以国际条约为基础，国际条约是参与国之间的正式协议。该条约规定了合作条件、联合机构的职权范围和决策程序。在联邦制国家，中央政府对其公民拥有直接权力，而在邦联制国家，中央政府则通过各成员国政府采取行动。邦联设立的联合机构可负责各种职能，如协调外交政策、管理共同防务或执行跨境经济法规。不过，其权力范围严格限于条约规定的领域。该机构做出的决定通常必须得到成员国的批准，这体现了成员国之间主权和平等的原则。 |
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| Confederation is therefore characterised by intergovernmental cooperation rather than supranational integration. This means that, although the Member States work together to achieve common goals, they retain full autonomy in most areas. Historically, the Swiss Confederation and the United States of America under the Articles of Confederation (prior to the adoption of the current Constitution) are examples of confederations. These entities reflect the desire of states to work together for mutual benefit while preserving their independence and national identity.
| | 因此，邦联的特点是政府间合作而非超国家一体化。这意味着，尽管各成员国为实现共同目标而共同努力，但它们在大多数领域都保留了充分的自主权。历史上，瑞士联邦和《邦联条款》下的美利坚合众国（在现行宪法通过之前）都是邦联的典范。这些实体反映了各州在保持独立和民族特性的同时为共同利益而合作的愿望。 |
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| The motivations behind the formation of a confederation of states are varied, but generally revolve around the pursuit of common benefits while preserving the autonomy of each member state. Among the main reasons why these states choose to unite is often the desire to ensure peace and security within the alliance, as well as the desire to protect themselves against external threats. Peace within the alliance is a crucial objective. By coming together, the Member States seek to prevent internal conflicts from arising between them. This internal peace is fostered by cooperation and mutual agreements, which enable disputes and rivalries to be managed peacefully. This can be particularly important in regions where history or geopolitics have created tensions between neighbours. Protection against external threats is also a major reason for forming a confederation. By joining forces, states can increase their capacity to defend themselves against foreign aggression or influence. This can take the form of mutual defence agreements, the implementation of a collective security strategy, or even the sharing of resources to strengthen regional stability.
| | 组建邦联的动机多种多样，但一般都围绕着在保持各成员国自治的同时追求共同利益。这些国家选择联合的主要原因通常是希望确保联盟内部的和平与安全，以及保护自己免受外部威胁。联盟内部的和平是一个至关重要的目标。通过联合，各成员国力图防止它们之间发生内部冲突。这种内部和平通过合作和相互协议得以促进，从而使争端和竞争得到和平处理。在历史或地缘政治造成邻国之间关系紧张的地区，这一点尤为重要。抵御外部威胁也是组建邦联的一个重要原因。通过联合，各国可以增强抵御外来侵略或影响的能力。其形式可以是签订共同防御协议、实施集体安全战略，甚至是共享资源以加强地区稳定。 |
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| To facilitate cooperation and decision-making, confederations generally organise conferences or meetings where representatives of the various member states meet. These conferences are crucial forums for discussion, negotiation and joint planning. Representatives can debate policies, propose joint initiatives and resolve shared issues. The format and frequency of these meetings depend on the provisions of the treaty that established the confederation and the nature of the issues discussed. These meetings are essential to maintaining the cohesion and effectiveness of the confederation, as they enable the Member States to coordinate their policies and actions while respecting their individual sovereignty. In this way, confederation represents a delicate balance between the independence of individual states and the need to work together to achieve common goals.
| | 为促进合作和决策，联盟通常会组织各种会议，让各成员国的代表汇聚一堂。这些会议是讨论、谈判和联合规划的重要论坛。代表们可以就政策进行辩论，提出联合倡议，解决共同的问题。这些会议的形式和频率取决于建立邦联的条约规定和所讨论问题的性质。这些会议对保持邦联的凝聚力和有效性至关重要，因为它们使成员国能够在尊重各自主权的同时协调政策和行动。因此，邦联是在各国的独立性与共同努力实现共同目标的必要性之间达成的一种微妙平衡。 |
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| == The Federal State == | | == 联邦国家 == |
| [[Image:Map of federal states.png|thumb|right|350px|Federal states in the world.]] | | [[Image:Map of federal states.png|thumb|right|350px|世界上的联邦州]] |
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| A federal state is a form of state organisation characterised by a combination of centralisation and decentralisation of power. In a federal state, several political communities, often called states, provinces or regions, are grouped together within a larger entity. Each of these communities has its own autonomy, with its own governments and legislation, but they are integrated into a higher national structure, the federal state.
| | 联邦制国家是一种国家组织形式，其特点是集权与分权相结合。在联邦制国家中，若干政治共同体（通常称为州、省或地区）被归入一个更大的实体。每个政治共同体都有自己的自治权，有自己的政府和立法，但它们又被纳入一个更高的国家结构，即联邦国家。 |
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| A key feature of the federal state is the division of powers between the central government and the governments of the federated entities. This division is generally defined by a Constitution that sets out the powers and responsibilities of each level of government. The federated entities have the power to legislate and govern in certain areas, such as education, health and local transport, while the federal state has powers in areas such as defence, foreign policy and finance. In practice, only the federal state is recognised as a sovereign state on the international stage. It represents the federation as a whole in external relations, conducting foreign policy, concluding treaties and joining international organisations. This does not mean that the federated entities have no role in international affairs, but their actions in this area are generally coordinated or supervised by the federal state.
| | 联邦制国家的一个主要特点是中央政府与联邦实体政府之间的权力划分。这种划分一般由宪法确定，宪法规定了各级政府的权力和责任。联邦实体有权在教育、卫生和地方交通等某些领域进行立法和管理，而联邦国家则有权在国防、外交政策和财政等领域进行立法和管理。实际上，在国际舞台上只有联邦国家被承认为主权国家。它在对外关系中代表整个联邦，执行外交政策、缔结条约和加入国际组织。这并不意味着联邦实体在国际事务中没有作用，但它们在这方面的行动通常由联邦国家协调或监督。 |
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| The federal state therefore combines the advantages of local governance, thanks to the autonomy of the federated entities, with those of unified and coherent governance at a higher level. This structure makes it possible to accommodate regional, ethnic or cultural diversity within the same state, while maintaining national unity and coordination. Examples of federal states include the United States, Germany, Canada and Australia. In each of these countries, the coexistence of a central government and autonomous regional or local governments reflects the complex, multi-layered nature of their governance.
| | 因此，联邦国家既有联邦实体自治带来的地方治理优势，也有更高层次统一协调治理的优势。这种结构既能在同一州内兼顾地区、种族或文化的多样性，又能保持国家的统一和协调。联邦制国家的例子包括美国、德国、加拿大和澳大利亚。在这些国家中，中央政府与自治的地区或地方政府并存，反映了其治理的复杂性和多层次性。 |
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| The evolution from a confederation of states to a federal state is a historical process that has occurred in several cases, motivated by recognition of the advantages of a more integrated federal structure. This transition often reflects a desire to strengthen the union between member states while maintaining a degree of regional autonomy. In a confederation, member states retain a large degree of sovereignty and independence. Although this structure encourages cooperation on specific issues, it can lack cohesion and effectiveness, particularly in the areas of foreign policy, defence and economic management. Member states of a confederation may realise that they would be stronger and more cohesive under a federal structure, where a central government holds more substantial authority, while respecting the autonomy of the federated entities.
| | 从邦联演变为联邦制国家是一个历史进程，在一些情况下是由于认识到更一体化的联邦结构的优势而发生的。这种转变往往反映了一种愿望，即在保持一定程度的地区自治的同时，加强成员国之间的联合。在邦联中，成员国保留了很大程度的主权和独立性。虽然这种结构鼓励在具体问题上开展合作，但可能缺乏凝聚力和有效性，尤其是在外交政策、国防和经济管理领域。邦联的成员国可能会意识到，在联邦制结构下，中央政府拥有更多实质性权力，同时尊重联邦实体的自治权，这样的结构会使它们更强大、更有凝聚力。 |
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| The move to a federal state allows member states to benefit from a centralised government for matters that concern the federation as a whole, while retaining their own government, legislative and judicial powers to manage local or regional affairs. This two-sided structure offers a balance between unity and diversity, enabling national and international affairs to be managed more effectively, while respecting regional particularities. In addition, the formation of a federal state can strengthen cohesion and stability between Member States. By sharing a common constitution, an integrated economic market and a unified foreign policy, the Member States create a sense of unity and solidarity. This federal structure can also lead to a better distribution of resources, coordination of economic and social policies, and a collective response to external challenges. The most emblematic example of this transition is the United States of America, which moved from a confederation under the Articles of Confederation to a federal state with the adoption of the Constitution in 1787. This change was motivated by the need for a stronger central government to effectively manage the country's affairs, particularly in the areas of finance, trade and international relations.
