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== Roles and activities during the war ==
== Roles and activities during the war ==


The war period was an important chapter for the League of Nations, even though it no longer played a major political role. Despite the absence of any formal authority, certain technical activities of the League of Nations continued during the war, particularly in the field of humanitarian assistance and refugee protection. The League of Nations set up relief programmes for victims of the war and for refugees fleeing the conflict zones. It worked closely with international organisations such as the Red Cross and religious groups to provide aid and assistance to war-affected populations. The League of Nations also worked to protect minorities and civilian populations during the war, encouraging the belligerents to respect international norms and the Geneva Conventions. Although these activities represented only a fraction of the overall activities of the League of Nations before the war, they were important in maintaining international cooperation and protecting vulnerable populations during the period of global conflict.
The war period was an important chapter for the League of Nations, even though it no longer played a major political role. Despite the absence of any formal authority, certain technical activities of the League of Nations continued during the war, particularly in the field of humanitarian assistance and refugee protection. The League of Nations set up relief programmes for victims of the war and for refugees fleeing the conflict zones. It worked closely with international organisations such as the Red Cross and religious groups to aid and assist war-affected populations. The League of Nations also worked to protect minorities and civilian populations during the war, encouraging the belligerents to respect international norms and the Geneva Conventions. Although these activities represented only a fraction of the overall activities of the League of Nations before the war, they were important in maintaining international cooperation and protecting vulnerable populations during the period of global conflict.


During the war period, the League of Nations functioned in slow motion and had to adapt its activities to the difficult conditions of the war. However, certain activities continued, particularly in the field of public health and the protection of refugees. The League of Nations Epidemiological Intelligence Service continued to compile statistics on diseases throughout the world, which was important for the prevention and treatment of epidemics during the war. As far as refugees were concerned, the League of Nations worked within the limits imposed by the war, but nevertheless sought to provide aid and assistance to displaced populations. The organisation worked closely with religious groups and humanitarian organisations to provide relief to refugees and people displaced by the war. Although the League of Nations did not play a major political role during the war, its technical activities were important in maintaining international cooperation and helping vulnerable populations in difficult conditions.
During the war period, the League of Nations functioned in slow motion and had to adapt its activities to the difficult conditions of the war. However, certain activities continued, particularly in the field of public health and the protection of refugees. The League of Nations Epidemiological Intelligence Service continued to compile statistics on diseases throughout the world, which was important for the prevention and treatment of epidemics during the war. Regarding refugees, the League of Nations worked within the limits imposed by the war, but nevertheless sought to provide aid and assistance to displaced populations. The organisation worked closely with religious groups and humanitarian organisations to provide relief to refugees and people displaced by the war. Although the League of Nations did not play a major political role during the war, its technical activities were important in maintaining international cooperation and helping vulnerable populations in difficult conditions.


In the economic field, the League of Nations remained very active during the war period, although it had to adapt to the difficult conditions of the war. The economic and financial organisation moved to the United States, taking all its archives with it, and continued to operate between 1940 and 1946. During this period, the focus of the League of Nations' work changed to post-war reconstruction, identifying a series of problems that could arise in the post-war period. The organisation carried out studies on demographic issues, the problem of migration, world trade and in particular Europe's place in world trade. These activities were important in laying the foundations for international economic cooperation after the end of the war. The ideas and principles developed by the League of Nations influenced the creation of the United Nations Organisation and its economic bodies, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. International economic cooperation continues to be important for global governance, and the work of the League of Nations in this area helped to lay the foundations for such cooperation.
In the economic field, the League of Nations remained very active during the war period, although it had to adapt to the difficult conditions of the war. The economic and financial organisation moved to the United States, taking all its archives, and continued operating between 1940 and 1946. During this period, the focus of the League of Nations' work changed to post-war reconstruction, identifying a series of problems that could arise in the post-war period. The organisation carried out studies on demographic issues, the problem of migration, world trade and in particular Europe's place in world trade. These activities were important in laying the foundations for international economic cooperation after the end of the war. The ideas and principles developed by the League of Nations influenced the creation of the United Nations Organisation and its economic bodies, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. International economic cooperation continues to be important for global governance, and the work of the League of Nations in this area helped to lay the foundations for such cooperation.


