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=== 刑法 ===
=== 刑法 ===
Criminal law is a fundamental branch of the legal system that focuses on regulating and punishing behaviour deemed harmful or dangerous to society. Its main objective is to maintain social order by defining what constitutes criminal behaviour and establishing appropriate penalties for these offences. In criminal law, an offence is defined as an act or omission that violates a law and is punishable by a criminal penalty, such as a fine, imprisonment or other forms of reparation. Criminal law specifies not only the types of actions considered to be offences, but also the circumstances and intentions (mens rea) required for an act to be classified as criminal.
刑法是法律体系的一个基本分支，侧重于规范和惩罚被认为对社会有害或危险的行为。其主要目的是通过界定哪些行为构成犯罪并对这些罪行制定适当的惩罚措施来维护社会秩序。在刑法中，犯罪被定义为违反法律并应受到刑事处罚的行为或不行为，如罚款、监禁或其他形式的赔偿。刑法不仅规定了被视为犯罪的行为类型，还规定了将行为归类为犯罪所需的情形和意图（犯罪意图）。


The aim of criminal law goes beyond simply punishing offenders. It also aims to prevent crime, rehabilitate offenders and protect society. By clearly defining unacceptable behaviour and the associated consequences, the criminal law plays a deterrent role, aimed at preventing the commission of future crimes. The criminal justice system, which implements criminal law, includes police forces (which investigate crimes), courts (which try criminal cases), and correctional systems (which enforce sentences). Criminal procedure, an integral part of criminal law, ensures that the rights of accused persons are protected, including the right to a fair trial and the right not to be subjected to cruel or unusual treatment.
刑法的目的不仅仅是惩罚罪犯。它还旨在预防犯罪、改造罪犯和保护社会。通过明确界定不可接受的行为和相关后果，刑法发挥了威慑作用，旨在防止今后发生犯罪行为。执行刑法的刑事司法系统包括警察部队（调查犯罪）、法院（审判刑事案件）和教养系统（执行判决）。刑事诉讼程序是刑法不可分割的一部分，它确保被告人的权利得到保护，包括获得公平审判的权利和不受残忍或不寻常待遇的权利。


Historically, criminal law has evolved to reflect changes in social values and norms. For example, over time, many legal systems have abolished punishments deemed inhuman or degrading and have developed concepts such as diminished responsibility for certain groups of people, such as minors. Criminal law is a crucial pillar of the legal system, playing an essential role in preserving social order, protecting citizens from criminal behaviour, and ensuring fairness and justice in the treatment of offences.
从历史上看，刑法的演变反映了社会价值观和规范的变化。例如，随着时间的推移，许多法律制度废除了被视为不人道或有辱人格的惩罚，并发展了针对未成年人等特定人群的减轻责任等概念。刑法是法律体系的重要支柱，在维护社会秩序、保护公民免受犯罪行为侵害以及确保公平公正处理犯罪行为方面发挥着至关重要的作用。


A criminal offence, as defined in criminal law, may be active or passive behaviour that is prohibited by law and is punishable by penalties depending on its seriousness. This definition encompasses a wide range of acts and omissions that are considered harmful or dangerous to society and therefore merit a criminal response. Active behaviour generally involves deliberate action, such as theft, assault or murder. In these cases, the individual commits an act that directly contravenes the law. On the other hand, passive behaviour may involve an omission or failure to act when the law imposes a specific obligation, as in the case of parental neglect or failure to comply with safety standards at work.
按照刑法的定义，刑事犯罪可以是法律禁止的主动或被动行为，并根据其严重程度受到惩罚。这一定义涵盖了被认为对社会有害或危险，因此应受到刑事制裁的各种行为和不行为。主动行为一般涉及蓄意行动，如盗窃、袭击或谋杀。在这些情况下，个人实施了直接违反法律的行为。另一方面，被动行为可能涉及在法律规定了特定义务时的不作为或不作为，如父母疏忽或未遵守工作安全标准。


The seriousness of an offence is a key factor in determining the appropriate sentence. Offences are generally classified according to their severity, as contraventions, délits, and crimes, each attracting different levels of punishment. Contraventions, considered to be the least serious offences, can be punished by fines or other minor penalties. Misdemeanours, which are more serious, can result in short prison sentences or larger fines. Crimes, which are the most serious offences, can lead to long prison sentences, or even life imprisonment in the most serious cases.
罪行的严重程度是决定适当刑罚的关键因素。违法行为一般根据其严重程度分为违法行为、犯罪行为和犯罪，每种行为都会受到不同程度的处罚。违法行为被认为是最不严重的罪行，可处以罚款或其他轻微处罚。轻罪较为严重，可处以短期监禁或较大数额的罚款。罪行是最严重的违法行为，可导致长期监禁，在最严重的情况下甚至会被判处终身监禁。


The nature of the sentence depends on the specific legal system and the particular circumstances of each case. Fines are often used for less serious or first-time offences, while prison is generally reserved for more serious misdemeanours and felonies. Some jurisdictions may also use other forms of punishment, such as community service, probation or rehabilitation programmes. A criminal offence may be an act or omission prohibited by law, and the penalty imposed depends on the seriousness of the offence. The criminal justice system uses these penalties not only to punish offenders, but also to deter criminal behaviour and protect society.
刑罚的性质取决于具体的法律制度和每个案件的特殊情况。罚款通常用于不太严重或初犯的罪行，而监禁一般用于较严重的轻罪和重罪。一些司法管辖区还可能使用其他形式的惩罚，如社区服务、缓刑或改造计划。刑事犯罪可能是法律禁止的行为或不行为，所处刑罚取决于罪行的严重程度。刑事司法系统使用这些刑罚不仅是为了惩罚罪犯，也是为了威慑犯罪行为和保护社会。


Criminal law plays a crucial role in the legal system by defining offences and establishing the conditions under which penalties must be applied. This branch of law is concerned with identifying precisely what behaviour is considered criminal and what the appropriate penalties are for these acts, depending on their nature and seriousness. Offences in criminal law are classified into different categories, such as contraventions, délits and crimes, according to their severity. Each category of offence is associated with a specific set of possible penalties. For example, contraventions, which are the least serious offences, may be punished by fines or short prison sentences, while crimes, which are the most serious, may result in longer prison sentences or other severe penalties.
刑法在法律体系中发挥着至关重要的作用，它对犯罪行为进行定义，并确定必须适用刑罚的条件。这一法律分支关注的是准确确定哪些行为被视为犯罪，以及根据这些行为的性质和严重程度对其处以何种适当的刑罚。刑法中的犯罪行为根据其严重程度分为不同类别，如违法行为、犯罪行为和犯罪。每一类犯罪都与一套特定的可能处罚相关联。例如，违法行为是最不严重的罪行，可处以罚款或短期监禁，而犯罪是最严重的罪行，可处以长期监禁或其他严厉处罚。


Criminal law also stipulates the conditions under which penalties must be applied. This includes the legal procedures that must be followed to ensure a fair trial and respect for the rights of those accused. The principle of legality is fundamental to criminal law: a person can only be tried and punished if his or her behaviour corresponds to an offence clearly defined in the law. Furthermore, criminal law takes into account various factors, such as intent (mens rea), mitigating or aggravating circumstances, and the criminal past of the accused, to determine the appropriate sentence. Furthermore, criminal law is not only punitive, but also aims to prevent re-offending, rehabilitate offenders and protect society. Rehabilitation programmes, alternatives to imprisonment and probation systems are examples of how criminal law seeks to integrate these objectives. Criminal law is essential for maintaining social order by defining offences and setting clear standards for the application of penalties. It ensures that sanctions are applied fairly and proportionately, while protecting the fundamental rights of individuals and preserving public safety.
刑法还规定了适用刑罚的条件。这包括为确保公平审判和尊重被告权利而必须遵循的法律程序。合法性原则是刑法的基本原则：只有当一个人的行为符合法律明确规定的罪行时，才能对其进行审判和处罚。此外，刑法会考虑各种因素，如意图（犯罪意图）、减轻或加重处罚的情节以及被告的犯罪前科，以确定适当的刑罚。此外，刑法不仅是惩罚性的，还旨在防止再次犯罪、改造罪犯和保护社会。改过自新计划、监外教养办法和缓刑制度都是刑法如何努力实现这些目标的例子。刑法通过界定罪行和制定适用刑罚的明确标准，对维护社会秩序至关重要。它确保制裁得到公平和适度的适用，同时保护个人的基本权利和维护公共安全。


Criminal law, as an essential element of social order and cohesion, has been present since the earliest societies, including those described as 'primitive'. In these societies, criminal law manifests itself in forms that reflect the social structures and cultural norms of the time. In the family or clan context, criminal justice was often administered by the head of the family or clan. This authority figure played a central role in managing conflicts and punishing behaviour deemed unacceptable or harmful to the group. The justice meted out by the chief could take various forms, ranging from material reparation to more severe sanctions, depending on the nature of the offence and the traditions of the group. In the absence of a recognised central or higher authority, the punishment of crimes could take the form of private vengeance. This type of justice, often guided by specific cultural norms and codes, manifested itself in practices such as the 'vendetta', where the victim's family or clan took the necessary steps to repair the harm suffered, often through acts of retaliation. This approach to justice was rooted in concepts of honour and reparation, and played a crucial role in regulating behaviour within the community.
刑法作为社会秩序和凝聚力的基本要素，从最早的社会，包括那些被称为 "原始 "的社会开始就已经存在。在这些社会中，刑法的表现形式反映了当时的社会结构和文化规范。在家庭或氏族背景下，刑事司法通常由一家之主或氏族首领执行。这一权威人物在处理冲突和惩罚被认为不可接受或有害于群体的行为方面发挥着核心作用。首领执行的司法可以采取多种形式，从物质赔偿到更严厉的制裁，这取决于犯罪的性质和群体的传统。在没有公认的中央或更高权力机构的情况下，对罪行的惩罚可以采取私人复仇的形式。这种类型的司法通常以特定的文化规范和准则为指导，表现为 "仇杀 "等做法，即受害者的家庭或部族采取必要的措施来弥补所遭受的伤害，通常是通过报复行为。这种司法方式植根于荣誉和赔偿的概念，在规范社区内的行为方面发挥着至关重要的作用。


These systems of primitive justice, although very different from modern legal systems, illustrate the universal importance of criminal law in preserving social order and managing conflict within human groups. Over time, these systems have evolved into more organised and centralised forms of criminal justice, reflecting the development of more complex state structures and the recognition of principles such as fairness and human rights. Thus, criminal law, from its origins in primitive societies to its modern incarnations, has always played an essential role in regulating human interaction and preserving social harmony.
这些原始司法制度虽然与现代法律制度大相径庭，但却说明了刑法在维护社会秩序和管理人类群体内部冲突方面的普遍重要性。随着时间的推移，这些制度已演变成更有组织、更集中的刑事司法形式，反映了更复杂的国家结构的发展以及对公平和人权等原则的认可。因此，从原始社会到现代社会，刑法一直在规范人类互动和维护社会和谐方面发挥着重要作用。


Historically, in many societies, criminal law was initially dominated by the concept of revenge, a practice that brought it closer to private law. In this context, criminal justice was largely a personal or family affair. A system emblematic of this approach is the "Faide" (or "Faida"), a primitive criminal law mechanism in which the victim of an injury had the right to cause a similar injury to the perpetrator or his family. This system was based on the principle of reciprocity and balance in retaliation, and reflected a conception of justice based on honour and personal reparation. However, with time and the growing influence of ethical and religious principles, particularly Christian ones, the concept of pecuniary composition began to replace private vengeance. This was a form of financial compensation designed to compensate the victim or his or her family. The payment of a sum of money or some other form of compensation served to appease the victim and avoid cycles of revenge that could destabilise society.
从历史上看，在许多社会中，刑法最初是由复仇概念主导的，这种做法使刑法更接近私法。在这种情况下，刑事司法在很大程度上是个人或家庭事务。Faide"（或 "Faida"）是这一做法的典型制度，在这一原始刑法机制中，伤害的受害者有权对犯罪者或其家人造成类似的伤害。这一制度以报复中的互惠和平衡原则为基础，反映了一种以荣誉和个人赔偿为基础的司法理念。然而，随着时间的推移以及伦理和宗教原则（尤其是基督教原则）影响的不断扩大，金钱赔偿的概念开始取代私人复仇。这是一种旨在补偿受害者或其家人的经济补偿形式。支付一笔钱或某种其他形式的补偿，有助于安抚受害者，避免可能破坏社会稳定的报复循环。


This development reflects a fundamental change in the understanding of justice and criminal law. The transition from private vengeance to forms of financial compensation marks the beginning of a more structured legal system, where conflict resolution is more organised and less violent. This change is also indicative of the growing influence of values such as forgiveness, reconciliation and social stability, which began to take precedence over the practices of revenge and retaliation. The history of criminal law shows a gradual evolution from a system based on personal vengeance and private law to a more formal and institutionalised legal system. This evolution has been strongly influenced by changes in social, ethical and religious norms, leading to more civilised and equitable practices of conflict resolution and reparation of damages.
这一发展反映出人们对司法和刑法的理解发生了根本性的变化。从私人复仇到经济补偿形式的转变，标志着一个更有条理的法律体系的开始，在这个体系中，冲突的解决更有组织，暴力程度更低。这一变化也表明，宽恕、和解和社会稳定等价值观的影响越来越大，开始优先于复仇和报复的做法。刑法的历史表明，从基于个人复仇和私法的制度逐渐演变为更加正式和制度化的法律制度。这种演变受到社会、伦理和宗教规范变化的强烈影响，导致解决冲突和赔偿损失的做法更加文明和公平。