| | 向联邦制国家的转变使各成员国在处理涉及整个联邦的事务时既能受益于中央政府，又能保留自己的政府、立法和司法权力来管理地方或区域事务。这种双面结构兼顾了统一性和多样性，既能更有效地管理国家和国际事务，又能尊重地区特点。此外，联邦制国家的形成可以加强会员国之间的凝聚力和稳定性。通过共享共同的宪法、一体化的经济市场和统一的外交政策，各成员国会产生一种统一和团结的感觉。这种联邦结构还能更好地分配资源，协调经济和社会政策，集体应对外部挑战。这种转变最典型的例子是美利坚合众国，随着 1787 年《宪法》的通过，美国从《邦联条款》下的联邦制转变为联邦制国家。这一转变的动机是需要一个更强大的中央政府来有效管理国家事务，尤其是在金融、贸易和国际关系领域。 |
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| In a political system where the cantonal and federal levels of government exist side by side, there is a complex and nuanced structure of governance, typical of certain federal states such as Switzerland. This organisation allows for management at two levels, combining the advantages of national coordination with those of regional autonomy. At federal level, the central government is responsible for matters that affect the nation as a whole. This level of governance deals with areas such as foreign policy, national defence, international trade and important economic and legislative matters. The federal government has the power to legislate on matters that apply to the whole country, ensuring a degree of uniformity in national policies. It also plays a crucial role in representing the state on the international stage, making decisions that affect the country as a whole. In parallel, at cantonal level, regional or local bodies, with their own government and legislature, manage affairs more specific to their region. The cantons enjoy a degree of autonomy, allowing them to concentrate on areas such as education, local policing, public health and certain aspects of civil law. The national constitution or federal agreements define the powers of these cantonal governments, which can draw up laws and policies tailored to the needs and particularities of their population. This autonomy allows for regional diversity in the management of public affairs.
| | 在州政府和联邦政府并存的政治体制中，存在着一种复杂而微妙的治理结构，这在瑞士等联邦制国家中十分典型。这种组织结构允许在两个层面上进行管理，将国家协调的优势与地区自治的优势结合起来。在联邦层面，中央政府负责影响整个国家的事务。这一级别的管理涉及外交政策、国防、国际贸易以及重要的经济和立法事务等领域。联邦政府有权对适用于全国的事务进行立法，确保国家政策的统一性。联邦政府还在国际舞台上代表国家，做出影响整个国家的决策，发挥着至关重要的作用。与此同时，在州一级，地区或地方机构拥有自己的政府和立法机构，负责管理本地区的具体事务。各州享有一定程度的自治权，可以专注于教育、地方治安、公共卫生和民法的某些方面。国家宪法或联邦协议规定了这些州政府的权力，州政府可以根据本州居民的需求和特点制定法律和政策。这种自治使公共事务的管理具有地区多样性。 |
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| This coexistence of cantonal and federal states creates a flexible and adaptable system of governance. It enables the cantons to respond in a more targeted way to the demands and preferences of their citizens, while ensuring coherence and unity at national level. This model promotes participatory democracy, where citizens are involved in decision-making at different levels, thereby strengthening the legitimacy and effectiveness of the political system. This two-sided structure, combining cantonal autonomy and federal governance, offers a valuable balance between local diversity and national cohesion. It is emblematic of the way in which federal states can accommodate both the specific needs of the regions and the overall interests of the nation, creating a governance framework that is both robust and dynamic.
| | 州政府和联邦州政府的共存创造了一个灵活、适应性强的管理体制。它使各州能够更有针对性地满足其公民的需求和偏好，同时确保国家层面的协调和统一。这种模式促进了参与式民主，让公民参与各级决策，从而加强了政治体制的合法性和有效性。这种双面结构结合了州自治和联邦治理，在地方多样性和国家凝聚力之间实现了宝贵的平衡。它体现了联邦制国家既能满足各地区的具体需求，又能兼顾国家的整体利益，从而建立起一个既稳健又充满活力的治理框架。 |
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| In a federal state, the three traditional functions of the state - legislative, executive and judicial - are exercised both at federal level and at the level of lower entities, such as cantons or member states. This structure creates a unique dynamic in which two centres of legal impetus coexist: federal law and cantonal or state law. At federal level, the central government exercises the legislative function by passing laws that apply to the whole nation. These laws typically concern areas of national interest, such as defence, foreign policy or major economic issues. Similarly, the federal executive manages the day-to-day business of the state at a national level, and the federal judiciary is responsible for interpreting and applying federal laws.
| | 在联邦制国家，国家的三大传统职能--立法、行政和司法--既在联邦一级行使，也在州或成员国等下级实体一级行使。这种结构形成了一种独特的动态，即两个法律推动中心并存：联邦法律和州或州法律。在联邦层面，中央政府通过适用于全国的法律行使立法职能。这些法律通常涉及国家利益领域，如国防、外交政策或重大经济问题。同样，联邦行政机构在全国范围内管理国家的日常事务，联邦司法机构负责解释和适用联邦法律。 |
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| At the same time, the federated entities, such as the cantons in the case of Switzerland, also have the capacity to enact legislation in the areas under their jurisdiction. These cantonal laws may relate to matters specific to the region, such as local education, public health, and certain economic and social regulations. The cantonal governments also exercise executive and judicial functions within their jurisdiction, applying and interpreting cantonal laws. This duality of legislative powers between federal and cantonal law is one of the distinguishing features of federal states. It allows a degree of flexibility and adaptation to regional particularities while maintaining uniformity and cohesion at national level. Lower entities, while linked to the federal framework, retain significant autonomy to meet the specific needs of their population. Consequently, in a federal state, citizens live under the dual authority of federal and cantonal law. This coexistence of levels of governance promotes a balance between national unity and regional diversity, contributing to the stability and effectiveness of the political system as a whole.
| | 同时，联邦实体（如瑞士的各州）也有能力在其管辖范围内制定法律。这些州法律可能涉及该地区的具体事务，如地方教育、公共卫生以及某些经济和社会法规。州政府还在其管辖范围内行使行政和司法职能，适用并解释州法律。联邦法律和州法律之间的这种双重立法权是联邦制国家的显著特征之一。它允许一定程度的灵活性并适应地区特点，同时保持国家层面的统一性和凝聚力。下级实体虽然与联邦框架相连，但保留了很大的自主权，以满足其人口的特殊需求。因此，在联邦制国家，公民生活在联邦法律和州法律的双重管辖之下。这种治理层次的并存促进了国家统一与地区多样性之间的平衡，有助于整个政治体系的稳定和有效。 |
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| The Confederation and the European Union (EU) are two forms of international organisation, but they differ considerably in their structure and operation. In a confederation, the main body is generally made up of representatives of the sovereign member states. These representatives act and take decisions in the interests of their respective states. The confederation, as such, is often a loose union in which the member states retain a large part of their sovereignty and independence. Decisions taken within the confederation usually require unanimity or a broad consensus of the Member States. The emphasis is on cooperation between sovereign states rather than the creation of a supranational entity with direct power over citizens. In contrast, the European Union represents a more integrated form of regional organisation. Although the Member States retain significant sovereignty, the EU has the characteristics of a supranational entity. The European Parliament, elected directly by the citizens of the Member States, represents the European people and plays a crucial role in the EU's legislative process. This direct democratic approach distinguishes the EU from a classic confederation. In addition, the EU has supranational institutions, such as the European Commission, the European Council and the Court of Justice of the European Union, which have executive, legislative and judicial powers that extend beyond national borders.
| | 联邦和欧洲联盟（欧盟）是两种形式的国际组织，但它们在结构和运作上有很大不同。在邦联中，主要机构一般由主权成员国的代表组成。这些代表从各自国家的利益出发行事和决策。因此，邦联通常是一个松散的联盟，成员国在其中保留了大部分主权和独立。邦联内部做出的决定通常需要成员国的一致同意或广泛共识。重点在于主权国家之间的合作，而不是建立一个对公民拥有直接权力的超国家实体。相比之下，欧洲联盟代表了一种更加一体化的地区组织形式。虽然成员国保留了很大的主权，但欧盟具有超国家实体的特征。欧洲议会由成员国公民直接选举产生，代表欧洲人民，在欧盟的立法过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。这种直接的民主方式使欧盟有别于传统的邦联。此外，欧盟还拥有超国家机构，如欧盟委员会、欧洲理事会和欧盟法院，它们拥有超越国界的行政、立法和司法权力。 |
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| The EU is therefore more than just cooperation between states; it is a political and economic union with common policies in many areas, such as trade, the environment and the mobility of citizens. EU Member States share common legislation in certain areas and are bound by a set of treaties that define the rules by which the EU operates. The fundamental difference between a confederation and the European Union lies in the degree of integration and the nature of the representative institutions. Whereas a confederation is based on cooperation between sovereign states with limited power at central level, the EU represents deeper integration with supranational institutions having direct authority over certain aspects of the lives of European citizens.
| | 因此，欧盟不仅仅是国家之间的合作，它还是一个政治和经济联盟，在贸易、环境和公民流动性等许多领域实行共同政策。欧盟成员国在某些领域拥有共同的立法，并受一系列条约的约束，这些条约规定了欧盟的运作规则。邦联与欧盟的根本区别在于一体化程度和代表机构的性质。邦联的基础是主权国家之间的合作，中央一级的权力有限，而欧盟则代表了更深层次的一体化，超国家机构对欧洲公民生活的某些方面拥有直接权力。 |
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| The European Union (EU) is indeed a unique entity in the global political and institutional landscape, often described as a 'sui generis' organisation - a category in itself that does not fit into the traditional classifications of federal state or confederation. This singularity can be explained by the coexistence of the characteristics of these two forms of organisation, while at the same time presenting distinctive features of its own. On the one hand, the EU has elements of a confederation. The Member States retain a large degree of sovereignty, particularly in areas such as foreign policy and defence. Important decisions, particularly in the area of common foreign and security policy, often require unanimity among the Member States. This structure reflects the intergovernmental cooperation typical of a confederation, where states act together on the basis of their common interests while preserving their national independence. On the other hand, the EU has characteristics similar to those of a federal state. It has supranational institutions, such as the European Parliament, the European Commission and the Court of Justice of the European Union, which have powers that transcend national borders. The European Parliament, elected directly by the citizens of the Member States, is an example of democratic representation at supranational level. The EU also has common policies and legislation in areas such as the internal market, the environment and economic regulation, which are applied uniformly across the Member States. However, the EU differs from a classical federal state in that it has no sovereignty of its own; its sovereignty is derived from the Member States. Furthermore, although the EU has common legislation in some areas, the Member States retain a great deal of autonomy in other key areas, such as taxation and social affairs. The EU is a unique example of regional cooperation, combining aspects of a confederation and a federal state, while at the same time having its own distinctive features. This hybrid nature makes the EU a complex and constantly evolving entity, reflecting the diversity and growing interdependence of European states in a globalised world.
| | 欧洲联盟（欧盟）的确是全球政治和制度版图中的一个独特实体，通常被描述为 "自成一体 "的组织--其本身并不符合联邦国家或邦联的传统分类。这种独特性可以解释为这两种组织形式的特征共存，同时又呈现出自身的鲜明特点。一方面，欧盟具有邦联的要素。成员国保留了很大程度的主权，尤其是在外交政策和国防等领域。重要决定，尤其是共同外交和安全政策领域的决定，往往需要成员国的一致同意。这种结构体现了典型的邦联式政府间合作，即各国在维护本国独立的同时，根据共同利益共同采取行动。另一方面，欧盟具有与联邦制国家相似的特点。它拥有超国家机构，如欧洲议会、欧盟委员会和欧盟法院，这些机构拥有超越国界的权力。欧洲议会由成员国公民直接选举产生，是超国家层面民主代表制的典范。欧盟还在内部市场、环境和经济监管等领域制定了共同政策和立法，在各成员国统一实施。然而，欧盟与传统的联邦制国家不同，它本身没有主权，其主权来自成员国。此外，尽管欧盟在某些领域有共同的立法，但成员国在税收和社会事务等其他关键领域仍保留了很大的自主权。欧盟是区域合作的一个独特范例，它结合了邦联和联邦国家的各个方面，同时又有自己的鲜明特点。这种混合性质使欧盟成为一个复杂和不断发展的实体，反映了欧洲国家在全球化世界中的多样性和日益增长的相互依赖性。 |
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| = The political systems = | | = 政治制度 = |
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| A state's form of government is embodied and put into practice by its organs, or public authorities, which are the institutions through which decision-making, policy-making and the execution of government actions take place. These public authorities are generally structured into three interdependent but distinct branches: legislative, executive and judicial, each of which plays a crucial role in the governance of the State.
| | 一个国家的政府形式由其机关或公共当局体现和实施，这些机关或公共当局是进行决策、制定政策和执行政府行动的机构。这些公共权力机构一般分为三个相互依存但又截然不同的部门：立法、行政和司法，每个部门都在国家治理中发挥着至关重要的作用。 |
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| The legislative branch, often represented by a parliament or assembly, is the mainstay of lawmaking. Made up of elected representatives, it reflects the will of the people and is at the heart of democratic debate. For example, Congress in the United States and Parliament in the United Kingdom are the bodies where laws are debated, amended and passed, defining the norms that govern society. These legislative institutions are essential for shaping public policy and establishing the rules that influence all aspects of national life.
| | 立法部门通常由议会或大会代表，是法律制定的主体。它由民选代表组成，反映人民的意愿，是民主辩论的核心。例如，美国的国会和英国的议会是辩论、修改和通过法律的机构，它们确定了管理社会的准则。这些立法机构对于制定公共政策和确立影响国家生活各个方面的规则至关重要。 |
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| The executive branch, headed by figures such as the president or prime minister, is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state and the enforcement of laws. This power includes various ministries and agencies responsible for specific sectors such as defence, foreign affairs or the economy. In France, for example, the president and the government, comprising various ministers, are at the centre of state administration, implementing laws and managing international relations, national security and economic policies.
| | 行政机构由总统或首相等人物领导，负责国家的日常管理和法律的执行。行政权包括负责国防、外交或经济等具体部门的各部委和机构。例如，在法国，总统和由各部部长组成的政府是国家管理的核心，负责执行法律、管理国际关系、国家安全和经济政策。 |
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| As for the judiciary, it plays the crucial role of arbiter in the interpretation of laws and ensures that justice is dispensed fairly. The courts and tribunals that make up this branch are responsible for resolving disputes, judging the conformity of actions with the constitution and ensuring that laws are applied fairly. In countries such as Germany and Canada, the judicial systems operate independently of the other branches of government, ensuring that legal decisions are taken without political influence and in strict accordance with the law.
| | 至于司法部门，它在法律解释方面发挥着至关重要的仲裁作用，并确保司法公正。组成这一部门的法院和法庭负责解决争端，判断行动是否符合宪法，并确保法律得到公平适用。在德国和加拿大等国，司法系统独立于其他政府部门运作，确保法律裁决不受政治影响并严格依法做出。 |
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| The structure and interaction of these three powers determine the form of government and are essential to maintain balance, avoid abuse of power and ensure democratic and accountable governance. The separation and balance of powers ensures that the different branches of government effectively represent and serve the interests of the population, while respecting the rule of law and democratic principles. This balance is vital for political stability and the legitimacy of government in the eyes of the people.
| | 这三种权力的结构和相互作用决定了政府的形式，对于保持平衡、避免滥用权力以及确保民主和负责任的治理至关重要。三权分立与平衡可确保政府各部门有效代表并服务于民众的利益，同时尊重法治和民主原则。这种平衡对于政治稳定和人民心目中政府的合法性至关重要。 |
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| == The monarchy == | | == 君主制 == |
| Monarchy is a political system characterised by the presence of a monarch, such as a king or queen, as head of state. In this system, the monarch's position is often hereditary, passing from generation to generation within the same royal family. The specifics of the monarch's role and power can vary considerably from one monarchy to another, depending on the constitutional and historical structure of each country.