The transition to a system where the state holds a monopoly on legitimate violence and imposes its own criminal sanctions represents a major turning point in the history of law and governance. This evolution occurred gradually and can be seen as a key stage in the development of modern states. In earlier societies, as we have seen, criminal justice was often a private matter, managed within the family or clan, and based on principles of personal vengeance or direct reparation. However, with the emergence of nation states and the development of more centralised government structures, the state began to claim a monopoly on the exercise of force and criminal sanction. This process was influenced by a variety of factors, including the need for stable public order, the centralisation of political power, and the influence of more universal legal and ethical principles.
向国家垄断合法暴力并实施刑事制裁的制度过渡，是法律和治理史上的一个重要转折点。这一演变是逐步发生的，可视为现代国家发展的一个关键阶段。正如我们所见，在早期社会，刑事司法往往是家庭或宗族内部的私事，以个人复仇或直接赔偿原则为基础。然而，随着民族国家的出现和更加中央集权的政府结构的发展，国家开始宣称垄断了武力和刑事制裁的行使。这一过程受到多种因素的影响，包括对稳定的公共秩序的需求、政治权力的集中以及更普遍的法律和道德原则的影响。


The monopolisation of legitimate violence by the state means that only the state authority can legally exercise force or impose criminal sanctions. This idea was conceptualised by the sociologist Max Weber, who identified the monopoly of legitimate violence as a fundamental characteristic of the modern state. By taking control of criminal justice, the state not only established its authority over domestic affairs, but also contributed to a more predictable and just environment for its citizens. The introduction of criminal law enforcement by the state has led to the creation of formalised judicial systems, where laws are defined by legislative bodies and enforced by the courts. This has led to a more systematic and equitable administration of justice, with clearly defined procedures to ensure the rights of the accused and fair treatment. This change has also led to the standardisation of laws and penalties across the territories, replacing the varied and often contradictory local or tribal systems of justice. It has also encouraged the development of legal principles such as the presumption of innocence and the right to a fair trial, which are now regarded as fundamental aspects of modern legal systems.
国家对合法暴力的垄断意味着只有国家权力机构才能合法行使武力或实施刑事制裁。社会学家马克斯-韦伯（Max Weber）提出了这一概念，他认为合法暴力的垄断是现代国家的基本特征。通过对刑事司法的控制，国家不仅确立了其对国内事务的权威，还有助于为其公民创造一个更可预测、更公正的环境。由国家实施刑事法律导致了正规化司法体系的建立，在这种体系中，法律由立法机构制定，由法院执行。这使得司法工作更加系统化和公平化，明确规定的程序确保了被告的权利和公平待遇。这一变革还使各地的法律和刑罚实现了标准化，取代了各不相同且往往相互矛盾的地方或部落司法制度。它还促进了无罪推定和公平审判权等法律原则的发展，这些原则现已被视为现代法律制度的基本内容。


The popular imagination often immediately associates criminal law with dramatic and powerful images. This perception is largely influenced by the most visible and theatrical aspects of criminal justice, in particular the historic methods of execution such as the guillotine, nicknamed "the great widow", as well as the rites and spectacular procedures of criminal trials. This representation is reinforced by the media, literature and film, where criminal cases are often presented in a sensational manner, accentuating the elements of drama, conflict and punishment. The guillotine, for example, became a powerful symbol of criminal justice, particularly during the French Revolution, when it was used to publicly execute those considered enemies of the state. These public executions were not only acts of justice, but also spectacles designed to send a strong message to the public. However, despite this strong and often dramatic association in the public mind, criminal law cases are actually a minority of court cases. Instead, the majority of cases handled by the judicial systems in many countries fall under civil law, which deals with disputes between individuals or entities, or administrative law, which concerns relations between citizens and the state. These cases include issues such as contractual disputes, divorce, property, and breaches of municipal by-laws, which are generally less sensational but more relevant to people's daily lives.
大众的想象力往往会立即将刑法与戏剧性和强大的形象联系起来。这种观念在很大程度上受到刑事司法中最显眼和最戏剧化的方面的影响，尤其是历史上的行刑方式，如断头台（绰号 "大寡妇"），以及刑事审判的仪式和壮观的程序。媒体、文学和电影强化了这种表现形式，刑事案件往往以耸人听闻的方式呈现，突出戏剧、冲突和惩罚等元素。例如，断头台成为刑事司法的有力象征，特别是在法国大革命期间，它被用来公开处决那些被视为国家敌人的人。这些公开处决不仅是正义之举，也是向公众传递强烈信息的奇观。然而，尽管在公众心目中存在着这种强烈的、往往是戏剧性的联想，刑法案件实际上只占法院案件的少数。相反，在许多国家，司法系统处理的大多数案件都属于民法或行政法范畴，前者处理个人或实体之间的纠纷，后者则涉及公民与国家之间的关系。这些案件包括合同纠纷、离婚、财产和违反市政细则等问题，一般不那么耸人听闻，但与人们的日常生活更为相关。


The enforcement of offences is exclusively the monopoly of the State. This centralisation of repressive authority is a key element in the transition of societies towards more structured and ordered legal systems. The prohibition of private vengeance and the transition to a state criminal justice system were crucial steps in the development of more peaceful and stable societies. Historically, private vengeance, such as faide or vendetta, was a common way of settling disputes and punishing offences in many societies. However, this system tended to generate cycles of violence and retaliation, disrupting social peace and public order.
违法行为的执行完全由国家垄断。这种镇压权力的集中是社会向结构更严谨、秩序更规范的法律制度过渡的关键因素。禁止私人复仇和向国家刑事司法制度过渡是发展更加和平稳定的社会的关键步骤。历史上，私人复仇，如 "法德"（faide）或 "仇杀"（vendetta），是许多社会解决争端和惩罚犯罪的常用方式。然而，这种制度往往会产生暴力和报复循环，破坏社会和平与公共秩序。


For society to accept the abandonment of private vengeance, it is imperative that the State provides an effective and reliable criminal justice system. This means not only punishing offences fairly and proportionately, but also ensuring that victims of crime are heard and their rights protected. Public confidence in the State's ability and willingness to punish crime is therefore essential to maintaining social order and preventing a return to forms of private justice. Furthermore, the centralisation of criminal law enforcement in the hands of the state has led to the development of key legal principles such as the presumption of innocence, the right to a fair trial, and the proportionality of sentences. These principles not only ensure that justice is done fairly, but also contribute to the legitimacy of the legal system in the eyes of the public.
要让社会接受放弃私人复仇，国家必须提供有效可靠的刑事司法系统。这意味着不仅要公平、适度地惩罚犯罪，还要确保听取犯罪受害者的意见，保护他们的权利。因此，公众对国家惩治犯罪的能力和意愿的信心，对于维护社会秩序和防止恢复私法形式至关重要。此外，将刑事执法权集中在国家手中也促成了无罪推定、公平审判权和量刑相称等重要法律原则的发展。这些原则不仅确保司法公正，还有助于提高法律制度在公众心目中的合法性。


One of the State's primary tasks in the area of criminal law is to ensure peace and security by punishing breaches of the social order. To achieve this, the State relies on a structured set of rules and laws, generally codified in what is known as the Criminal Code. This code is essential for defining criminal offences and establishing the conditions for punishing them. The Penal Code plays a central role in the criminal justice system. It specifically defines which behaviours are considered criminal offences and stipulates the penalties applicable to these offences. By clearly delimiting reprehensible acts and setting out the corresponding penalties, the Penal Code serves as a guide both for citizens and for law enforcement authorities, prosecutors and judges.
国家在刑法领域的主要任务之一是通过惩治破坏社会秩序的行为来确保和平与安全。为实现这一目标，国家依靠一套结构化的规则和法律，这些规则和法律一般编纂为《刑法典》。该法典对于界定刑事犯罪和确定惩罚条件至关重要。刑法》在刑事司法系统中发挥着核心作用。它具体界定了哪些行为被视为刑事犯罪，并规定了适用于这些罪行的处罚。通过明确界定应受谴责的行为并规定相应的处罚，《刑法典》既是公民的指南，也是执法机关、检察官和法官的指南。


The Code generally covers a wide range of offences, from minor offences such as traffic offences to major crimes such as murder or robbery. As well as defining offences, the Penal Code often establishes fundamental principles of criminal justice, such as the presumption of innocence, the need for criminal intent (mens rea) for most crimes, and mitigating or aggravating circumstances that can influence the severity of the punishment. In addition, the Penal Code may include provisions relating to prosecution procedures, the rights of the accused and the various stages of the judicial process. These provisions ensure that criminal proceedings are conducted fairly and in accordance with the rule of law. By ensuring that offences are punished in a structured and fair manner, the State fulfils its role as protector of peace and public safety. The Criminal Code is therefore an essential instrument for maintaining social order, preventing crime and ensuring justice in society.[[Fichier:Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 1.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html#a1 article 1]]]
刑法典》一般涵盖广泛的罪行，从交通肇事等轻罪到谋杀或抢劫等重罪。除了界定罪行，《刑法典》通常还规定了刑事司法的基本原则，如无罪推定、大多数罪行需要有犯罪意图（犯罪意图），以及可影响刑罚轻重的减轻或加重处罚情节。此外，《刑法典》还可能包括有关起诉程序、被告权利和司法程序各阶段的规定。这些规定可确保刑事诉讼公平进行并符合法治原则。通过确保以有序和公正的方式惩罚犯罪行为，国家履行了其作为和平与公共安全保护者的职责。因此，《刑法》是维护社会秩序、预防犯罪和确保社会公正的重要工具。[[Fichier:Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 1.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html#a1 article 1]]]


The conception of the role of the State in criminal law is that of a protector of the individual and of society. This perspective is clearly expressed in documents such as the Swiss Federal Constitution, where the State is mandated to protect the freedom and rights of the people, ensure the independence and security of the country, and promote the general welfare. In the context of criminal law, this responsibility of the State manifests itself in the prosecution and punishment of criminal activities. The State acts not only to punish reprehensible behaviour, but also to prevent crime, protect citizens against infringements of their security and rights, and maintain public order. This repressive function is fundamental to maintaining social peace and protecting individual freedoms.
国家在刑法中的角色概念是个人和社会的保护者。瑞士联邦宪法》等文件明确表达了这一观点，其中规定国家的任务是保护人民的自由和权利，确保国家的独立和安全，并促进普遍福利。在刑法方面，国家的这一责任体现在对犯罪活动的起诉和惩罚上。国家不仅要惩罚应受谴责的行为，还要预防犯罪，保护公民的安全和权利不受侵犯，维护公共秩序。这种镇压职能对于维护社会安宁和保护个人自由至关重要。


Although criminal law is distinct from private law, they are interconnected in their common objective of protecting the individual. Private law deals primarily with relationships between individuals or private entities, while criminal law focuses on offences against the state or society as a whole. However, both contribute to the creation of a safe and just environment where the rights and freedoms of individuals are protected. Article 2 of the Swiss Federal Constitution encapsulates this vision by setting out the fundamental objectives of the Confederation, which include the protection of freedoms and rights, the promotion of common prosperity, social cohesion, and sustainability. These principles reflect a holistic approach to governance, where the protection of individual rights, security, economic and social well-being, and the preservation of the environment are seen as interdependent elements of a stable and prosperous society.
虽然刑法有别于私法，但两者在保护个人这一共同目标上是相互关联的。私法主要处理个人或私人实体之间的关系，而刑法则侧重于针对国家或整个社会的犯罪行为。不过，两者都有助于创造一个安全公正的环境，使个人的权利和自由得到保护。瑞士联邦宪法》第 2 条概括了这一愿景，规定了联邦的基本目标，包括保护自由和权利、促进共同繁荣、社会凝聚力和可持续性。这些原则反映了一种综合治理的方法，即把保护个人权利、安全、经济和社会福祉以及保护环境视为一个稳定和繁荣社会的相互依存的要素。


Within the broad field of criminal law, there is an important distinction between so-called ordinary criminal law and special criminal law, each responding to specific needs in society and within particular structures.
在广义的刑法领域，所谓的普通刑法和特别刑法之间存在着重要的区别，每种刑法都是为了满足社会和特定结构中的特定需求。


Ordinary criminal law is the most widespread and familiar form of criminal law. Applied by the ordinary courts, it is universally applicable to all citizens. This branch of criminal law covers general offences such as theft, assault, murder and many other misdemeanours and felonies. It serves as the backbone of the criminal justice system, ensuring that everyone, regardless of status or profession, is subject to the same criminal rules and penalties. For example, whether you are an ordinary citizen or a high-profile celebrity, if you commit a theft, you will be tried under the same laws and procedures. This legal framework plays an essential role in maintaining public order and security, guaranteeing fairness and justice in society.
普通刑法是最普遍和最熟悉的刑法形式。普通刑法由普通法院适用，普遍适用于所有公民。这一刑法分支涵盖盗窃、伤害、谋杀等一般罪行以及许多其他轻罪和重罪。它是刑事司法系统的支柱，确保每个人，无论其地位或职业如何，都受到相同的刑事规则和处罚。例如，无论你是普通公民还是高知名度的名人，如果你犯下盗窃罪，都将根据相同的法律和程序受到审判。这一法律框架在维护公共秩序和安全、保障社会公平和正义方面发挥着至关重要的作用。


Alongside ordinary criminal law, special criminal law focuses on specific categories of offender or particular situations, often dealt with by specialised courts. An emblematic example is military criminal law, which applies exclusively to members of the armed forces. This special law takes into account the specific needs and unique nature of the military environment. It deals with offences specific to this context, such as desertion or insubordination, and is applied in recognition of the strict hierarchical structure and disciplinary needs of the armed forces. These special rules recognise that certain behaviours, which might not be considered offences in civilian life, can have serious consequences in the military context.
除普通刑法外，特别刑法侧重于特定类别的罪犯或特定情况，通常由专门法院处理。军事刑法就是一个典型的例子，它专门适用于武装部队成员。该特别法考虑到了军事环境的特殊需求和独特性质。它处理开小差或不服从命令等军事环境中特有的犯罪行为，其适用也考虑到了武装部队严格的等级结构和纪律要求。这些特殊规则承认，某些行为在平民生活中可能不被视为犯罪，但在军事环境中却可能产生严重后果。