| | 君主制是一种政治制度，其特点是由国王或王后等君主担任国家元首。在这种制度下，君主的职位通常是世袭的，在同一个王室家族中代代相传。不同君主制国家的君主角色和权力的具体内容会有很大不同，这取决于每个国家的宪法和历史结构。 |
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| In the case of absolute monarchy, the monarch holds total, exclusive and unlimited power over the state. This type of monarchy was more widespread throughout history, particularly in Europe during certain periods. In an absolute monarchy, the monarch is not bound by written laws or a constitution, and exercises total control over the government and administration of the country. The monarch's decisions are final and he often has legislative, executive and judicial power. A famous historical example of absolute monarchy is that of France under the reign of Louis XIV, where the king had unchallenged power, epitomised by his famous phrase "L'État, c'est moi" ("I am the State"). In such monarchies, the monarch was often considered to rule by divine right, i.e. chosen by and representing God's will on earth, which further strengthened his absolute power. Today, most existing monarchies are constitutional, meaning that the monarch's power is limited by a constitution and often exercised within a democratic framework, with an elected government managing the affairs of state. In these systems, the role of the monarch is usually ceremonial, with little real power over political or governmental decisions. Examples of such constitutional monarchies include the United Kingdom, Sweden and Japan.
| | 在绝对君主制的情况下，君主对国家拥有完全、专有和无限的权力。这种君主制在历史上较为普遍，尤其是在欧洲的某些时期。在绝对君主制中，君主不受成文法或宪法的约束，对政府和国家行政行使完全的控制权。君主的决定是最终决定，他通常拥有立法、行政和司法权。路易十四统治下的法国就是历史上一个有名的绝对君主制的例子，在那里，国王的权力不受挑战，他的名言 "L'État, c'est moi"（"我就是国家"）就是最好的缩影。在这种君主制国家，君主往往被认为是神权统治，即由上帝选中并代表上帝在人间的旨意，这进一步加强了他的绝对权力。如今，大多数现存君主国都是立宪君主国，这意味着君主的权力受到宪法的限制，并通常在民主框架内行使，由民选政府管理国家事务。在这些制度中，君主的角色通常是礼仪性的，对政治或政府决策几乎没有实权。这类君主立宪制国家包括英国、瑞典和日本。 |
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| The adage "Si veut le Roy, si veut la loi" expressed by the French jurist Pierre Loisel (1536 - 1617) captures the essence of absolute monarchy, where the king's will is imposed as law. This principle reflects the conception of monarchical power at the time, when the monarch was not only the head of state, but also the supreme source of legislation. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is considered the ultimate authority, with his or her decisions and wishes having the force of law. This means that the monarch is not required to follow pre-established laws or consult other governing bodies before taking decisions. The law is therefore the direct product of the monarch's will and applies to all subjects without exception. This system concentrates all powers - legislative, executive and judicial - in the hands of the monarch. This approach to governance was typical of several European monarchies in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was part of an era when the notion of the divine right of kings was widely accepted, legitimising the monarch's absolute power as being granted and sanctioned by divine authority. The example of Neuchâtel as an ecclesiastical monarchy under the Prince-Bishop of Basel also illustrates this form of governance. In such monarchies, religious and civil authority were often merged, reinforcing the idea that royal or princely power was both temporal and spiritual. Today, these notions of absolute monarchy have largely evolved towards more democratic and constitutional forms of governance, where the power of the monarch is limited and balanced by other state institutions and by respect for constitutional laws.
| | 法国法学家皮埃尔-洛伊塞尔（Pierre Loisel，1536-1617 年）提出的格言 "Si veut le Roy, si veut la loi "抓住了绝对君主制的精髓，即国王的意志就是法律。这一原则反映了当时对君主权力的概念，即君主不仅是国家元首，也是立法的最高来源。在绝对君主制中，国王或王后被视为最高权威，其决定和意愿具有法律效力。这意味着君主在做出决定前无需遵循事先制定的法律或咨询其他管理机构。因此，法律是君主意志的直接产物，毫无例外地适用于所有臣民。这种制度将所有权力--立法权、行政权和司法权--都集中在君主手中。这种治理方式是 16 和 17 世纪欧洲几个君主国的典型做法。在那个时代，君权神授的观念被广泛接受，君主的绝对权力被认为是由神权授予和认可的。纳沙泰尔作为巴塞尔亲王主教统治下的教会君主国，也说明了这种治理形式。在这类君主制国家中，宗教权力和民事权力往往合二为一，从而强化了王权或王子权力既是世俗权力也是精神权力的观念。如今，这些绝对君主制的概念已在很大程度上演变为更加民主和宪政的治理形式，在这种治理形式中，君主的权力受到其他国家机构和宪法法律的限制和平衡。 |
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| == The oligarchy == | | == 寡头政治 == |
| Oligarchy is a political system in which power is held and exercised by a small group of people. This form of government differs from monarchy, where power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual, usually a king or queen. In an oligarchy, power is shared between a few individuals who can be distinguished by their wealth, social status, education, corporate affiliation or membership of a certain elite. Unlike a democracy, where power is supposed to reside in the population as a whole, oligarchy involves a concentration of power within a small segment of society. This ruling minority can exert its influence in different ways, often by controlling the main economic, political or military levers. The decisions and policies adopted by an oligarchic government generally reflect the interests and visions of this small group, rather than those of the majority of the population.
| | 寡头政治是一种由一小部分人掌握和行使权力的政治制度。这种政体不同于君主制，后者的权力集中在一个人手中，通常是国王或王后。在寡头政治中，权力由少数人分享，这些人可以通过财富、社会地位、教育程度、企业从属关系或某个精英群体的成员身份来区分。与民主政体不同的是，民主政体的权力本应属于全体人民，而寡头政治则将权力集中在社会的一小部分人手中。少数统治者可以通过不同方式施加影响，通常是通过控制主要的经济、政治或军事杠杆。寡头政府通过的决策和政策通常反映的是这一小部分人的利益和愿景，而不是大多数人的利益和愿景。 |
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| Oligarchy can sometimes be disguised as a democracy, with formal elections and institutions. In practice, however, the real power lies in the hands of a few influential individuals or families. These groups can maintain their influence through various means, such as control of the media, large corporations, political funding, or networks of relationships and patronage. Historically, many political systems have had oligarchic characteristics. For example, in some ancient Greek city-states, power was often held by a small elite of wealthy and influential citizens. Similarly, at different periods in history, many societies have seen their government dominated by an aristocratic class or an economic elite. Oligarchy is often criticised for its lack of representativeness and fairness, as it excludes the majority of citizens from effective participation in the political process and tends to favour the interests of a small section of society to the detriment of the common good.
| | 寡头政治有时会伪装成民主，有正式的选举和制度。但实际上，真正的权力掌握在少数有影响力的个人或家族手中。这些集团可以通过各种手段维持其影响力，如控制媒体、大公司、政治资金或关系网和庇护。历史上，许多政治制度都具有寡头政治的特征。例如，在古希腊的一些城邦中，权力往往被一小撮富有且有影响力的精英掌握。同样，在不同的历史时期，许多社会的政府都由贵族阶级或经济精英主导。寡头政治常常因其缺乏代表性和公平性而受到批评，因为它将大多数公民排除在政治进程的有效参与之外，并倾向于偏袒社会一小部分人的利益，从而损害了共同利益。 |
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| == Democracy == | | == 民主 == |
| Democracy is a political system based on the principle of popular sovereignty, where power belongs to the people. In a democracy, citizens play a central role in decision-making and the exercise of power, either directly or through elected representatives. In a direct democracy, citizens actively participate in the formulation and adoption of laws and policies. This direct exercise of power often takes the form of referendums or popular assemblies where citizens vote on specific issues. A historical example of direct democracy is the ancient Athenian city-state, where citizens met to debate and decide on the affairs of state. In most modern democracies, however, the system is representative: citizens elect representatives to govern them and make decisions on their behalf. This form of democracy allows for more practical management of a state's affairs, especially when the population is too large for everyone to participate directly in governance. Elected representatives, such as members of parliament, senators and the head of state, are supposed to reflect the will of the people and act in the general interest.
| | 民主是一种基于人民主权原则的政治制度，权力属于人民。在民主制度中，公民直接或通过选举产生的代表在决策和行使权力方面发挥核心作用。在直接民主制中，公民积极参与法律和政策的制定和通过。这种直接行使权力的形式通常是公民投票或民众大会，由公民就具体问题进行投票。古代雅典城邦就是直接民主的一个历史典范，在那里，公民开会辩论并决定国家事务。然而，在大多数现代民主国家，民主制度是代议制的：公民选举代表来管理他们并代表他们做出决定。这种民主形式可以更实际地管理国家事务，尤其是当人口众多，无法让每个人都直接参与治理时。民选代表，如国会议员、参议员和国家元首，应反映人民的意愿，并以普遍利益为重。 |
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| Representative democracy is usually accompanied by various institutions and mechanisms to ensure transparency, accountability and fairness in the political process. These include regular, free and fair elections, civil rights such as freedom of expression and association, a free press, and independent judicial systems to protect citizens' rights. Countries such as the United States, Germany, Canada and Australia are examples of representative democracies. In these systems, although citizens do not directly make political decisions, they play a crucial role by electing those who govern them and by participating in public debate, which shapes the state's policies and laws.
| | 代议制民主通常伴随着各种机构和机制，以确保政治进程的透明度、问责制和公平性。这些制度和机制包括定期、自由和公平的选举，言论自由和结社自由等公民权利，新闻自由，以及保护公民权利的独立司法系统。美国、德国、加拿大和澳大利亚等国都是代议制民主国家的典范。在这些制度中，虽然公民并不直接做出政治决定，但他们通过选举执政者和参与公共辩论发挥着至关重要的作用，而公共辩论则决定着国家的政策和法律。 |
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| The quote from Heinrich Rudolf Schinz, an eminent 19th century Zurich jurist, underlines a fundamental understanding of democracy and the role of government, particularly in the Swiss context. His assertion that "all governments in Switzerland must recognise this, that they exist only insofar as they are of the people and act by the people and for the people" reflects the idea that the legitimacy of a government rests on its representation of and service to the people. This perspective is particularly relevant to Switzerland, a country that has long valued the principles of direct and participatory democracy. In 1830, when Schinz expressed this view, Switzerland was in the midst of a period of political transformation and development. His ideas resonated with the emerging democratic ideals of responsible government that was responsive to the needs and wishes of its citizens.
| | 19 世纪苏黎世著名法学家海因里希-鲁道夫-申茨（Heinrich Rudolf Schinz）的名言强调了对民主和政府作用的基本理解，尤其是在瑞士。他断言 "瑞士的所有政府都必须认识到这一点，即政府的存在前提是它属于人民，并由人民和为人民行事"，这反映了政府的合法性取决于它是否代表人民并为人民服务。这一观点与瑞士尤其相关，因为瑞士长期以来一直重视直接民主和参与式民主的原则。1830 年，当申茨表达这一观点时，瑞士正处于政治转型和发展时期。他的观点与新兴的民主理想产生了共鸣，即负责任的政府应顺应公民的需求和愿望。 |
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| Schinz's emphasis on governments being "of the people" means that authorities must emanate from the consent and will of citizens. This implies a transparent and fair democratic process in which citizens have a meaningful role in electing their representatives and in political decision-making. The expression "governed by the people" underlines the importance of citizen participation in governance. In the Swiss system, this translates into mechanisms of direct democracy, such as referendums and popular initiatives, where citizens can directly influence legislation and public policy. As for "acting for the people", this refers to the obligation of governments to work in the general interest, implementing policies and laws that benefit society as a whole, rather than serving particular interests or elites. Schinz's vision is emblematic of the democratic principles that continue to be at the heart of governance in Switzerland, where power is exercised transparently and accountably, with the active participation of citizens. This reflects a commitment to a democracy that is not just a form of government, but also an expression of the values and aspirations of the people.
| | 申茨强调政府是 "人民的政府"，这意味着政府必须来自公民的同意和意愿。这意味着要有一个透明、公平的民主程序，让公民在选举代表和政治决策中发挥有意义的作用。民治 "这一表述强调了公民参与治理的重要性。在瑞士的制度中，这体现为直接民主机制，如全民公决和民众倡议，公民可以直接影响立法和公共政策。至于 "为人民服务"，指的是政府有义务从整体利益出发，执行有利于整个社会的政策和法律，而不是为特定利益或精英服务。施因茨的愿景体现了民主原则，这些原则仍然是瑞士治理的核心，在公民的积极参与下，以透明和负责任的方式行使权力。这体现了对民主的承诺，民主不仅是一种政府形式，也是人民价值观和愿望的体现。 |
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| Abraham Lincoln's quote at the dedication of the cemetery at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863 is one of the most famous speeches in American history and a pillar of democratic thought. His words, "May we, by our determination, see that these dead shall not have died in vain, that this nation, under the shadow of God, may be reborn in liberty... and that government of the people, by the people and for the people shall not perish from the face of the earth", resonate deeply with the values of democracy and freedom. Lincoln delivered this speech against the backdrop of a wrenching civil war, where the nation was deeply divided over issues of freedom and slavery. The Battle of Gettysburg, one of the bloodiest of the American Civil War, was a crucial moment in the conflict. By evoking the sacrifices of fallen soldiers, Lincoln sought to give meaning to those losses and to reinforce the nation's commitment to the principles of liberty and unity.