This coexistence of ordinary criminal law and special criminal law reflects the diversity and complexity of modern societies. While ordinary criminal law ensures that the law is applied uniformly and fairly to society as a whole, special criminal law enables more tailored and targeted management of offences in specific contexts. Together, these two branches of criminal law form a comprehensive legal system, capable of providing an appropriate and balanced response to a wide range of offences and behaviour in society.[[Fichier:Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 123.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html#a123 article 123]]]Article 123 of the Swiss Federal Constitution sets out the framework for the division of powers between the Confederation and the cantons in matters of criminal law and procedure. This constitutional provision reflects Switzerland's federalist organisation, where responsibility and authority are shared between the federal government and the cantons.
普通刑法和特别刑法的并存反映了现代社会的多样性和复杂性。普通刑法确保法律统一、公平地适用于整个社会，而特别刑法则能在特定情况下对犯罪进行更有针对性的管理。刑法的这两个分支共同构成了一个全面的法律体系，能够对社会中的各种犯罪和行为做出适当而平衡的反应。[[Fichier:Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 123.png|vignette|center|700px|[http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999] - [http://www.admin.ch/opc/fr/classified-compilation/19995395/index.html#a123 article 123]]]瑞士联邦宪法》第123条规定了联邦与各州在刑法和刑事诉讼方面的权力划分框架。该宪法条款反映了瑞士的联邦制组织结构，即联邦政府和各州共同承担责任和权力。


According to the first paragraph, the Confederation is responsible for legislation on criminal law and procedure. This means that it is at federal level that the laws governing criminal offences, the applicable penalties and the procedural rules for handling criminal cases are defined. This centralisation ensures that criminal law standards are uniform throughout the country, thereby guaranteeing that the same criminal laws are applied in all parts of Switzerland. The second paragraph specifies that the organisation of the judiciary, the administration of criminal justice and the enforcement of criminal penalties and measures are the responsibility of the cantons, unless otherwise provided by law. This means that although legislation is established at federal level, the cantons are responsible for the organisation of the courts, the administration of legal proceedings and the enforcement of sentences. This division of responsibilities allows a degree of flexibility and adaptation to local circumstances, while maintaining a coherent legal framework at national level. Finally, the third paragraph allows the Confederation to legislate on the enforcement of sentences and measures. It may also provide financial support to the cantons for building prisons, improving the enforcement of sentences and measures, and supporting educational institutions for children, adolescents and young adults. This provision recognises the importance of collaboration and support between the federal and cantonal levels to ensure an efficient and humane administration of criminal justice. This article of the Swiss Constitution thus illustrates the way in which Switzerland balances federal and cantonal responsibilities in the area of criminal law, guaranteeing both uniformity of criminal standards across the country and management adapted to specific regional characteristics.
根据第一款规定，联邦负责刑法和刑事诉讼法的立法。这意味着，有关刑事犯罪的法律、适用的刑罚以及处理刑事案件的程序规则都是在联邦一级制定的。这种中央集权确保了刑法标准在全国范围内的统一，从而保证了瑞士各地适用相同的刑法。第二款规定，除非法律另有规定，司法机构的组织、刑事司法的实施以及刑事处罚和措施的执行均由各州负责。这就意味着，尽管立法是在联邦一级制定的，但各州仍负责法院的组织、法律程序的管理以及刑罚的执行。这种责任分工允许一定程度的灵活性和适应当地情况的能力，同时在国家层面保持一致的法律框架。最后，第三款允许联邦就判决和措施的执行进行立法。联邦还可以向各州提供财政支持，用于修建监狱、改善判决和措施的执行，以及支持儿童、青少年和年轻成年人的教育机构。这一条款承认了联邦和各州之间的合作与支持对于确保高效和人性化的刑事司法管理的重要性。因此，《瑞士宪法》的这一条款说明了瑞士在刑法领域平衡联邦和各州责任的方式，既保证了全国刑事标准的统一性，又保证了适合具体地区特点的管理。


=== Procedural law ===
=== 程序法 ===
Procedural law is an essential aspect of the legal system, setting out the rules and standards for the conduct of legal proceedings. This branch of law can be viewed from two angles: a broad sense and a narrow sense.
程序法是法律制度的一个重要方面，它规定了法律诉讼的规则和标准。可以从广义和狭义两个角度来看待这一法律分支。


In its broad sense, procedural law encompasses all the forms and formalities necessary for the realisation and exercise of a right or set of rules. It is the set of administrative and legal procedures that must be followed to assert a right or enforce a rule. This can include procedures such as filing a complaint, rules for notifying the parties involved, how to submit evidence and documents, and the steps to follow to appeal a decision. This broad sense of procedural law is crucial to ensuring that rights are exercised in an orderly, fair and lawful manner.
从广义上讲，程序法包括实现和行使一项权利或一套规则所需的所有形式和手续。它是主张权利或执行规则所必须遵循的一套行政和法律程序。这可能包括提出申诉等程序、通知有关各方的规则、如何提交证据和文件以及对裁决提出上诉的步骤。这种广义的程序法对于确保以有序、公平和合法的方式行使权利至关重要。


In its narrow sense, procedural law refers specifically to court procedure, also known as judicial law or process law. This branch deals with the rules governing the operation of the courts and the way in which legal cases are handled. It defines how a trial is to be conducted, including how evidence is presented and evaluated, appeal procedures, and standards of conduct for judges, lawyers, and the parties involved. Judicial procedural law is fundamental to ensuring that cases are dealt with fairly and impartially before the courts, guaranteeing that all citizens have access to justice and that cases are decided fairly and in accordance with the principles of the rule of law.
狭义的程序法专指法院程序，也称为司法法或诉讼法。这一分支涉及法院的运作规则和处理法律案件的方式。它规定了如何进行审判，包括如何出示和评估证据、上诉程序以及法官、律师和当事人的行为标准。司法程序法对于确保法院公平公正地处理案件、保证所有公民都能诉诸司法以及根据法治原则公平裁决案件至关重要。


Procedural law plays an essential role in determining the organisation of the courts and setting the forms and rules according to which the competent courts must judge disputes. Procedural law encompasses a set of standards and procedures that ensure that legal cases are dealt with in an orderly and fair manner and in accordance with the principles of the rule of law. The organisation of the courts, a crucial aspect of procedural law, involves the structuring of judicial systems, including the definition of the different levels of jurisdiction (such as courts of first instance, appeal courts and supreme courts) and their respective areas of competence. This organisation is designed to ensure that each case is dealt with by the most appropriate court, depending on the nature of the dispute and the legal issues involved. Procedural forms and rules determine how disputes are to be adjudicated. These include procedures for lodging complaints, rules of evidence, time limits for the various stages of the trial, hearing procedures, and methods of appeal. These rules are designed to ensure a transparent, fair and efficient judicial process, where the rights of all parties are protected.
程序法在确定法院的组织结构以及制定主管法院必须据以判决争议的形式和规则方面发挥着至关重要的作用。程序法包括一整套标准和程序，确保法律案件得到有序、公正的处理，并符合法治原则。法院的组织是程序法的一个重要方面，它涉及司法系统的结构，包括不同级别管辖权（如初审法院、上诉法院和最高法院）及其各自职权范围的定义。这种组织结构旨在确保根据争议的性质和所涉及的法律问题，由最合适的法院处理每个案件。程序形式和规则决定了争端的裁决方式。其中包括投诉程序、证据规则、审判各阶段的时限、听证程序和上诉方法。这些规则旨在确保司法程序透明、公正和高效，并保护所有各方的权利。


As far as private legal proceedings are concerned, they are seen as the necessary complement to private law. Whereas private law defines the rights and obligations between individuals or entities, private litigation provides the mechanism through which these rights and obligations can be enforced and challenged in court. For example, in a contractual matter, private law will determine the obligations of the parties to the contract, while private judicial procedure will govern the way in which a dispute concerning that contract will be dealt with in court. It is the law that prescribes these methods and procedures, reflecting the importance of legislative codification in establishing clear and enforceable rules for the resolution of disputes. Thus, procedural law is a vital element of the legal system, enabling the law to be applied effectively and fairly, and ensuring that justice is accessible and achievable for all citizens.
就私人法律诉讼而言，它们被视为私法的必要补充。私法规定了个人或实体之间的权利和义务，而私人诉讼则提供了一种机制，通过这种机制，这些权利和义务可以在法庭上得到执行和质疑。例如，在合同问题上，私法将确定合同各方的义务，而私人司法程序将规范法院处理与该合同有关的争议的方式。正是法律规定了这些方法和程序，反映了立法编纂在为解决争端制定明确且可执行的规则方面的重要性。因此，程序法是法律体系的重要组成部分，它使法律得以有效、公正地实施，并确保所有公民都能获得和实现正义。


In the legal system, the distinction between the different legal procedures - criminal, administrative and civil - is crucial to understanding how disputes are handled and resolved according to their specific nature.
在法律体系中，区分不同的法律程序--刑事、行政和民事--对于理解如何根据具体性质处理和解决争端至关重要。


Criminal proceedings are those that govern the handling of criminal cases. In this context, the rigour of the rules of form is essential to guarantee the rights of the accused, a fundamental principle of criminal justice. For example, in a theft trial, the accused has the right to a fair trial, the right to challenge evidence and the right to an adequate defence. These strict procedural safeguards are put in place to ensure that the accused receives a fair trial and that his or her fundamental rights are protected, as the stakes may include deprivation of liberty or other severe penalties.
刑事诉讼是指处理刑事案件的程序。在这种情况下，严格的形式规则对于保障被告的权利至关重要，这是刑事司法的一项基本原则。例如，在盗窃案的审判中，被告人有权获得公正的审判，有权对证据提出质疑，有权获得充分的辩护。制定这些严格的程序保障措施，是为了确保被告获得公正审判，并保护其基本权利，因为其利害关系可能包括剥夺自由或其他严厉处罚。


In the area of administrative procedure, formalities and processes are designed to regulate interactions between citizens and the administrative bodies of the State. These procedures ensure that administrative decisions, such as the granting or refusal of a business licence, are taken in accordance with the law. Administrative tribunals play a key role in this process, providing a forum for challenging the decisions of public authorities and ensuring that the rights of individuals are respected.
在行政程序方面，各种手续和程序旨在规范公民与国家行政机构之间的互动。这些程序确保依法做出行政决定，如颁发或拒绝颁发营业执照。行政法庭在这一过程中发挥着关键作用，为质疑公共当局的决定提供了一个论坛，并确保个人权利得到尊重。


Finally, civil procedure, or private judicial law, governs disputes under private law, i.e. disputes between individuals or private entities. This procedure encompasses aspects such as the right of compulsory execution, where a creditor can seek judicial intervention to recover debts. For example, in the event of non-payment of a debt, the creditor can initiate debt collection and bankruptcy proceedings. Civil procedure also determines how a lawsuit is brought and how judgments are handed down and enforced, thus ensuring an orderly and fair resolution of disputes, as in the case of a contractual dispute.
最后，民事诉讼程序或私法管辖私法下的纠纷，即个人或私人实体之间的纠纷。该程序包括强制执行权等方面，债权人可寻求司法干预以收回债务。例如，在不偿还债务的情况下，债权人可以启动追债和破产程序。民事诉讼程序还决定了如何提起诉讼以及如何下达和执行判决，从而确保有序、公正地解决纠纷，如合同纠纷。


These different types of legal proceedings reflect the complexity and diversity of legal cases that can arise in a society. Each plays a specific role, tailored to the nature of the disputes it is designed to deal with, thus ensuring that the legal system can respond effectively and fairly to a wide range of conflict situations.
这些不同类型的法律程序反映了社会中可能出现的法律案件的复杂性和多样性。每种程序都发挥着特定的作用，适合其旨在处理的争端的性质，从而确保法律制度能够有效、公平地应对各种冲突情况。


Judicial procedure, although often associated with private law, can also be considered as a matter of public law, particularly because of the nature of the relationship it establishes between the State and the individual. This duality reflects the complexity and interdependence of the different branches of law in regulating interactions within society. In the context of private law, judicial procedure deals primarily with disputes between individuals or private entities. For example, civil proceedings govern contractual disputes, property disputes, family matters and other private disputes, where parties seek to assert their rights or obtain redress for wrongs suffered. Here, the emphasis is on resolving private disputes and protecting individual rights and interests.
司法程序虽然通常与私法有关，但也可被视为公法事项，特别是因为它在国家与个人之间建立关系的性质。这种双重性反映了不同法律部门在规范社会内部互动方面的复杂性和相互依存性。在私法方面，司法程序主要处理个人或私人实体之间的纠纷。例如，民事诉讼程序适用于合同纠纷、财产纠纷、家庭事务和其他私人纠纷，在这些纠纷中，当事人寻求维护自己的权利或为所遭受的错误获得补偿。这里的重点是解决私人纠纷和保护个人权益。