| | 亚伯拉罕-林肯在 1863 年葛底斯堡战役墓地落成典礼上的一段话是美国历史上最著名的演讲之一，也是民主思想的支柱。他说，"但愿我们下定决心，使这些死者不致白白牺牲，使这个国家在上帝的庇护下，在自由中获得新生......使民有、民治、民享的政府不致从地球上消失"，这句话与民主和自由的价值观产生了深深的共鸣。林肯发表这篇演讲的背景是一场激烈的内战，当时国家在自由和奴隶制问题上存在严重分歧。葛底斯堡战役是美国内战中最血腥的战役之一，是冲突的关键时刻。通过缅怀阵亡将士的牺牲，林肯试图赋予这些损失以意义，并强化国家对自由和统一原则的承诺。 |
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| The idea that "government of the people, by the people, and for the people" must not "perish from the face of the earth" is a powerful affirmation of democratic principles. Lincoln emphasised that democracy was not only essential for the United States, but also an ideal to be preserved for all mankind. This concept implies that government should be based on the will of the people, that it should be exercised by representatives elected to serve the interests of the people, and that its ultimate goal must be the well-being of the people. The Gettysburg Address, though brief, had a profound and lasting impact, not only on American society, but also on the global perception of democracy and freedom. It continues to be cited as an eloquent example of leadership in times of crisis and a powerful reminder of the fundamental values on which democracies are built.
| | 民有、民治、民享 "的理念是对民主原则的有力肯定。林肯强调，民主不仅对美国至关重要，也是全人类的理想。这一理念意味着政府应建立在人民意志的基础上，应由选举产生的代表行使权力，为人民的利益服务，其最终目标必须是人民的福祉。盖茨堡演说》虽然简短，但不仅对美国社会，而且对全球的民主和自由观念都产生了深远而持久的影响。它继续被作为危机时刻领导力的雄辩典范和民主国家赖以建立的基本价值观的有力提醒。 |
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| = Annexes = | | = 附录 = |
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| = References = | | = 参考资料 = |
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| [[Category:droit]] | | [[Category:droit]] |
| [[Category:Victor Monnier]] | | [[Category:Victor Monnier]] |
根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]
国家作为政治学和历史学研究的核心概念，是一个相当复杂和重要的主题。我们对这一主题的探讨旨在揭示和理解构成这一重要政治实体的多个方面。通过沉浸于对国家的深入分析，我们旨在揭示国家的构成要素，如人口、领土和主权，并了解这些要素如何相互配合、相互作用，从而形成我们所说的国家的支柱。在寻求界定国家概念的过程中，我们还将研究国家履行的各种职能，从法律的制定到法律的实施，包括司法。在此过程中，我们将努力把握国家影响和构建社会的各种方式。
这种方法还将引导我们比较不同的国家结构，从单一制国家到邦联和联邦制国家。通过评估这些不同的模式，我们将试图了解它们的具体特点、优缺点以及每种模式在何种情况下最有效。最后，我们将从历史的角度来审视那些对国家概念的理解和演变产生过影响的标志性人物，并通过他们的反思来丰富我们的研究。通过这一探索，我们旨在对国家这一在我们的生活和历史中无处不在又神秘莫测的实体有一个更加细致和全面的了解。
国家是现代世界政治和社会组织中一个复杂而基本的实体。国家的定义基于三个相互交织、相辅相成的关键要素。
首先，人口是国家的人的方面。它由生活在特定领土上并受同一政治权力管辖的所有个人组成。这些人通常具有共同的民族身份和文化价值观，并受到一套共同法律法规的约束。例如，法国人因其文化、语言和传统而与众不同，同时又统一在法兰西共和国的法律和原则之下。
其次，领土是国家行使权力的地理空间。它不仅包括陆地，还包括领水、领空，有时还包括海区。控制和划定这些领土至关重要。以中国为例，中国控制着广袤的领土，从人口稠密的沿海地区到与世隔绝的山区和沙漠地区，每个地区都被纳入国家的政治和行政架构。
最后，主权是赋予国家最高权威和独立性的原则。这意味着国家对其人口和领土拥有最终权力，不受外来干涉。主权体现在国家有能力制定和实施法律、执行独立的外交政策和进行自卫。美国就是一个鲜明的例子，它通过强大的联邦政府、自主立法和在国际舞台上的巨大影响力来行使主权。
人口、领土和主权这三个要素构成了国家赖以生存的基础。它们确定了国家的身份、结构和职能，并将国家与其他形式的组织或机构区分开来。这些要素的结合不仅确保了国家的内部稳定，也确保了国家在国际舞台上的认可和互动。
立法职能是民主国家运作的重要支柱，其主要作用是制定规则和通过法律。这一职能通常赋予一个立法机构，如议会或大会，由民众选出的代表组成。制定法律的过程复杂而有条不紊。它通常始于确定社会需求或问题。例如，网络犯罪的增加可能导致提出有关计算机安全的新法律。然后，立法机构成员（有时与行政部门合作）起草法案，经过辩论、修正，最终获得通过。一旦通过，法律就成为所有社会成员必须遵守的法律标准。法律可以涵盖从民法和商法到刑法、环境法规和社会保护等广泛领域。法律对于维护秩序、保护公民权利和指导社会互动至关重要。立法职能在确定公共政策方面也发挥着至关重要的作用。例如，通过支持可再生能源的法律可以引导国家向生态转型。同样，有关教育或公共卫生的法律也决定了这些基本服务的组织和供资方式。因此，立法职能是社会变革和发展的推动力。它使法律框架能够适应不断变化的现实，确保法律在满足民众需求方面始终具有相关性、公平性和有效性。
行政职能是国家治理结构的另一个基本支柱。其主要任务是管理国家的日常政策，适用或执行立法机构制定的法律和司法机构做出的裁决。这一职能一般由政府履行，政府由国家元首（如总统）或政府首脑（如总理）领导，由专注于教育、卫生、国防或经济等特定领域的各部委组成。行政部门负责执行立法机构通过的政策和法律，确保这些政策和法律按照立法意图得到有效实施。例如，如果立法机构通过了一项新的税法，那么行政部门就要通过建立必要的机构、向公众进行宣传以及确保依法征税等方式，确保税法得到正确实施。同样，行政部门在管理国家日常事务方面也发挥着至关重要的作用，如执行外交政策、管理危机或实施经济发展计划。行政部门还负责确保法律制度得到尊重，特别是通过与司法部门合作。它确保法律决定得到执行，公民权利得到保护。例如，在法院定罪的情况下，应由警察和监狱部门等行政部门执行判决。这样，行政部门就成为法律与公民日常生活之间的重要纽带，确保立法层面的决定转化为具体行动和有效的公共政策。行政部门的作用对于国家的稳定和正常运转，以及对于影响社会的法律和政策的实施至关重要。
司法职能（通常称为司法机构）在国家治理中发挥着至关重要的作用。它的主要任务是伸张正义，并确定提交给它的各种争端的适用法律。这一职能对于维护社会秩序和公平、确保尊重法律和个人权利至关重要。司法权体现在负责审理案件和解决争端的法院和法庭中。这一过程涉及解释立法机构制定的法律并将其适用于具体案件。法官和治安法官是这一职能的主要参与者，他们评估证据，听取争议各方的论点，并根据现行法律框架做出裁决。司法职能的一个重要方面是独立于国家的其他权力。这种独立性确保判决公正公平，不受外界影响或政治压力。例如，在商业纠纷中，法院必须完全依据相关法律和所陈述的事实做出判决，而不考虑政治或个人利益。司法职能还超出了解决私人当事方之间争端的范围。它包括对刑事犯罪的裁决，即国家通过检察官起诉被控违法的个人或实体。在此类案件中，司法机构负责确定被告是否有罪，并根据现行法律处以适当刑罚。司法职能对于维护法律和秩序以及保护个人权利和自由至关重要。它确保法律不仅仅是一纸空文，而是实际指导社会生活的活生生的原则。通过发挥公正仲裁者的作用，司法机构有助于建立信任和尊重规则的氛围，这对于任何民主和公平的社会都是至关重要的。
单一制国家是一种政治权力集中的国家组织形式。在这种体制下，公民与中央政府之间没有中间政治权力。行政分区，如省、地区或市镇，主要是为了便于领土的管理和行政，但它们没有重大的政治自主权。它们服从中央政府的指令和权力。
在单一制国家，只有一个政治推动中心。这意味着有关立法、政策和行政管理的重大决策都由中央政府作出。中央政府拥有立法权，可以制定全国统一的法律规则。这确保了在全国范围内执行法律和政策的一致性和统一性。单一制国家的单一宪法也强调了这种中央集权。宪法规定了政府的基本原则、公民权利和国家权力的限制。在单一制国家中，《宪法》统一适用于整个领土，各地区或地方当局没有单独的宪法或宪章。单一制国家的主要优点是简单高效。权力集中意味着决策更迅速、政策更连贯、管理更统一。然而，它也可能导致中央政府与地方需求之间存在一定距离，以及权力过度集中。单一制国家的例子包括法国和日本。在这些国家，虽然存在地方政府，但其权力和责任主要由中央政府界定和限制。这种结构反映了国家内部权力统一和集中的理想。
国家联盟是一种组织模式，其中几个主权国家决定联合起来实现特定目标。与其他形式的政治一体化不同，这种联盟维护每个成员国的主权和独立。邦联追求的目标通常是有限的，侧重于共同利益，如国防、外交政策或贸易。
邦联的建立以国际条约为基础，国际条约是参与国之间的正式协议。该条约规定了合作条件、联合机构的职权范围和决策程序。在联邦制国家，中央政府对其公民拥有直接权力，而在邦联制国家，中央政府则通过各成员国政府采取行动。邦联设立的联合机构可负责各种职能，如协调外交政策、管理共同防务或执行跨境经济法规。不过，其权力范围严格限于条约规定的领域。该机构做出的决定通常必须得到成员国的批准，这体现了成员国之间主权和平等的原则。
因此，邦联的特点是政府间合作而非超国家一体化。这意味着，尽管各成员国为实现共同目标而共同努力，但它们在大多数领域都保留了充分的自主权。历史上，瑞士联邦和《邦联条款》下的美利坚合众国（在现行宪法通过之前）都是邦联的典范。这些实体反映了各州在保持独立和民族特性的同时为共同利益而合作的愿望。
组建邦联的动机多种多样，但一般都围绕着在保持各成员国自治的同时追求共同利益。这些国家选择联合的主要原因通常是希望确保联盟内部的和平与安全，以及保护自己免受外部威胁。联盟内部的和平是一个至关重要的目标。通过联合，各成员国力图防止它们之间发生内部冲突。这种内部和平通过合作和相互协议得以促进，从而使争端和竞争得到和平处理。在历史或地缘政治造成邻国之间关系紧张的地区，这一点尤为重要。抵御外部威胁也是组建邦联的一个重要原因。通过联合，各国可以增强抵御外来侵略或影响的能力。其形式可以是签订共同防御协议、实施集体安全战略，甚至是共享资源以加强地区稳定。
为促进合作和决策，联盟通常会组织各种会议，让各成员国的代表汇聚一堂。这些会议是讨论、谈判和联合规划的重要论坛。代表们可以就政策进行辩论，提出联合倡议，解决共同的问题。这些会议的形式和频率取决于建立邦联的条约规定和所讨论问题的性质。这些会议对保持邦联的凝聚力和有效性至关重要，因为它们使成员国能够在尊重各自主权的同时协调政策和行动。因此，邦联是在各国的独立性与共同努力实现共同目标的必要性之间达成的一种微妙平衡。
联邦制国家是一种国家组织形式，其特点是集权与分权相结合。在联邦制国家中，若干政治共同体（通常称为州、省或地区）被归入一个更大的实体。每个政治共同体都有自己的自治权，有自己的政府和立法，但它们又被纳入一个更高的国家结构，即联邦国家。
联邦制国家的一个主要特点是中央政府与联邦实体政府之间的权力划分。这种划分一般由宪法确定，宪法规定了各级政府的权力和责任。联邦实体有权在教育、卫生和地方交通等某些领域进行立法和管理，而联邦国家则有权在国防、外交政策和财政等领域进行立法和管理。实际上，在国际舞台上只有联邦国家被承认为主权国家。它在对外关系中代表整个联邦，执行外交政策、缔结条约和加入国际组织。这并不意味着联邦实体在国际事务中没有作用，但它们在这方面的行动通常由联邦国家协调或监督。
因此，联邦国家既有联邦实体自治带来的地方治理优势，也有更高层次统一协调治理的优势。这种结构既能在同一州内兼顾地区、种族或文化的多样性，又能保持国家的统一和协调。联邦制国家的例子包括美国、德国、加拿大和澳大利亚。在这些国家中，中央政府与自治的地区或地方政府并存，反映了其治理的复杂性和多层次性。
从邦联演变为联邦制国家是一个历史进程，在一些情况下是由于认识到更一体化的联邦结构的优势而发生的。这种转变往往反映了一种愿望，即在保持一定程度的地区自治的同时，加强成员国之间的联合。在邦联中，成员国保留了很大程度的主权和独立性。虽然这种结构鼓励在具体问题上开展合作，但可能缺乏凝聚力和有效性，尤其是在外交政策、国防和经济管理领域。邦联的成员国可能会意识到，在联邦制结构下，中央政府拥有更多实质性权力，同时尊重联邦实体的自治权，这样的结构会使它们更强大、更有凝聚力。
向联邦制国家的转变使各成员国在处理涉及整个联邦的事务时既能受益于中央政府，又能保留自己的政府、立法和司法权力来管理地方或区域事务。这种双面结构兼顾了统一性和多样性，既能更有效地管理国家和国际事务，又能尊重地区特点。此外，联邦制国家的形成可以加强会员国之间的凝聚力和稳定性。通过共享共同的宪法、一体化的经济市场和统一的外交政策，各成员国会产生一种统一和团结的感觉。这种联邦结构还能更好地分配资源，协调经济和社会政策，集体应对外部挑战。这种转变最典型的例子是美利坚合众国，随着 1787 年《宪法》的通过，美国从《邦联条款》下的联邦制转变为联邦制国家。这一转变的动机是需要一个更强大的中央政府来有效管理国家事务，尤其是在金融、贸易和国际关系领域。
在州政府和联邦政府并存的政治体制中，存在着一种复杂而微妙的治理结构，这在瑞士等联邦制国家中十分典型。这种组织结构允许在两个层面上进行管理，将国家协调的优势与地区自治的优势结合起来。在联邦层面，中央政府负责影响整个国家的事务。这一级别的管理涉及外交政策、国防、国际贸易以及重要的经济和立法事务等领域。联邦政府有权对适用于全国的事务进行立法，确保国家政策的统一性。联邦政府还在国际舞台上代表国家，做出影响整个国家的决策，发挥着至关重要的作用。与此同时，在州一级，地区或地方机构拥有自己的政府和立法机构，负责管理本地区的具体事务。各州享有一定程度的自治权，可以专注于教育、地方治安、公共卫生和民法的某些方面。国家宪法或联邦协议规定了这些州政府的权力，州政府可以根据本州居民的需求和特点制定法律和政策。这种自治使公共事务的管理具有地区多样性。
州政府和联邦州政府的共存创造了一个灵活、适应性强的管理体制。它使各州能够更有针对性地满足其公民的需求和偏好，同时确保国家层面的协调和统一。这种模式促进了参与式民主，让公民参与各级决策，从而加强了政治体制的合法性和有效性。这种双面结构结合了州自治和联邦治理，在地方多样性和国家凝聚力之间实现了宝贵的平衡。它体现了联邦制国家既能满足各地区的具体需求，又能兼顾国家的整体利益，从而建立起一个既稳健又充满活力的治理框架。
在联邦制国家，国家的三大传统职能--立法、行政和司法--既在联邦一级行使，也在州或成员国等下级实体一级行使。这种结构形成了一种独特的动态，即两个法律推动中心并存：联邦法律和州或州法律。在联邦层面，中央政府通过适用于全国的法律行使立法职能。这些法律通常涉及国家利益领域，如国防、外交政策或重大经济问题。同样，联邦行政机构在全国范围内管理国家的日常事务，联邦司法机构负责解释和适用联邦法律。
同时，联邦实体（如瑞士的各州）也有能力在其管辖范围内制定法律。这些州法律可能涉及该地区的具体事务，如地方教育、公共卫生以及某些经济和社会法规。州政府还在其管辖范围内行使行政和司法职能，适用并解释州法律。联邦法律和州法律之间的这种双重立法权是联邦制国家的显著特征之一。它允许一定程度的灵活性并适应地区特点，同时保持国家层面的统一性和凝聚力。下级实体虽然与联邦框架相连，但保留了很大的自主权，以满足其人口的特殊需求。因此，在联邦制国家，公民生活在联邦法律和州法律的双重管辖之下。这种治理层次的并存促进了国家统一与地区多样性之间的平衡，有助于整个政治体系的稳定和有效。
联邦和欧洲联盟（欧盟）是两种形式的国际组织，但它们在结构和运作上有很大不同。在邦联中，主要机构一般由主权成员国的代表组成。这些代表从各自国家的利益出发行事和决策。因此，邦联通常是一个松散的联盟，成员国在其中保留了大部分主权和独立。邦联内部做出的决定通常需要成员国的一致同意或广泛共识。重点在于主权国家之间的合作，而不是建立一个对公民拥有直接权力的超国家实体。相比之下，欧洲联盟代表了一种更加一体化的地区组织形式。虽然成员国保留了很大的主权，但欧盟具有超国家实体的特征。欧洲议会由成员国公民直接选举产生，代表欧洲人民，在欧盟的立法过程中发挥着至关重要的作用。这种直接的民主方式使欧盟有别于传统的邦联。此外，欧盟还拥有超国家机构，如欧盟委员会、欧洲理事会和欧盟法院，它们拥有超越国界的行政、立法和司法权力。
因此，欧盟不仅仅是国家之间的合作，它还是一个政治和经济联盟，在贸易、环境和公民流动性等许多领域实行共同政策。欧盟成员国在某些领域拥有共同的立法，并受一系列条约的约束，这些条约规定了欧盟的运作规则。邦联与欧盟的根本区别在于一体化程度和代表机构的性质。邦联的基础是主权国家之间的合作，中央一级的权力有限，而欧盟则代表了更深层次的一体化，超国家机构对欧洲公民生活的某些方面拥有直接权力。