However, legal proceedings are also a matter of public law because of their role in defining and regulating relations between the State and the individual. In this context, the State, through its judicial institutions, acts as an impartial arbiter, ensuring that disputes are resolved in accordance with the laws in force. By protecting the individual, the State guarantees the fairness of the judicial process, respect for fundamental rights and the maintenance of public order. For example, in the criminal justice system, the State prosecutes offenders on behalf of society, thus affirming its role as guarantor of public safety and welfare. This perspective emphasises that legal proceedings are not confined to the sphere of private law, but also encompass essential elements of public law. The interaction between these two areas in the judicial process reflects the State's commitment to ensuring fair and accessible justice, while protecting the rights and freedoms of individuals within a society organised and regulated by law.
然而，法律诉讼也属于公法范畴，因为它在界定和调节国家与个人之间的关系方面发挥着作用。在这种情况下，国家通过其司法机构充当公正的仲裁者，确保根据现行法律解决争端。通过保护个人，国家保证了司法程序的公正性、对基本权利的尊重以及对公共秩序的维护。例如，在刑事司法系统中，国家代表社会起诉罪犯，从而确认其作为公共安全和福利保障者的角色。这一观点强调，法律诉讼不仅限于私法领域，还包括公法的基本要素。司法程序中这两个领域之间的互动反映了国家致力于确保公平和可获得的司法，同时保护依法组织和管理的社会中个人的权利和自由。


Judicial procedures play an essential role in the legal system by determining the organisation and jurisdiction of the various courts, as well as the conduct of trials. These procedures provide the necessary framework to ensure that disputes are dealt with in an orderly, efficient and fair manner. The organisation of the courts involves defining their structure, hierarchy and areas of jurisdiction. This organisation is essential to ensure that each case is heard by the most appropriate court. For example, some cases may fall within the jurisdiction of the courts of first instance, while others may require the involvement of appeal courts or specialised tribunals. The rules governing the jurisdiction of the courts ensure that disputes are dealt with by the most qualified and experienced judges in the relevant areas of law. As for the conduct of the trial, these are the procedures that govern the way in which cases are judged. These include the stages of the trial, the rules for presenting and challenging evidence, hearing procedures, and the arrangements for appealing decisions. These procedures determine in what form and according to what rules the competent courts must judge disputes. They are crucial to guaranteeing the fairness and objectivity of the judicial process, by ensuring that all parties have an equal opportunity to present their case and that judgements are based on the facts and the law. These judicial procedures, by governing the organisation of the courts and the conduct of trials, are therefore a fundamental element of the rule of law. They ensure not only that the judicial system functions properly, but also that the rights of individuals are respected and that justice is done in society.
司法程序在法律体系中发挥着至关重要的作用，它决定着各法院的组织和管辖权以及审判的进行。这些程序提供了必要的框架，以确保以有序、高效和公平的方式处理争议。法院的组织包括确定其结构、等级和管辖范围。这种组织对于确保每个案件都由最合适的法院审理至关重要。例如，有些案件可能属于初审法院的管辖范围，而另一些案件则可能需要上诉法院或专门法庭的参与。有关法院管辖权的规则确保争议由相关法律领域最合格、最有经验的法官处理。至于审判的进行，则是规范案件判决方式的程序。这些程序包括审判的各个阶段、提出证据和质疑证据的规则、听证程序以及对裁决提出上诉的安排。这些程序决定了主管法院必须以何种形式并根据何种规则对争议进行判决。这些程序对于保证司法程序的公正性和客观性至关重要，可确保所有各方都有平等的机会陈述案情，并确保判决以事实和法律为依据。因此，这些司法程序通过规范法院的组织和审判的进行，成为法治的基本要素。它们不仅确保司法系统正常运作，还确保个人权利得到尊重，社会正义得到伸张。


In Switzerland, the centralisation of certain legal powers at federal level, particularly in relation to criminal and civil procedure, is a key aspect of the organisation and operation of its legal system. This centralisation guarantees uniformity and consistency in the application of laws and procedures across the country. In the area of criminal procedure, federal legislation establishes a common framework for dealing with criminal offences throughout Switzerland. This means that whether the offence is committed in Geneva, Zurich or another canton, it will be dealt with according to the same procedural standards. This uniformity is essential to ensure fairness in the handling of criminal cases, guaranteeing that all citizens are subject to the same rules and procedures, regardless of where they live. For example, the rules governing the rights of the accused, investigation and trial procedures, and appeal procedures are the same throughout Switzerland. Similarly, civil procedure, governing disputes between individuals or entities, is also standardised at federal level. Whether it's a contractual dispute, a divorce case or a question of inheritance, the parties involved in a civil dispute follow the same legal procedures, regardless of which canton they are in. This standardisation provides a stable and predictable framework for the resolution of civil disputes, facilitating access to justice and the efficient resolution of disputes. This centralised approach, adopted by Switzerland, reflects its federalist system, where nationwide uniformity of laws and procedures is balanced with cantonal autonomy in other areas. As a result, although the Swiss cantons enjoy a high degree of autonomy in many aspects of governance, in matters of criminal and civil procedure, federal legislation prevails, ensuring a uniform application of justice across the country.
在瑞士，某些法律权力集中在联邦一级，特别是在刑事和民事诉讼程序方面，这是瑞士法律制度组织和运作的一个重要方面。这种中央集权保证了在全国范围内适用法律和程序的统一性和一致性。在刑事诉讼方面，联邦立法为处理瑞士全国的刑事犯罪建立了一个共同框架。这意味着无论犯罪行为发生在日内瓦、苏黎世还是其他州，都将按照相同的程序标准进行处理。这种统一性对于确保刑事案件处理的公正性至关重要，可保证所有公民，无论居住在何处，都受到相同规则和程序的约束。例如，关于被告权利、调查和审判程序以及上诉程序的规则在瑞士全国都是一样的。同样，管辖个人或实体间纠纷的民事诉讼程序也在联邦一级实现了标准化。无论是合同纠纷、离婚案件还是继承问题，民事纠纷的当事人无论在哪个州，都遵循相同的法律程序。这种标准化为解决民事纠纷提供了一个稳定和可预测的框架，有利于诉诸司法和高效解决纠纷。瑞士采用的这种中央集权方式反映了其联邦制，即全国统一的法律和程序与各州在其他领域的自治权相平衡。因此，尽管瑞士各州在治理的许多方面享有高度自治，但在刑事和民事诉讼程序方面，联邦立法占主导地位，确保在全国范围内统一适用司法。


== Subdivisions of private law ==
== 私法分支 ==
The history of civil law is so closely linked to that of private law that the two terms have often been used interchangeably. The origins of civil law can be traced back to Roman law, specifically to the concept of 'ius civile', which referred to the law applicable to relations between individuals within Roman society. The ius civile in ancient Rome was a set of laws and regulations that governed interactions and transactions between Roman citizens. This legal system focused heavily on areas such as family law, contract law, property law and inheritance. Over time, these Roman legal principles and concepts have greatly influenced the development of legal systems in many parts of the world, particularly in Europe.
民法的历史与私法的历史密切相关，以至于这两个术语经常被交替使用。民法的起源可以追溯到罗马法，特别是 "ius civile "的概念，它指的是适用于罗马社会中个人之间关系的法律。古罗马的 "市民法 "是一套规范罗马公民之间互动和交易的法律法规。这一法律体系主要侧重于家庭法、合同法、财产法和继承等领域。随着时间的推移，这些罗马法律原则和概念极大地影响了世界许多地区，尤其是欧洲法律体系的发展。


In France, and in other countries influenced by civil law, the term 'civil' has long been synonymous with private law. Civil law, in this context, encompassed all the rules governing relations between private individuals, whether natural persons or legal entities. This branch of law covers areas such as contract law, family law, inheritance law and property law, all of which focus on private relationships and the interests of individuals. Over time, however, the distinction between civil law and private law has become more nuanced. Although civil law remains a central pillar of private law, the latter is now seen as a broader field that also includes other specific branches such as commercial law, company law and employment law. Private law, in its modern sense, is therefore understood to encompass all the rules governing relations between private entities, including but not limited to matters traditionally covered by civil law.
在法国和其他受民法影响的国家，"民法 "一词长期以来一直是私法的代名词。在这种情况下，民法包含了规范私人之间关系的所有规则，无论是自然人还是法人实体。这一法律分支涵盖合同法、家庭法、继承法和财产法等领域，所有这些领域都侧重于私人关系和个人利益。然而，随着时间的推移，民法和私法之间的区别变得更加微妙。尽管民法仍然是私法的核心支柱，但私法现在被视为一个更广泛的领域，还包括商法、公司法和就业法等其他具体分支。因此，现代意义上的私法被理解为包含所有规范私人实体之间关系的规则，包括但不限于传统上由民法涵盖的事项。


The evolution of law has led to a more nuanced distinction between different types of rules, reflecting the diversity and complexity of modern societies. On the one hand, some legal rules are designed to be universal, applying to all individuals without distinction. On the other hand, there are rules that are specifically adapted to particular categories of people, according to criteria such as their profession, social status or other specific characteristics. Universal rules encompass the fundamental laws and norms that govern the essential aspects of social coexistence. These rules apply to everyone and are intended to guarantee fundamental rights and freedoms. For example, contract laws establish a common framework for agreements between individuals or entities, ensuring that commercial and personal transactions take place in a fair and predictable manner. Similarly, standards governing civil rights, such as freedom of expression, are applicable to all citizens, thereby guaranteeing a set of fundamental rights in society. At the same time, rules specific to certain categories of people are developed to meet the particular needs of these groups. For example, labour law, which governs relations between employers and employees, is designed to protect workers' rights, by setting standards for working conditions, job security and social benefits. These rules take into account the specific dynamics and challenges of the workplace. Similarly, company law, which applies to businesses, manages aspects such as business formation, corporate governance, and liability issues, responding to the specific needs of the commercial sector. This distinction in the law allows for a more targeted and relevant application of legal rules. It recognises that while some standards need to be universal to ensure fairness and justice for all, others need to be specialised to adequately address the realities and challenges of different groups or sectors. In this way, the law achieves a balance between the needs of universality and specificity, ensuring both equality before the law and accommodation of diverse social and economic situations.
法律的演变使不同类型的规则之间有了更细致的区分，反映了现代社会的多样性和复杂性。一方面，有些法律规则具有普遍性，不加区分地适用于所有个人。另一方面，有些规则是根据特定类别的人的职业、社会地位或其他具体特征等标准而专门制定的。普遍规则包括规范社会共存基本方面的基本法律和规范。这些规则适用于每个人，旨在保障基本权利和自由。例如，合同法为个人或实体之间的协议建立了一个共同框架，确保商业和个人交易以公平和可预测的方式进行。同样，有关言论自由等公民权利的标准适用于所有公民，从而保障了社会中的一系列基本权利。与此同时，还制定了专门针对某些类别人群的规则，以满足这些群体的特殊需求。例如，规范雇主和雇员之间关系的劳动法旨在通过制定工作条件、工作保障和社会福利标准来保护工人的权利。这些规则考虑到了工作场所的具体动态和挑战。同样，公司法适用于企业，管理企业组建、公司治理和责任问题等方面，满足商业部门的具体需求。法律上的这种区别使法律规则的适用更有针对性和相关性。它认识到，虽然有些标准需要具有普遍性，以确保所有人的公平和正义，但有些标准需要具有专门性，以充分应对不同群体或部门的现实情况和挑战。这样，法律就能在普遍性和特殊性需求之间取得平衡，既能确保法律面前人人平等，又能照顾到不同的社会和经济状况。


=== Civil law: Civil Code and Code of Obligations ===
=== 民法 民法典》和《义务法典 ===
Civil law, considered to be the bedrock of private law, encompasses a range of rules and principles that govern the most fundamental aspects of interactions and relationships between individuals in society. This area of law deals with many essential aspects of everyday life, providing a legal framework for personal, family and economic relationships.
Civil law, considered to be the bedrock of private law, encompasses a range of rules and principles that govern the most fundamental aspects of interactions and relationships between individuals in society. This area of law deals with many essential aspects of everyday life, providing a legal framework for personal, family and economic relationships.


Version du 11 décembre 2023 à 22:26

根据维克多-莫尼埃的课程改编[1][2][3]

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法律入门：关键概念和定义 ● 国家：职能、结构和政治制度 ● 法律的不同部门 ● 法律渊源 ● 法律的主要形成传统 ● 法律关系的要素 ● 法律的适用 ● 法律的实施 ● 瑞士从起源到20世纪的发展 ● 瑞士的国内法律框架 ● 瑞士的国家结构、政治制度和中立 ● 19世纪末至20世纪中叶国际关系的演变 ● 世界组织 ● 欧洲组织及其与瑞士的关系 ● 基本权利的类别和世代 ● 基本权利的起源 ● 十八世纪末的权利宣言 ● 二十世纪基本权利普遍概念的构建

国内法

公法与私法的区别

Ius publicum，或称公法，是法律的一个重要分支，包括所有规范国家组织和运作以及公共当局与个人之间互动的规则。这一法律领域对于确保国家顺利、公平地运作以及保护个人的权利和自由至关重要。公法的核心是国家组织。这门学科规定了政府不同部门（行政、立法和司法）的结构和职能。它确立了指导这些机构组建和运作的基本原则。例如，在许多民主国家，公法规定这些部门之间要分权，以防止滥用权力，并在行使国家权力时保持平衡。

公法的一个重要方面是规范国家与公民之间的关系。这一法律分支规定了国家与其公民互动的方式，确保对言论自由和公平审判权等基本权利的保护。它还管理公共服务的提供，并建立防止滥用权力的机制，如行政上诉和对行政部门的司法审查。

宪法是公法的一个分支，在制定国家基本规则方面发挥着至关重要的作用。它规定了公民权利和自由、选举原则和国家权力的限制。例如，美国宪法不仅规定了联邦政府的结构，还保障了宗教自由和新闻自由等基本权利。行政法是公法的另一个组成部分，具体涉及管理公共行政及其与个人和企业互动的规则。它涵盖的领域包括行政程序、行政司法审查和公共服务监管。行政法应用的一个具体例子是质疑政府决定的过程，如拒绝规划许可。此外，税法虽然有其自身的特点，但也是公法的组成部分。它涉及国家财政资源的征收和管理，是为公共服务和基础设施提供资金的基本要素。最后，国际公法是公法的一个分支，管理国家与其他受国际法管辖的实体（如国际组织）之间的关系。其中包括国际条约、海洋法和武装冲突规则等问题。因此，公法作为一个整体，在保障法治、在国家权力面前保护公民权利以及维护社会秩序和正义方面发挥着根本性的作用。