欧洲联盟（欧盟）的确是全球政治和制度版图中的一个独特实体，通常被描述为 "自成一体 "的组织--其本身并不符合联邦国家或邦联的传统分类。这种独特性可以解释为这两种组织形式的特征共存，同时又呈现出自身的鲜明特点。一方面，欧盟具有邦联的要素。成员国保留了很大程度的主权，尤其是在外交政策和国防等领域。重要决定，尤其是共同外交和安全政策领域的决定，往往需要成员国的一致同意。这种结构体现了典型的邦联式政府间合作，即各国在维护本国独立的同时，根据共同利益共同采取行动。另一方面，欧盟具有与联邦制国家相似的特点。它拥有超国家机构，如欧洲议会、欧盟委员会和欧盟法院，这些机构拥有超越国界的权力。欧洲议会由成员国公民直接选举产生，是超国家层面民主代表制的典范。欧盟还在内部市场、环境和经济监管等领域制定了共同政策和立法，在各成员国统一实施。然而，欧盟与传统的联邦制国家不同，它本身没有主权，其主权来自成员国。此外，尽管欧盟在某些领域有共同的立法，但成员国在税收和社会事务等其他关键领域仍保留了很大的自主权。欧盟是区域合作的一个独特范例，它结合了邦联和联邦国家的各个方面，同时又有自己的鲜明特点。这种混合性质使欧盟成为一个复杂和不断发展的实体，反映了欧洲国家在全球化世界中的多样性和日益增长的相互依赖性。
一个国家的政府形式由其机关或公共当局体现和实施，这些机关或公共当局是进行决策、制定政策和执行政府行动的机构。这些公共权力机构一般分为三个相互依存但又截然不同的部门：立法、行政和司法，每个部门都在国家治理中发挥着至关重要的作用。
立法部门通常由议会或大会代表，是法律制定的主体。它由民选代表组成，反映人民的意愿，是民主辩论的核心。例如，美国的国会和英国的议会是辩论、修改和通过法律的机构，它们确定了管理社会的准则。这些立法机构对于制定公共政策和确立影响国家生活各个方面的规则至关重要。
行政机构由总统或首相等人物领导，负责国家的日常管理和法律的执行。行政权包括负责国防、外交或经济等具体部门的各部委和机构。例如，在法国，总统和由各部部长组成的政府是国家管理的核心，负责执行法律、管理国际关系、国家安全和经济政策。
至于司法部门，它在法律解释方面发挥着至关重要的仲裁作用，并确保司法公正。组成这一部门的法院和法庭负责解决争端，判断行动是否符合宪法，并确保法律得到公平适用。在德国和加拿大等国，司法系统独立于其他政府部门运作，确保法律裁决不受政治影响并严格依法做出。
这三种权力的结构和相互作用决定了政府的形式，对于保持平衡、避免滥用权力以及确保民主和负责任的治理至关重要。三权分立与平衡可确保政府各部门有效代表并服务于民众的利益，同时尊重法治和民主原则。这种平衡对于政治稳定和人民心目中政府的合法性至关重要。
君主制是一种政治制度，其特点是由国王或王后等君主担任国家元首。在这种制度下，君主的职位通常是世袭的，在同一个王室家族中代代相传。不同君主制国家的君主角色和权力的具体内容会有很大不同，这取决于每个国家的宪法和历史结构。
在绝对君主制的情况下，君主对国家拥有完全、专有和无限的权力。这种君主制在历史上较为普遍，尤其是在欧洲的某些时期。在绝对君主制中，君主不受成文法或宪法的约束，对政府和国家行政行使完全的控制权。君主的决定是最终决定，他通常拥有立法、行政和司法权。路易十四统治下的法国就是历史上一个有名的绝对君主制的例子，在那里，国王的权力不受挑战，他的名言 "L'État, c'est moi"（"我就是国家"）就是最好的缩影。在这种君主制国家，君主往往被认为是神权统治，即由上帝选中并代表上帝在人间的旨意，这进一步加强了他的绝对权力。如今，大多数现存君主国都是立宪君主国，这意味着君主的权力受到宪法的限制，并通常在民主框架内行使，由民选政府管理国家事务。在这些制度中，君主的角色通常是礼仪性的，对政治或政府决策几乎没有实权。这类君主立宪制国家包括英国、瑞典和日本。
法国法学家皮埃尔-洛伊塞尔（Pierre Loisel，1536-1617 年）提出的格言 "Si veut le Roy, si veut la loi "抓住了绝对君主制的精髓，即国王的意志就是法律。这一原则反映了当时对君主权力的概念，即君主不仅是国家元首，也是立法的最高来源。在绝对君主制中，国王或王后被视为最高权威，其决定和意愿具有法律效力。这意味着君主在做出决定前无需遵循事先制定的法律或咨询其他管理机构。因此，法律是君主意志的直接产物，毫无例外地适用于所有臣民。这种制度将所有权力--立法权、行政权和司法权--都集中在君主手中。这种治理方式是 16 和 17 世纪欧洲几个君主国的典型做法。在那个时代，君权神授的观念被广泛接受，君主的绝对权力被认为是由神权授予和认可的。纳沙泰尔作为巴塞尔亲王主教统治下的教会君主国，也说明了这种治理形式。在这类君主制国家中，宗教权力和民事权力往往合二为一，从而强化了王权或王子权力既是世俗权力也是精神权力的观念。如今，这些绝对君主制的概念已在很大程度上演变为更加民主和宪政的治理形式，在这种治理形式中，君主的权力受到其他国家机构和宪法法律的限制和平衡。
寡头政治是一种由一小部分人掌握和行使权力的政治制度。这种政体不同于君主制，后者的权力集中在一个人手中，通常是国王或王后。在寡头政治中，权力由少数人分享，这些人可以通过财富、社会地位、教育程度、企业从属关系或某个精英群体的成员身份来区分。与民主政体不同的是，民主政体的权力本应属于全体人民，而寡头政治则将权力集中在社会的一小部分人手中。少数统治者可以通过不同方式施加影响，通常是通过控制主要的经济、政治或军事杠杆。寡头政府通过的决策和政策通常反映的是这一小部分人的利益和愿景，而不是大多数人的利益和愿景。
寡头政治有时会伪装成民主，有正式的选举和制度。但实际上，真正的权力掌握在少数有影响力的个人或家族手中。这些集团可以通过各种手段维持其影响力，如控制媒体、大公司、政治资金或关系网和庇护。历史上，许多政治制度都具有寡头政治的特征。例如，在古希腊的一些城邦中，权力往往被一小撮富有且有影响力的精英掌握。同样，在不同的历史时期，许多社会的政府都由贵族阶级或经济精英主导。寡头政治常常因其缺乏代表性和公平性而受到批评，因为它将大多数公民排除在政治进程的有效参与之外，并倾向于偏袒社会一小部分人的利益，从而损害了共同利益。
民主是一种基于人民主权原则的政治制度，权力属于人民。在民主制度中，公民直接或通过选举产生的代表在决策和行使权力方面发挥核心作用。在直接民主制中，公民积极参与法律和政策的制定和通过。这种直接行使权力的形式通常是公民投票或民众大会，由公民就具体问题进行投票。古代雅典城邦就是直接民主的一个历史典范，在那里，公民开会辩论并决定国家事务。然而，在大多数现代民主国家，民主制度是代议制的：公民选举代表来管理他们并代表他们做出决定。这种民主形式可以更实际地管理国家事务，尤其是当人口众多，无法让每个人都直接参与治理时。民选代表，如国会议员、参议员和国家元首，应反映人民的意愿，并以普遍利益为重。
代议制民主通常伴随着各种机构和机制，以确保政治进程的透明度、问责制和公平性。这些制度和机制包括定期、自由和公平的选举，言论自由和结社自由等公民权利，新闻自由，以及保护公民权利的独立司法系统。美国、德国、加拿大和澳大利亚等国都是代议制民主国家的典范。在这些制度中，虽然公民并不直接做出政治决定，但他们通过选举执政者和参与公共辩论发挥着至关重要的作用，而公共辩论则决定着国家的政策和法律。
19 世纪苏黎世著名法学家海因里希-鲁道夫-申茨（Heinrich Rudolf Schinz）的名言强调了对民主和政府作用的基本理解，尤其是在瑞士。他断言 "瑞士的所有政府都必须认识到这一点，即政府的存在前提是它属于人民，并由人民和为人民行事"，这反映了政府的合法性取决于它是否代表人民并为人民服务。这一观点与瑞士尤其相关，因为瑞士长期以来一直重视直接民主和参与式民主的原则。1830 年，当申茨表达这一观点时，瑞士正处于政治转型和发展时期。他的观点与新兴的民主理想产生了共鸣，即负责任的政府应顺应公民的需求和愿望。
申茨强调政府是 "人民的政府"，这意味着政府必须来自公民的同意和意愿。这意味着要有一个透明、公平的民主程序，让公民在选举代表和政治决策中发挥有意义的作用。民治 "这一表述强调了公民参与治理的重要性。在瑞士的制度中，这体现为直接民主机制，如全民公决和民众倡议，公民可以直接影响立法和公共政策。至于 "为人民服务"，指的是政府有义务从整体利益出发，执行有利于整个社会的政策和法律，而不是为特定利益或精英服务。施因茨的愿景体现了民主原则，这些原则仍然是瑞士治理的核心，在公民的积极参与下，以透明和负责任的方式行使权力。这体现了对民主的承诺，民主不仅是一种政府形式，也是人民价值观和愿望的体现。
亚伯拉罕-林肯在 1863 年葛底斯堡战役墓地落成典礼上的一段话是美国历史上最著名的演讲之一，也是民主思想的支柱。他说，"但愿我们下定决心，使这些死者不致白白牺牲，使这个国家在上帝的庇护下，在自由中获得新生......使民有、民治、民享的政府不致从地球上消失"，这句话与民主和自由的价值观产生了深深的共鸣。林肯发表这篇演讲的背景是一场激烈的内战，当时国家在自由和奴隶制问题上存在严重分歧。葛底斯堡战役是美国内战中最血腥的战役之一，是冲突的关键时刻。通过缅怀阵亡将士的牺牲，林肯试图赋予这些损失以意义，并强化国家对自由和统一原则的承诺。
民有、民治、民享 "的理念是对民主原则的有力肯定。林肯强调，民主不仅对美国至关重要，也是全人类的理想。这一理念意味着政府应建立在人民意志的基础上，应由选举产生的代表行使权力，为人民的利益服务，其最终目标必须是人民的福祉。盖茨堡演说》虽然简短，但不仅对美国社会，而且对全球的民主和自由观念都产生了深远而持久的影响。它继续被作为危机时刻领导力的雄辩典范和民主国家赖以建立的基本价值观的有力提醒。