Ius privatum（私法）是法律的一个基本分支，处理私人之间的关系。与管理国家与个人之间或国家不同部门之间关系的公法不同，私法处理的是个人或私人实体之间的互动关系，将其置于平等地位，不受公共权力的直接干预。这一法律分支包括几个关键领域，对于规范个人和组织之间的日常互动至关重要。例如，民法是私法的核心内容，包括合同法（规范私人之间的协议）、家庭法（处理结婚、离婚和子女监护等问题）和继承法（涉及个人死后遗产的传承）等领域。

私法的另一个重要领域是商业和企业法，涉及贸易和企业的法律问题。这一领域包括管理企业创建和管理的公司法、处理商业交易和商业惯例的商法，以及保护专利、商标和版权等知识创造的知识产权法。私法在提供解决私人当事方之间争端的框架方面也发挥着至关重要的作用。无论是合同纠纷还是家庭纠纷，法院和调解系统都提供了处理这些纠纷的机制。此外，私法是动态的，并随着社会的变化而不断发展。例如，随着数字技术和互联网的出现，出现了网络法和数据保护法等新领域，这反映了使法律原则适应新技术和新实践的必要性。私法对于规范个人与私人实体之间的关系至关重要，它为管理各种个人和商业互动提供了法律框架。私法确保私人领域的秩序和正义，使个人能够放心、安全地处理事务，同时保护他们的权利和利益。

公法的分支

宪法

宪法是法律的一个基本分支，它确立了管理国家机构的基本法律规则。这些规则决定了如何在国家内部建立、传递和行使权力，构成了国家政治组织和运作的基础。宪法最重要的一点是，它通常被编纂成一份正式的最高文件，即宪法。宪法是国家的基本宪章，不仅规定了各政府机构的结构和权力，还规定了公民权利和自由。它在界定国家权力和保护个人权利方面发挥着至关重要的作用，是其他形式立法的框架。

宪法总体上规定了政府的结构，包括行政、立法和司法部门之间的分权。它规定了每个部门的运作程序、决策方式以及这些不同部门之间的互动。例如，在许多民主制度中，宪法规定了制衡机制，以确保任何政府部门都不会过度行使权力。

宪法还涉及公民权利和政治权利问题。现代宪法通常包括一项宪章或权利法案，保障言论自由、宗教自由和公平审判权等基本自由。这些保护措施在维护法治和保护个人免受政府任意行为侵害方面发挥着至关重要的作用。宪法还具有动态和不断发展的特点。宪法可以修改或修订，以反映社会价值观和环境的变化。此外，许多国家的宪法法院和最高法院在解释宪法方面发挥着重要作用，从而影响着国家法律和政治框架的演变。宪法构成了一个国家整个法律和政治秩序的基础。它提供了治理框架，确保基本权利和自由得到保护，并随着时间的推移而不断调整，以满足社会不断变化的需求和愿望。

古典国家理论深受孟德斯鸠分权思想的影响，确定了政府的三大基本职能：立法、行政和司法。这种分权旨在保持平衡，防止权力滥用，这是平衡民主政府的一项基本原则。

在瑞士，负责制定法律的立法职能由联邦议会体现，联邦议会是由州议会和国民议会组成的两院制议会。这两个议院共同制定和通过法律，在国家的法律框架中发挥着至关重要的作用。从历史上看，两院制的发展，如美国的参议院和众议院制度，就是立法部门如何发展以更好地代表各州和人民的不同利益的一个例子。

瑞士的行政部门由联邦委员会代表，负责执行法律和管理国家事务。该部门由联邦议会选出的议员组成，负责管理行政事务并在国际上代表国家。瑞士联邦委员会的模式采用合议制和比例代表制，是协商一致治理的独特范例。从历史上看，美国的乔治-华盛顿等人物为行政职能制定了标准，强调了领导和决策在管理国家事务中的重要性。

最后，以瑞士联邦最高法院为最高司法机构的司法职能对于解释法律和解决争端至关重要。该部门确保公平、统一地适用法律，从而保护宪法权利，巩固法治。历史上，美国最高法院等法院在解释法律和界定公民权利方面发挥了重要作用，说明了司法职能对社会的重大影响。

立法权、行政权和司法权的分立与互动对民主至关重要。它们不仅保证了权力行使的平衡，也保证了公民权利和自由不受任何形式的专制或滥用。瑞士模式及其特殊性，以及美国等历史典范，都表明了这些原则是如何得到贯彻并适应各国国情的，在现代政府的形成过程中发挥了决定性作用。

三权分立的概念是政府理论和实践中的一个基本概念，其基础是不同的权力部门--立法、行政和司法--应独立运作。这种独立性对于防止权力集中和确保对民主制度的健康和稳定至关重要的平衡至关重要。根据这一理论，每个政府部门都有自己的职权范围，不得侵犯其他部门的职能。立法部门制定法律，行政部门执行法律，司法部门解释法律。这种职责分工旨在防止任何一个部门或实体获得过多的权力，从而导致专制或暴政形式的治理。

三权分立通常被视为国家的支柱，是支撑整个政府组织的高级法律。它被纳入许多民主国家的宪法，成为指导政府结构和运作的灯塔。从历史上看，这一理念深受孟德斯鸠等哲学家的影响，孟德斯鸠的著作《论法的精神》为这一理念的普及做出了巨大贡献。孟德斯鸠认为，只有三权分立、相互制衡，才能维护国家的政治自由。

在实践中，虽然三权分立，但往往有一套制衡制度，以确保各部门相互合作，防止滥用权力。例如，总统（行政权）可能对议会（立法权）通过的法律拥有否决权，但这种否决权可以被议会以特定多数推翻。同样，法院（司法权）可以宣布某些法律或行政行为违宪。三权分立是确保政府各部门平衡和独立的基本原则，在维护民主和法治方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

行政法

行政法是法律的一个重要分支，包括国家行政机构日常管理公共事务的规则。这一法律分支至关重要，因为它管理着公共行政的运作方式以及与公民的互动，在有效执行政府政策和维护公共秩序方面发挥着重要作用。行政法涵盖广泛的政府活动，从发放许可证和执照到规范公共服务、管理公共资源以及执行环境、健康和安全等特定领域的立法。它规定了公共机构在履行职能时必须遵循的程序，确保政府行为以透明、负责和公平的方式进行。

行政法的一个重要方面是对行政部门进行司法审查。法院有权审查行政机构做出的决定，以确保这些决定符合现行法律和基本正义原则。这包括检查政府机构是否超越了其法定权限，是否遵循了规定的程序，以及是否公平合理地行事。行政法在保护公民权利方面也发挥着至关重要的作用。行政法提供了个人可以对直接影响自身的政府决定提出质疑的机制，如关于福利、规划许可或监管制裁的决定。这种上诉的可能性确保公民有办法向行政部门维护自己的权利，并有助于维持人们对行政系统的信心。行政法是规范国家与公民之间互动的法律框架的重要组成部分。它确保公共行政部门在法律允许的范围内，以高效、透明和公正的方式行事，并在保障个人权利和国家整体运作方面发挥重要作用。

行政法的复杂性和多样性涵盖了广泛的领域，每一个领域都在管理公共事务、保护公民和环境方面发挥着至关重要的作用。在这些领域中，税法因其对国家财政立法的关注而脱颖而出，无论是联邦一级还是州一级。该部门对于确定国家主要通过税收征收和管理财政资源的方式至关重要。它是公共服务融资和资源再分配的基石，以实现社会和经济目标。例如，许多国家为实现税制现代化而进行的重大税制改革就说明了税法在经济和社会管理中的重要性和影响。

社会立法是行政法的另一个重要分支，旨在保护个人免受变幻莫测的生活的影响。这种立法包括劳动法，它保护工人及其工作条件，确保安全和公平的工作环境。它还包括社会保险法，为工伤事故和疾病提供保障，并为个人的老年生活提供支持。这项立法对于为个人提供安全网至关重要，尤其是当他们失去家庭支持时。例如，欧洲的社会保障体系展示了社会立法如何在人们生活的关键时刻提供必要的援助。

以保护环境和维护生活质量为重点的环境立法也是行政法的重要组成部分。该立法涵盖环境保护、城乡规划和建筑监管等领域，在保护自然资源和促进可持续发展方面发挥着至关重要的作用。气候变化立法和可持续发展政策等举措表明，环境立法在应对全球环境挑战方面日益重要。

最后，适用于公共部门雇员的公务员法是行政法的一个专门分支。它规范公务员的就业条件、权利和义务，确保公平待遇，同时强调公共服务的效率和廉正。法国公务员制度等表明，公务员法可以有效地构建职业结构，并保证公共服务的高标准。

行政法的这些不同分支共同构成了一个全面的法律和监管框架，为国家行动提供指导，并确保社会的公平和正义。它们展示了国家如何干预公共生活的各个领域，以保护和服务公民，同时有效地管理资源并为子孙后代保护环境。

刑法

刑法是法律体系的一个基本分支，侧重于规范和惩罚被认为对社会有害或危险的行为。其主要目的是通过界定哪些行为构成犯罪并对这些罪行制定适当的惩罚措施来维护社会秩序。在刑法中，犯罪被定义为违反法律并应受到刑事处罚的行为或不行为，如罚款、监禁或其他形式的赔偿。刑法不仅规定了被视为犯罪的行为类型，还规定了将行为归类为犯罪所需的情形和意图（犯罪意图）。

刑法的目的不仅仅是惩罚罪犯。它还旨在预防犯罪、改造罪犯和保护社会。通过明确界定不可接受的行为和相关后果，刑法发挥了威慑作用，旨在防止今后发生犯罪行为。执行刑法的刑事司法系统包括警察部队（调查犯罪）、法院（审判刑事案件）和教养系统（执行判决）。刑事诉讼程序是刑法不可分割的一部分，它确保被告人的权利得到保护，包括获得公平审判的权利和不受残忍或不寻常待遇的权利。

从历史上看，刑法的演变反映了社会价值观和规范的变化。例如，随着时间的推移，许多法律制度废除了被视为不人道或有辱人格的惩罚，并发展了针对未成年人等特定人群的减轻责任等概念。刑法是法律体系的重要支柱，在维护社会秩序、保护公民免受犯罪行为侵害以及确保公平公正处理犯罪行为方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

按照刑法的定义，刑事犯罪可以是法律禁止的主动或被动行为，并根据其严重程度受到惩罚。这一定义涵盖了被认为对社会有害或危险，因此应受到刑事制裁的各种行为和不行为。主动行为一般涉及蓄意行动，如盗窃、袭击或谋杀。在这些情况下，个人实施了直接违反法律的行为。另一方面，被动行为可能涉及在法律规定了特定义务时的不作为或不作为，如父母疏忽或未遵守工作安全标准。

罪行的严重程度是决定适当刑罚的关键因素。违法行为一般根据其严重程度分为违法行为、犯罪行为和犯罪，每种行为都会受到不同程度的处罚。违法行为被认为是最不严重的罪行，可处以罚款或其他轻微处罚。轻罪较为严重，可处以短期监禁或较大数额的罚款。罪行是最严重的违法行为，可导致长期监禁，在最严重的情况下甚至会被判处终身监禁。

刑罚的性质取决于具体的法律制度和每个案件的特殊情况。罚款通常用于不太严重或初犯的罪行，而监禁一般用于较严重的轻罪和重罪。一些司法管辖区还可能使用其他形式的惩罚，如社区服务、缓刑或改造计划。刑事犯罪可能是法律禁止的行为或不行为，所处刑罚取决于罪行的严重程度。刑事司法系统使用这些刑罚不仅是为了惩罚罪犯，也是为了威慑犯罪行为和保护社会。

刑法在法律体系中发挥着至关重要的作用，它对犯罪行为进行定义，并确定必须适用刑罚的条件。这一法律分支关注的是准确确定哪些行为被视为犯罪，以及根据这些行为的性质和严重程度对其处以何种适当的刑罚。刑法中的犯罪行为根据其严重程度分为不同类别，如违法行为、犯罪行为和犯罪。每一类犯罪都与一套特定的可能处罚相关联。例如，违法行为是最不严重的罪行，可处以罚款或短期监禁，而犯罪是最严重的罪行，可处以长期监禁或其他严厉处罚。

刑法还规定了适用刑罚的条件。这包括为确保公平审判和尊重被告权利而必须遵循的法律程序。合法性原则是刑法的基本原则：只有当一个人的行为符合法律明确规定的罪行时，才能对其进行审判和处罚。此外，刑法会考虑各种因素，如意图（犯罪意图）、减轻或加重处罚的情节以及被告的犯罪前科，以确定适当的刑罚。此外，刑法不仅是惩罚性的，还旨在防止再次犯罪、改造罪犯和保护社会。改过自新计划、监外教养办法和缓刑制度都是刑法如何努力实现这些目标的例子。刑法通过界定罪行和制定适用刑罚的明确标准，对维护社会秩序至关重要。它确保制裁得到公平和适度的适用，同时保护个人的基本权利和维护公共安全。

刑法作为社会秩序和凝聚力的基本要素，从最早的社会，包括那些被称为 "原始 "的社会开始就已经存在。在这些社会中，刑法的表现形式反映了当时的社会结构和文化规范。在家庭或氏族背景下，刑事司法通常由一家之主或氏族首领执行。这一权威人物在处理冲突和惩罚被认为不可接受或有害于群体的行为方面发挥着核心作用。首领执行的司法可以采取多种形式，从物质赔偿到更严厉的制裁，这取决于犯罪的性质和群体的传统。在没有公认的中央或更高权力机构的情况下，对罪行的惩罚可以采取私人复仇的形式。这种类型的司法通常以特定的文化规范和准则为指导，表现为 "仇杀 "等做法，即受害者的家庭或部族采取必要的措施来弥补所遭受的伤害，通常是通过报复行为。这种司法方式植根于荣誉和赔偿的概念，在规范社区内的行为方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

这些原始司法制度虽然与现代法律制度大相径庭，但却说明了刑法在维护社会秩序和管理人类群体内部冲突方面的普遍重要性。随着时间的推移，这些制度已演变成更有组织、更集中的刑事司法形式，反映了更复杂的国家结构的发展以及对公平和人权等原则的认可。因此，从原始社会到现代社会，刑法一直在规范人类互动和维护社会和谐方面发挥着重要作用。

从历史上看，在许多社会中，刑法最初是由复仇概念主导的，这种做法使刑法更接近私法。在这种情况下，刑事司法在很大程度上是个人或家庭事务。Faide"（或 "Faida"）是这一做法的典型制度，在这一原始刑法机制中，伤害的受害者有权对犯罪者或其家人造成类似的伤害。这一制度以报复中的互惠和平衡原则为基础，反映了一种以荣誉和个人赔偿为基础的司法理念。然而，随着时间的推移以及伦理和宗教原则（尤其是基督教原则）影响的不断扩大，金钱赔偿的概念开始取代私人复仇。这是一种旨在补偿受害者或其家人的经济补偿形式。支付一笔钱或某种其他形式的补偿，有助于安抚受害者，避免可能破坏社会稳定的报复循环。

这一发展反映出人们对司法和刑法的理解发生了根本性的变化。从私人复仇到经济补偿形式的转变，标志着一个更有条理的法律体系的开始，在这个体系中，冲突的解决更有组织，暴力程度更低。这一变化也表明，宽恕、和解和社会稳定等价值观的影响越来越大，开始优先于复仇和报复的做法。刑法的历史表明，从基于个人复仇和私法的制度逐渐演变为更加正式和制度化的法律制度。这种演变受到社会、伦理和宗教规范变化的强烈影响，导致解决冲突和赔偿损失的做法更加文明和公平。

向国家垄断合法暴力并实施刑事制裁的制度过渡，是法律和治理史上的一个重要转折点。这一演变是逐步发生的，可视为现代国家发展的一个关键阶段。正如我们所见，在早期社会，刑事司法往往是家庭或宗族内部的私事，以个人复仇或直接赔偿原则为基础。然而，随着民族国家的出现和更加中央集权的政府结构的发展，国家开始宣称垄断了武力和刑事制裁的行使。这一过程受到多种因素的影响，包括对稳定的公共秩序的需求、政治权力的集中以及更普遍的法律和道德原则的影响。

国家对合法暴力的垄断意味着只有国家权力机构才能合法行使武力或实施刑事制裁。社会学家马克斯-韦伯（Max Weber）提出了这一概念，他认为合法暴力的垄断是现代国家的基本特征。通过对刑事司法的控制，国家不仅确立了其对国内事务的权威，还有助于为其公民创造一个更可预测、更公正的环境。由国家实施刑事法律导致了正规化司法体系的建立，在这种体系中，法律由立法机构制定，由法院执行。这使得司法工作更加系统化和公平化，明确规定的程序确保了被告的权利和公平待遇。这一变革还使各地的法律和刑罚实现了标准化，取代了各不相同且往往相互矛盾的地方或部落司法制度。它还促进了无罪推定和公平审判权等法律原则的发展，这些原则现已被视为现代法律制度的基本内容。

大众的想象力往往会立即将刑法与戏剧性和强大的形象联系起来。这种观念在很大程度上受到刑事司法中最显眼和最戏剧化的方面的影响，尤其是历史上的行刑方式，如断头台（绰号 "大寡妇"），以及刑事审判的仪式和壮观的程序。媒体、文学和电影强化了这种表现形式，刑事案件往往以耸人听闻的方式呈现，突出戏剧、冲突和惩罚等元素。例如，断头台成为刑事司法的有力象征，特别是在法国大革命期间，它被用来公开处决那些被视为国家敌人的人。这些公开处决不仅是正义之举，也是向公众传递强烈信息的奇观。然而，尽管在公众心目中存在着这种强烈的、往往是戏剧性的联想，刑法案件实际上只占法院案件的少数。相反，在许多国家，司法系统处理的大多数案件都属于民法或行政法范畴，前者处理个人或实体之间的纠纷，后者则涉及公民与国家之间的关系。这些案件包括合同纠纷、离婚、财产和违反市政细则等问题，一般不那么耸人听闻，但与人们的日常生活更为相关。

违法行为的执行完全由国家垄断。这种镇压权力的集中是社会向结构更严谨、秩序更规范的法律制度过渡的关键因素。禁止私人复仇和向国家刑事司法制度过渡是发展更加和平稳定的社会的关键步骤。历史上，私人复仇，如 "法德"（faide）或 "仇杀"（vendetta），是许多社会解决争端和惩罚犯罪的常用方式。然而，这种制度往往会产生暴力和报复循环，破坏社会和平与公共秩序。

要让社会接受放弃私人复仇，国家必须提供有效可靠的刑事司法系统。这意味着不仅要公平、适度地惩罚犯罪，还要确保听取犯罪受害者的意见，保护他们的权利。因此，公众对国家惩治犯罪的能力和意愿的信心，对于维护社会秩序和防止恢复私法形式至关重要。此外，将刑事执法权集中在国家手中也促成了无罪推定、公平审判权和量刑相称等重要法律原则的发展。这些原则不仅确保司法公正，还有助于提高法律制度在公众心目中的合法性。

国家在刑法领域的主要任务之一是通过惩治破坏社会秩序的行为来确保和平与安全。为实现这一目标，国家依靠一套结构化的规则和法律，这些规则和法律一般编纂为《刑法典》。该法典对于界定刑事犯罪和确定惩罚条件至关重要。刑法》在刑事司法系统中发挥着核心作用。它具体界定了哪些行为被视为刑事犯罪，并规定了适用于这些罪行的处罚。通过明确界定应受谴责的行为并规定相应的处罚，《刑法典》既是公民的指南，也是执法机关、检察官和法官的指南。

刑法典》一般涵盖广泛的罪行，从交通肇事等轻罪到谋杀或抢劫等重罪。除了界定罪行，《刑法典》通常还规定了刑事司法的基本原则，如无罪推定、大多数罪行需要有犯罪意图（犯罪意图），以及可影响刑罚轻重的减轻或加重处罚情节。此外，《刑法典》还可能包括有关起诉程序、被告权利和司法程序各阶段的规定。这些规定可确保刑事诉讼公平进行并符合法治原则。通过确保以有序和公正的方式惩罚犯罪行为，国家履行了其作为和平与公共安全保护者的职责。因此，《刑法》是维护社会秩序、预防犯罪和确保社会公正的重要工具。

Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 1

国家在刑法中的角色概念是个人和社会的保护者。瑞士联邦宪法》等文件明确表达了这一观点，其中规定国家的任务是保护人民的自由和权利，确保国家的独立和安全，并促进普遍福利。在刑法方面，国家的这一责任体现在对犯罪活动的起诉和惩罚上。国家不仅要惩罚应受谴责的行为，还要预防犯罪，保护公民的安全和权利不受侵犯，维护公共秩序。这种镇压职能对于维护社会安宁和保护个人自由至关重要。

虽然刑法有别于私法，但两者在保护个人这一共同目标上是相互关联的。私法主要处理个人或私人实体之间的关系，而刑法则侧重于针对国家或整个社会的犯罪行为。不过，两者都有助于创造一个安全公正的环境，使个人的权利和自由得到保护。瑞士联邦宪法》第 2 条概括了这一愿景，规定了联邦的基本目标，包括保护自由和权利、促进共同繁荣、社会凝聚力和可持续性。这些原则反映了一种综合治理的方法，即把保护个人权利、安全、经济和社会福祉以及保护环境视为一个稳定和繁荣社会的相互依存的要素。

在广义的刑法领域，所谓的普通刑法和特别刑法之间存在着重要的区别，每种刑法都是为了满足社会和特定结构中的特定需求。

普通刑法是最普遍和最熟悉的刑法形式。普通刑法由普通法院适用，普遍适用于所有公民。这一刑法分支涵盖盗窃、伤害、谋杀等一般罪行以及许多其他轻罪和重罪。它是刑事司法系统的支柱，确保每个人，无论其地位或职业如何，都受到相同的刑事规则和处罚。例如，无论你是普通公民还是高知名度的名人，如果你犯下盗窃罪，都将根据相同的法律和程序受到审判。这一法律框架在维护公共秩序和安全、保障社会公平和正义方面发挥着至关重要的作用。

除普通刑法外，特别刑法侧重于特定类别的罪犯或特定情况，通常由专门法院处理。军事刑法就是一个典型的例子，它专门适用于武装部队成员。该特别法考虑到了军事环境的特殊需求和独特性质。它处理开小差或不服从命令等军事环境中特有的犯罪行为，其适用也考虑到了武装部队严格的等级结构和纪律要求。这些特殊规则承认，某些行为在平民生活中可能不被视为犯罪，但在军事环境中却可能产生严重后果。

普通刑法和特别刑法的并存反映了现代社会的多样性和复杂性。普通刑法确保法律统一、公平地适用于整个社会，而特别刑法则能在特定情况下对犯罪进行更有针对性的管理。刑法的这两个分支共同构成了一个全面的法律体系，能够对社会中的各种犯罪和行为做出适当而平衡的反应。

Constitution fédérale de la Confédération suisse du 18 avril 1999 - article 123

瑞士联邦宪法》第123条规定了联邦与各州在刑法和刑事诉讼方面的权力划分框架。该宪法条款反映了瑞士的联邦制组织结构，即联邦政府和各州共同承担责任和权力。

根据第一款规定，联邦负责刑法和刑事诉讼法的立法。这意味着，有关刑事犯罪的法律、适用的刑罚以及处理刑事案件的程序规则都是在联邦一级制定的。这种中央集权确保了刑法标准在全国范围内的统一，从而保证了瑞士各地适用相同的刑法。第二款规定，除非法律另有规定，司法机构的组织、刑事司法的实施以及刑事处罚和措施的执行均由各州负责。这就意味着，尽管立法是在联邦一级制定的，但各州仍负责法院的组织、法律程序的管理以及刑罚的执行。这种责任分工允许一定程度的灵活性和适应当地情况的能力，同时在国家层面保持一致的法律框架。最后，第三款允许联邦就判决和措施的执行进行立法。联邦还可以向各州提供财政支持，用于修建监狱、改善判决和措施的执行，以及支持儿童、青少年和年轻成年人的教育机构。这一条款承认了联邦和各州之间的合作与支持对于确保高效和人性化的刑事司法管理的重要性。因此，《瑞士宪法》的这一条款说明了瑞士在刑法领域平衡联邦和各州责任的方式，既保证了全国刑事标准的统一性，又保证了适合具体地区特点的管理。

程序法

程序法是法律制度的一个重要方面，它规定了法律诉讼的规则和标准。可以从广义和狭义两个角度来看待这一法律分支。

从广义上讲，程序法包括实现和行使一项权利或一套规则所需的所有形式和手续。它是主张权利或执行规则所必须遵循的一套行政和法律程序。这可能包括提出申诉等程序、通知有关各方的规则、如何提交证据和文件以及对裁决提出上诉的步骤。这种广义的程序法对于确保以有序、公平和合法的方式行使权利至关重要。

狭义的程序法专指法院程序，也称为司法法或诉讼法。这一分支涉及法院的运作规则和处理法律案件的方式。它规定了如何进行审判，包括如何出示和评估证据、上诉程序以及法官、律师和当事人的行为标准。司法程序法对于确保法院公平公正地处理案件、保证所有公民都能诉诸司法以及根据法治原则公平裁决案件至关重要。

程序法在确定法院的组织结构以及制定主管法院必须据以判决争议的形式和规则方面发挥着至关重要的作用。程序法包括一整套标准和程序，确保法律案件得到有序、公正的处理，并符合法治原则。法院的组织是程序法的一个重要方面，它涉及司法系统的结构，包括不同级别管辖权（如初审法院、上诉法院和最高法院）及其各自职权范围的定义。这种组织结构旨在确保根据争议的性质和所涉及的法律问题，由最合适的法院处理每个案件。程序形式和规则决定了争端的裁决方式。其中包括投诉程序、证据规则、审判各阶段的时限、听证程序和上诉方法。这些规则旨在确保司法程序透明、公正和高效，并保护所有各方的权利。

就私人法律诉讼而言，它们被视为私法的必要补充。私法规定了个人或实体之间的权利和义务，而私人诉讼则提供了一种机制，通过这种机制，这些权利和义务可以在法庭上得到执行和质疑。例如，在合同问题上，私法将确定合同各方的义务，而私人司法程序将规范法院处理与该合同有关的争议的方式。正是法律规定了这些方法和程序，反映了立法编纂在为解决争端制定明确且可执行的规则方面的重要性。因此，程序法是法律体系的重要组成部分，它使法律得以有效、公正地实施，并确保所有公民都能获得和实现正义。

在法律体系中，区分不同的法律程序--刑事、行政和民事--对于理解如何根据具体性质处理和解决争端至关重要。

刑事诉讼是指处理刑事案件的程序。在这种情况下，严格的形式规则对于保障被告的权利至关重要，这是刑事司法的一项基本原则。例如，在盗窃案的审判中，被告人有权获得公正的审判，有权对证据提出质疑，有权获得充分的辩护。制定这些严格的程序保障措施，是为了确保被告获得公正审判，并保护其基本权利，因为其利害关系可能包括剥夺自由或其他严厉处罚。

在行政程序方面，各种手续和程序旨在规范公民与国家行政机构之间的互动。这些程序确保依法做出行政决定，如颁发或拒绝颁发营业执照。行政法庭在这一过程中发挥着关键作用，为质疑公共当局的决定提供了一个论坛，并确保个人权利得到尊重。

最后，民事诉讼程序或私法管辖私法下的纠纷，即个人或私人实体之间的纠纷。该程序包括强制执行权等方面，债权人可寻求司法干预以收回债务。例如，在不偿还债务的情况下，债权人可以启动追债和破产程序。民事诉讼程序还决定了如何提起诉讼以及如何下达和执行判决，从而确保有序、公正地解决纠纷，如合同纠纷。

这些不同类型的法律程序反映了社会中可能出现的法律案件的复杂性和多样性。每种程序都发挥着特定的作用，适合其旨在处理的争端的性质，从而确保法律制度能够有效、公平地应对各种冲突情况。

司法程序虽然通常与私法有关，但也可被视为公法事项，特别是因为它在国家与个人之间建立关系的性质。这种双重性反映了不同法律部门在规范社会内部互动方面的复杂性和相互依存性。在私法方面，司法程序主要处理个人或私人实体之间的纠纷。例如，民事诉讼程序适用于合同纠纷、财产纠纷、家庭事务和其他私人纠纷，在这些纠纷中，当事人寻求维护自己的权利或为所遭受的错误获得补偿。这里的重点是解决私人纠纷和保护个人权益。

然而，法律诉讼也属于公法范畴，因为它在界定和调节国家与个人之间的关系方面发挥着作用。在这种情况下，国家通过其司法机构充当公正的仲裁者，确保根据现行法律解决争端。通过保护个人，国家保证了司法程序的公正性、对基本权利的尊重以及对公共秩序的维护。例如，在刑事司法系统中，国家代表社会起诉罪犯，从而确认其作为公共安全和福利保障者的角色。这一观点强调，法律诉讼不仅限于私法领域，还包括公法的基本要素。司法程序中这两个领域之间的互动反映了国家致力于确保公平和可获得的司法，同时保护依法组织和管理的社会中个人的权利和自由。

司法程序在法律体系中发挥着至关重要的作用，它决定着各法院的组织和管辖权以及审判的进行。这些程序提供了必要的框架，以确保以有序、高效和公平的方式处理争议。法院的组织包括确定其结构、等级和管辖范围。这种组织对于确保每个案件都由最合适的法院审理至关重要。例如，有些案件可能属于初审法院的管辖范围，而另一些案件则可能需要上诉法院或专门法庭的参与。有关法院管辖权的规则确保争议由相关法律领域最合格、最有经验的法官处理。至于审判的进行，则是规范案件判决方式的程序。这些程序包括审判的各个阶段、提出证据和质疑证据的规则、听证程序以及对裁决提出上诉的安排。这些程序决定了主管法院必须以何种形式并根据何种规则对争议进行判决。这些程序对于保证司法程序的公正性和客观性至关重要，可确保所有各方都有平等的机会陈述案情，并确保判决以事实和法律为依据。因此，这些司法程序通过规范法院的组织和审判的进行，成为法治的基本要素。它们不仅确保司法系统正常运作，还确保个人权利得到尊重，社会正义得到伸张。

在瑞士，某些法律权力集中在联邦一级，特别是在刑事和民事诉讼程序方面，这是瑞士法律制度组织和运作的一个重要方面。这种中央集权保证了在全国范围内适用法律和程序的统一性和一致性。在刑事诉讼方面，联邦立法为处理瑞士全国的刑事犯罪建立了一个共同框架。这意味着无论犯罪行为发生在日内瓦、苏黎世还是其他州，都将按照相同的程序标准进行处理。这种统一性对于确保刑事案件处理的公正性至关重要，可保证所有公民，无论居住在何处，都受到相同规则和程序的约束。例如，关于被告权利、调查和审判程序以及上诉程序的规则在瑞士全国都是一样的。同样，管辖个人或实体间纠纷的民事诉讼程序也在联邦一级实现了标准化。无论是合同纠纷、离婚案件还是继承问题，民事纠纷的当事人无论在哪个州，都遵循相同的法律程序。这种标准化为解决民事纠纷提供了一个稳定和可预测的框架，有利于诉诸司法和高效解决纠纷。瑞士采用的这种中央集权方式反映了其联邦制，即全国统一的法律和程序与各州在其他领域的自治权相平衡。因此，尽管瑞士各州在治理的许多方面享有高度自治，但在刑事和民事诉讼程序方面，联邦立法占主导地位，确保在全国范围内统一适用司法。

私法分支

民法的历史与私法的历史密切相关，以至于这两个术语经常被交替使用。民法的起源可以追溯到罗马法，特别是 "ius civile "的概念，它指的是适用于罗马社会中个人之间关系的法律。古罗马的 "市民法 "是一套规范罗马公民之间互动和交易的法律法规。这一法律体系主要侧重于家庭法、合同法、财产法和继承等领域。随着时间的推移，这些罗马法律原则和概念极大地影响了世界许多地区，尤其是欧洲法律体系的发展。

在法国和其他受民法影响的国家，"民法 "一词长期以来一直是私法的代名词。在这种情况下，民法包含了规范私人之间关系的所有规则，无论是自然人还是法人实体。这一法律分支涵盖合同法、家庭法、继承法和财产法等领域，所有这些领域都侧重于私人关系和个人利益。然而，随着时间的推移，民法和私法之间的区别变得更加微妙。尽管民法仍然是私法的核心支柱，但私法现在被视为一个更广泛的领域，还包括商法、公司法和就业法等其他具体分支。因此，现代意义上的私法被理解为包含所有规范私人实体之间关系的规则，包括但不限于传统上由民法涵盖的事项。

法律的演变使不同类型的规则之间有了更细致的区分，反映了现代社会的多样性和复杂性。一方面，有些法律规则具有普遍性，不加区分地适用于所有个人。另一方面，有些规则是根据特定类别的人的职业、社会地位或其他具体特征等标准而专门制定的。普遍规则包括规范社会共存基本方面的基本法律和规范。这些规则适用于每个人，旨在保障基本权利和自由。例如，合同法为个人或实体之间的协议建立了一个共同框架，确保商业和个人交易以公平和可预测的方式进行。同样，有关言论自由等公民权利的标准适用于所有公民，从而保障了社会中的一系列基本权利。与此同时，还制定了专门针对某些类别人群的规则，以满足这些群体的特殊需求。例如，规范雇主和雇员之间关系的劳动法旨在通过制定工作条件、工作保障和社会福利标准来保护工人的权利。这些规则考虑到了工作场所的具体动态和挑战。同样，公司法适用于企业，管理企业组建、公司治理和责任问题等方面，满足商业部门的具体需求。法律上的这种区别使法律规则的适用更有针对性和相关性。它认识到，虽然有些标准需要具有普遍性，以确保所有人的公平和正义，但有些标准需要具有专门性，以充分应对不同群体或部门的现实情况和挑战。这样，法律就能在普遍性和特殊性需求之间取得平衡，既能确保法律面前人人平等，又能照顾到不同的社会和经济状况。

民法 民法典》和《义务法典

Civil law, considered to be the bedrock of private law, encompasses a range of rules and principles that govern the most fundamental aspects of interactions and relationships between individuals in society. This area of law deals with many essential aspects of everyday life, providing a legal framework for personal, family and economic relationships.

At the heart of civil law is the law of persons, which focuses on the recognition and legal protection of individuals. This area covers issues such as birth, legal capacity, identity and nationality. For example, the rules defining a person's legal majority and associated rights and responsibilities are an important part of this area of civil law. Family law, another pillar of civil law, governs family relationships, including marriage, civil partnerships, divorce and child custody. These rules are vital for structuring and protecting relationships within the family. For example, in the event of divorce, civil law determines how property is divided and how custody of children is awarded, ensuring a fair and protective approach to the interests of all family members, particularly children. Property law regulates the possession, use and transfer of property. This area of civil law is crucial in defining the way in which real and personal property is managed, used and transferred. For example, the rules governing the purchase and sale of property, leases and mortgages fall within this area. Finally, the law of obligations, which deals with contractual commitments, is an essential aspect of civil law. This area governs the creation, performance and dissolution of contracts, as well as civil liability in the event of damage caused to others. So when one party breaches a contract, the law of obligations provides the mechanisms for seeking redress or resolving the dispute.

Civil law in Switzerland, which applies without distinction to all individuals, comes under the jurisdiction of the Confederation. This national uniformity ensures that the fundamental principles and rules of civil law are the same for every citizen, regardless of their canton of residence. Swiss civil law, influenced by European civil law and in particular the Napoleonic Code, covers essential areas that define the legal consequences of the main facts and acts in an individual's life.

Family law is a key area of civil law. It covers aspects such as marriage, divorce, child custody and kinship relationships. For example, the laws governing marriage in Switzerland define the conditions for getting married, the rights and obligations of the spouses, as well as divorce procedures and child custody provisions in the event of separation. Parentage law, which is closely linked to family law, deals with the recognition of family ties, in particular paternity and maternity. This area governs aspects such as the establishment of filiation, adoption and parental rights and duties. The rules of filiation determine the legal obligations of parents towards their children and vice versa. Matrimonial property regimes, also a component of civil law, define how property is managed and shared between the spouses during the marriage and in the event of its dissolution. These rules may include provisions on joint ownership, separation of property and management of finances during the marriage. Finally, property law is another important branch of civil law. This area covers rules relating to the ownership, use, transmission and protection of property, both movable and immovable. It includes aspects such as ownership of land, rights in rem such as usufruct or pledge, and intellectual property.

Swiss civil law, which falls within the remit of the Confederation, provides a coherent and uniform legal framework governing the most fundamental aspects of people's lives, from their family relationships to the management of their property. This legal framework is essential to ensure the stability and predictability of legal relations in Swiss society.

Code des obligations - article 41

Article 41 of the Swiss Code of Obligations, which forms part of the Federal Act supplementing the Swiss Civil Code, establishes the fundamental principles relating to civil liability for unlawful acts. This piece of legislation plays a crucial role in the field of tort liability in Switzerland. According to the first paragraph of Article 41, anyone who causes damage to another person in an unlawful manner, whether intentionally or through negligence or imprudence, is legally obliged to compensate for that damage. This means that if an individual causes harm to another person, for example by causing a road accident through recklessness, he or she is responsible for compensating the victim for the loss or damage suffered. This provision is fundamental to ensuring that victims of unfair damage can obtain compensation. The second paragraph extends this liability to situations where damage is caused intentionally by acts contrary to morality. This includes behaviour which, although it may not constitute a criminal offence, is nevertheless deemed reprehensible from an ethical or moral point of view. For example, if a person intentionally disseminates defamatory information about another, thereby causing damage to that person's reputation, that person may be liable to compensate for the damage caused. These provisions of Swiss federal law illustrate how the Swiss legal system approaches the issue of civil liability. They underline the importance of individual responsibility and respect for the rights of others, by establishing clear rules for compensation for damage caused by unlawful acts.

Commercial law: Code of Obligations

Commercial law, also known as business law, is an essential branch of private law. It covers all the legal rules governing commercial relations and business activities. This area of law is specifically designed to meet the needs and particularities of commercial activities, covering a wide range of subjects from commercial transactions to company structures and relations between traders and consumers. At the heart of commercial law are the rules governing commercial contracts, which are the foundation of economic exchanges. These rules define how contracts should be formed, interpreted and enforced, ensuring that commercial transactions take place in a fair and predictable manner. For example, commercial law determines the obligations and rights of the parties in a contract for the sale or provision of services.

Commercial law also deals with the regulation of companies and businesses. It includes the laws governing the formation, management, restructuring and dissolution of companies and other forms of business entity. These rules are essential for structuring business activities and ensuring ethical and effective corporate governance. In addition, commercial law encompasses areas such as competition law, which aims to prevent anti-competitive practices and promote a fair market, and consumer law, which protects consumer rights and ensures fair commercial practices.

Taken as a whole, commercial law facilitates and frames commercial activities by providing a stable and clear legal framework. This framework is essential to ensure confidence and security in commercial transactions, thereby promoting economic development and prosperity. It reflects the importance of a legal system that is adapted to the realities and challenges of the business world, ensuring that commercial activities are conducted ethically, efficiently and in accordance with the law.

Commercial law, a vital branch of private law, encompasses a diverse set of rules governing activities and relationships in the business world. This legal discipline is subdivided into several categories, each targeting specific aspects of commerce and industry.

Within commercial law, particular attention is paid to the laws that define the status of merchants and commercial companies. These rules cover issues such as the formation of a company, its legal obligations, corporate governance, and the conditions for its dissolution. For example, the laws governing the creation of a public limited company in Switzerland set out the criteria for its formation, its responsibilities to shareholders and the requirements for publication of its accounts. In addition, commercial law also deals with rules relating to property and commercial activity. This category includes laws on commercial transactions, such as purchases and sales, credit agreements and service contracts. These rules are essential to ensure fair and transparent commercial transactions. For example, the rules governing commercial transactions in Switzerland ensure that agreements between companies are concluded fairly and are legally binding. Intellectual property law is another important pillar of commercial law. It protects intellectual creations, such as literary and artistic works (copyright) and inventions (patents). These legal protections encourage innovation and creation by granting creators exclusive rights over the use of their works. In the case of patents, for example, an inventor can obtain the exclusive right to exploit his or her invention for a specified period, thereby encouraging investment in research and development. Finally, commercial law includes specialist areas such as banking, maritime and insurance law. Each of these areas responds to specific needs and presents unique challenges. Banking law, for example, regulates the operations and services of banks, ensuring the security and integrity of the financial system. Maritime law deals with the legal aspects of shipping, while insurance law covers insurance contracts and claims management.

Taken as a whole, commercial law provides the necessary framework for the ethical and efficient conduct of business. It plays a crucial role in the economy by facilitating trade, protecting the rights of businesses and consumers, and contributing to the stability and predictability of economic activities.

Characteristics of private law

Private law, characterised by its individualistic and liberal nature, plays a fundamental role in regulating relations between individuals and private entities. Its distinctive features reflect fundamental principles that have evolved over time, largely inspired by the Roman legal tradition.

Firstly, private law is often described as individualistic. It focuses on the rights and interests of individuals, allowing people to regulate their private affairs with a high degree of autonomy. This individualistic characteristic ensures that personal interests are protected and that individuals have the freedom to make legal decisions that affect their personal and professional lives. Secondly, private law is also considered liberal, mainly because of its respect for the autonomy of the will of individuals. This autonomy allows parties to enter into agreements and create legal relationships on their own terms, as long as they respect the legal framework in force. For example, when forming a contract, the parties are free to negotiate the terms and conditions that suit them, as long as these do not violate the applicable laws.

Private law is also dispositive in nature, which means that the rules can often be modified or excluded by agreement between the parties. This flexibility means that rules can be adapted and customised to meet the specific needs of the parties involved in a legal relationship. In terms of homogeneity, private law is consistent and uniform in its principles and applications. This characteristic contributes to its predictability and comprehensibility, which is essential for the stability of private transactions and relationships. Finally, private law is characterised by its stability, which stems from its roots in the Roman legal tradition. This tradition gave rise to an extremely elaborate and refined legal system, which has greatly influenced the development of modern private law. Compared with public law, which can be more subject to change in response to government policies and societal needs, private law is generally older and more stable.

In summary, private law, with its characteristics of individualism, liberalism, dispositiveness, homogeneity and stability, provides an essential legal framework for the management of private relationships and affairs. It protects individual rights and facilitates private interactions and transactions within a secure and predictable legal framework.

International law

International law is a complex and dynamic field of law based primarily on international treaties and agreements between states. These treaties, which are legally binding agreements between two or more sovereign states, form the basis of international law. They are often negotiated and adopted under the aegis of international organisations or supranational institutions. These international organisations, such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organisation or the European Union, play an essential role in facilitating, negotiating and sometimes applying international treaties. They provide a platform for international cooperation and dialogue between states, thereby contributing to the development and maintenance of the international legal order.

International treaties can cover a wide variety of areas, such as international trade, human rights, environmental protection, disarmament and many others. Once ratified, these treaties bind the States parties and become an important source of international law. Furthermore, in many national legal systems, ratified international treaties are incorporated into domestic law and can have a direct impact on national laws. In addition to treaties, international law also includes other sources such as customary international law, which is formed by the practices generally accepted as law by states, and the general principles of law recognised by civilised nations. The decisions of international tribunals, such as the International Court of Justice, also contribute to the development and interpretation of international law.

International law, with its extensive ramifications, encompasses legal systems that transcend national borders and regulate transnational relations. It is divided into two main branches, each playing a distinct role in the global context.

Private international law is concerned with resolving conflicts of law in situations involving foreign elements, i.e. cases where more than one national legal system is involved. This branch of law is particularly relevant in contexts where individuals or private entities from different countries are involved in disputes or transactions. For example, if a Swiss company and a French company are involved in a contractual dispute, private international law will help to determine which national law applies and which court has jurisdiction to hear the case. These rules aim to provide a fair and practical solution for complex legal situations that extend beyond the borders of a single country.

On the other hand, public international law governs relations between subjects of international law, such as states and international organisations. This branch of law covers a wide range of subjects, from treaty law and international humanitarian law to human rights and environmental law. For example, the principles of public international law define how nations can behave in times of war and peace, establish norms for international agreements, and set standards for the protection of human rights worldwide. International treaties, such as the Geneva Convention, illustrate how public international law facilitates cooperation between nations and promotes global peace and security.

Together, these two branches of international law form an essential framework for regulating interactions across national borders, providing solutions and guidance for issues and disputes that involve multiple jurisdictions or international actors. Their existence and application are crucial to legal stability, international cooperation and the promotion of justice in an increasingly interconnected world.

International law derives its main sources from the subjects of international law, in particular States and international organisations, mainly through international treaties and agreements. These treaties, which are formal agreements between states, are an essential source of international law and define the obligations and rights of the parties involved. International institutions, such as the United Nations, the World Trade Organisation, the European Union and many others, play a crucial role in facilitating, creating and sometimes applying international law. These organisations act as forums for the negotiation and ratification of international treaties, enabling effective cooperation and coordination between states on a range of global issues. In addition, these international institutions can also create international law through their own regulations and resolutions. For example, United Nations Security Council resolutions can have legal implications for member states. Similarly, the decisions and directives of the European Union are a source of international law for its Member States.

International law is therefore a complex system based on the contributions and commitment of States and international organisations. Through treaties and the activities of these institutions, international law shapes relations between nations and establishes common standards and rules on issues such as international trade, human rights, environmental protection and global security. This enables more orderly and fairer management of international affairs and contributes to the peaceful resolution of conflicts and international cooperation.

Public international law

The term "public international law", often referred to in the past as the "law of nations", derives from the Latin "ius gentium". This historical expression reflects the roots and evolution of public international law over the centuries. In Roman antiquity, "ius gentium" was the law applied to relations between Roman citizens and foreigners, and between different peoples. Although different in content and scope from modern public international law, ius gentium represented an early recognition of the need for legal norms governing interactions beyond the borders of a particular community or state.

Over time, with the emergence of sovereign nation states and the growth of international interactions, ius gentium evolved into public international law. Public international law is a legal system that governs relations between sovereign states and other subjects of international law, such as international organisations. Modern public international law covers a wide range of areas, including international treaties, the law of the sea, diplomatic and consular law, humanitarian law, human rights and environmental law. Today, public international law plays a crucial role in structuring international relations. It provides a framework for cooperation between states, contributes to the peaceful resolution of conflicts and promotes respect for human rights and the rule of law worldwide. Although the term 'law of nations' is less widely used today, its legacy continues to influence the understanding and application of public international law.

Public international law, an area of law of paramount importance in today's global context, can be understood through an analysis of its sources and purpose. This system of law, which transcends national borders, is made up of a set of rules and principles emanating from international sources.

The sources of public international law mainly include international treaties, which are binding agreements concluded between States or between States and international organisations. For example, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea is a treaty that establishes legal standards governing the use of the oceans and seas. In addition to treaties, customary international law, formed by the customary practices and legal beliefs of states, is another major source. The general principles of law recognised by civilised nations, as well as the decisions of international tribunals and the writings of jurists, also serve as references for interpreting and applying public international law. In terms of its subject matter, public international law focuses on the regulation of relations between states, as well as their interactions with international organisations. It governs aspects such as diplomatic conduct, armed conflict, international trade and the protection of human rights. A concrete example is the role of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in regulating international trade, where it provides a framework for trade agreements and resolves trade disputes between member states. In addition, public international law provides a framework for the operation of international organisations, defining, for example, the decision-making and operating procedures of the United Nations.

Public international law, with its rules derived from international sources and its aim of regulating transnational relations, is essential for maintaining order and cooperation in an increasingly interconnected world. It provides the basis for the peaceful and orderly conduct of international affairs, facilitating cooperation, conflict resolution, and the promotion of universal values such as justice and respect for human rights.

The notion of a form of law governing relations between different political entities dates back to antiquity, underlining the long history of the quest for order and justice in international relations. Although different from public international law as we know it today, this ancient concept reflects the early recognition of the importance of a community of interests between states and the need to resolve conflicts by means other than force. In ancient times, various civilisations had already established forms of relations and agreements between themselves. For example, the Greek city-states and later the political entities of ancient Rome entered into treaties, non-aggression agreements and alliances, which were forerunners of modern international treaties. These agreements were often motivated by common interests, such as trade, defence against common enemies, or the management of shared resources.

These early practices indicate an early understanding that cooperation and negotiation could be more beneficial than open conflict. Although the mechanisms and principles of public international law as we know it today have been largely developed over the centuries, particularly after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, these ancient roots show that the idea of a legal order governing relations between different political entities is far from new. Today, public international law is much more structured and formalised, with dedicated international institutions and treaties covering a wide range of subjects. Nevertheless, the fundamental idea of a community of interests between states, seeking to resolve conflicts in a peaceful and orderly manner, remains a central principle of public international law. This historical continuity underlines the enduring importance and relevance of the principles of cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution in international relations.

A fundamental feature of international law that distinguishes it from domestic law is the question of the sovereignty of states and their consent to submit to the rules of international law. In a State, the existence of an established power makes it possible to apply and enforce the rules of law. This established power, generally embodied by the government and the judicial system, ensures that laws are followed and that sanctions are applied in the event of non-compliance. A state's domestic legal system therefore operates within a framework where the authority and capacity to enforce the law are clearly established. On the international scene, however, the situation is different. States are sovereign entities, which means that there is no supreme global authority with absolute power to impose rules of international law. Consequently, the rules of international law exist and are effective to the extent that sovereign states recognise them and choose to abide by them. This is generally done through treaties, agreements and other forms of mutual consent. Recognition of and adherence to the rules of international law therefore depend largely on the will of States. Although some norms of international law, such as the principles of customary international law and jus cogens norms (peremptory norms of general international law), are considered binding on all states, most international law is based on the explicit or implicit consent of states.

This feature of international law highlights the importance of cooperation, dialogue and mutual respect between states in maintaining the international legal order and promoting global peace and stability. While this structure can present challenges, particularly in relation to the application and enforcement of international rules, it reflects the delicate balance between state sovereignty and the need for international regulation and cooperation.

Characteristics of public international law

Public international law, as a legal system governing relations between states and other international actors, has distinct characteristics that distinguish it from the domestic law of states. One of the main features of this law is its incomplete or lacunar nature, reflecting the complexities and limits of international cooperation. Unlike domestic law, which tends to provide a detailed legal framework covering a wide range of situations, public international law does not exhaustively cover all possible areas. There are areas and situations that public international law does not address, which can leave gaps in the regulation of international relations. For example, although public international law addresses issues such as human rights and humanitarian law, it may lack specific guidance for new or rapidly evolving situations, such as the use of emerging technologies in armed conflict or cyber security issues.

Furthermore, public international law focuses primarily on areas where there is mutual understanding and agreement between states. The rules and norms of this law are established where states perceive a common interest in cooperating. For example, international trade treaties, such as those governed by the World Trade Organisation, are the result of a consensus between states on the need to regulate and facilitate trade on a global scale. However, in areas where there is no clear consensus, such as certain aspects of environmental regulation or global resource management, public international law may be less developed or less binding. This lacunar nature of public international law underlines the challenges inherent in regulating international relations. It reflects the reality that, in a world of sovereign nations, cooperation and the development of common legal norms depend largely on the will and consent of individual states. This dynamic makes public international law both a fascinating and complex field, essential for international cooperation but limited by the very nature of relations between sovereign states.

Public international law, with its heterogeneous nature, is a mosaic of different legal sources and traditions. This heterogeneity reflects the diversity of legal systems and practices throughout the world, contributing to the richness but also the complexity of this area of law. One of the major sources of public international law is customary international law, formed from repeated practices that are accepted by states as legally binding. For example, the principle of non-intervention in the internal affairs of other states is an aspect of customary international law that has long been recognised and respected by the international community. In addition to customary law, international treaties, which are formal agreements between states, are another important source. These treaties can cover a variety of subjects, from international trade to the protection of human rights, as illustrated by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea or the Geneva Convention. The "bricks and mortar" construction of public international law reflects its evolution over time, incorporating new norms and adapting old ones. This metaphor illustrates how different pieces from different contexts and periods are assembled to form the international legal framework. For example, the development of international environmental law and the emergence of climate change treaties demonstrate how new areas of public international law can emerge in response to global challenges.

The characterisation of public international law as "stratigraphic" captures the idea that this area of law develops through the successive accumulation of layers of rules and norms that can remain relatively independent of one another. This geological metaphor illustrates how public international law has been built up and evolves over time. The idea of stratigraphy in public international law suggests that different historical periods and events have contributed to the development of new norms and rules, each adding a new layer to the existing legal system. These different layers reflect the contexts and needs of their respective times, but are not always directly linked or coherently integrated into a unified whole. For example, the principles established as part of the creation of the United Nations after the Second World War added an important layer to international law, as did subsequent treaties on specific subjects such as environmental law or international trade law.

This stratigraphic feature of public international law means that there may be a lack of cohesion or clear connection between different parts of the law. Norms developed at different periods may coexist without necessarily forming a fully integrated or harmonised legal system. This can sometimes lead to difficulties of interpretation or conflicts between norms established at different times or in different contexts. Nevertheless, this stratigraphic approach also has its advantages. It allows a degree of flexibility and adaptability in public international law, offering the possibility of adding new rules and standards in response to changing international challenges and situations. In sum, while the stratigraphic nature of public international law may present challenges in terms of coherence and interpretation, it is also indicative of the capacity of international law to evolve and adapt to the changing needs of the international community.

Annexes

References

  1. ↑ Profil de Victor Monnier sur le site de l'UNIGE
  2. ↑ Publications du professeur Victor Monnier
  3. ↑ Hommage au professeur Victor Monnier - Faculté de droit - UNIGE
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