After the end of the war, it was widely anticipated that Europe would be severely affected by the destruction and loss of life caused by the war. There were concerns about Europe's economic future, and this encouraged the idea of European economic integration. The League of Nations played an important role in promoting this idea, working on economic issues and encouraging international economic cooperation. The League of Nations' work on economic issues helped to lay the foundations for international economic cooperation, and influenced the creation of international economic organisations such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In Europe, the idea of economic integration was promoted by figures such as Jean Monnet, who argued for economic union and greater cooperation between European nations. This vision eventually led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which laid the foundations for European economic integration. In this way, the League of Nations helped to promote the idea of European economic integration by working on economic issues and encouraging international cooperation, laying the foundations for the economic cooperation that led to the creation of the European Community and the European Union today.
After the end of the war, it was widely anticipated that Europe would be severely affected by the destruction and loss of life caused by the war. There were concerns about Europe's economic future, and this encouraged the idea of European economic integration. The League of Nations played an important role in promoting this idea, working on economic issues and encouraging international economic cooperation. The League of Nations' work on economic issues helped to lay the foundations for international economic cooperation, and influenced the creation of international economic organisations such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In Europe, the idea of economic integration was promoted by figures such as Jean Monnet, who argued for economic union and greater cooperation between European nations. This vision eventually led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which laid the foundations for European economic integration. In this way, the League of Nations helped to promote the idea of European economic integration by working on economic issues and encouraging international cooperation, laying the foundations for the economic cooperation that led to the creation of the European Community and the European Union today.

Version du 4 juin 2023 à 22:20


The Second World War was one of the most significant events in modern history, with repercussions for the entire planet. As a global conflict involving the main military and economic powers, the war considerably impacted the world order that existed at the time. Indeed, the war profoundly transformed the international power structure, reoriented geopolitical alliances and created a new institutional architecture for global governance. This article examines the implications of the Second World War for the reshaping of world order between 1939 and 1947, exploring the key events that led to the war's end and the implications for world order that emerged in the post-war period.

The onset of the Cold War was a period of significant change in the world order, marking a break with the ideals of cooperation and international governance that had prevailed in the immediate post-war period. However, it would be wrong to minimise the importance of creating the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945. The creation of the UN was a major historical event that gave birth to a new international institution charged with preserving world peace and security, promoting economic and social development and protecting human rights. Although the UN was founded on principles similar to those of the League of Nations, it was endowed with new powers and a more effective organisational structure. Indeed, the UN was created to provide more effective responses to international crises and to meet the needs of the international community in a more accountable and transparent manner. Although the Cold War marked a break with the ideals of cooperation and international governance that prevailed in the immediate post-war period, the UN continued to play an important role in international affairs by promoting dialogue, negotiation and the peaceful resolution of conflicts. Ultimately, the creation of the UN laid the foundations for a stronger and more united international community, which has continued to play a crucial role in maintaining peace and stability in the world.

The collapse of the League of Nations

Analysis of the discrediting of the League of Nations

Hopes in the League of Nations in March 1919, as seen by the weekly Le Miroir: the banishment of war and the search for universal peace.

The League of Nations was criticised for its inability to prevent or resolve the international conflicts that erupted in the 1930s, including the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Spanish Civil War in 1936, the German annexation of Austria in 1938, and the annexation of the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia in 1938. These failures seriously undermined the credibility of the League of Nations and led to the perception that it was an organisation powerless to deal with international conflicts.

The League of Nations faced a number of challenges that undermined its legitimacy and led to the loss of important members. Germany and Japan left the League of Nations in 1933, and the Soviet Union was expelled in 1939 for its invasion of Finland. Other countries, such as Italy, Spain and Portugal, also left the organisation. This loss of members certainly affected the credibility of the League of Nations and reinforced the idea that it was incapable of resolving international conflicts. In addition, the League of Nations was criticised for its lack of ability to respond effectively to aggression from powers such as Nazi Germany, which continued to threaten international peace despite the League's attempts to contain them. These factors contributed to the creation of a black legend around the League of Nations, which was perceived as an organisation that was weak and powerless in its ability to maintain international peace and security. This perception has persisted to the present day and has been used as an example of the need for a more effective international organisation to maintain global peace and security, leading to the creation of the United Nations.

The League of Nations faced significant limitations in its ability to manage international conflict due to the reluctance of the major powers to give it the means to do so. Member states of the League of Nations have been inclined to protect their national interests and have often sought to avoid confrontation with other members of the organisation. In addition, the major powers often ignored or circumvented the decisions of the League of Nations, undermining its authority and ability to enforce international norms. For example, Nazi Germany decided to leave the League of Nations in 1933 and began rearming in violation of international agreements, without facing any significant sanctions from the organisation. From this perspective, the failure of the League of Nations should be understood as the result of the policies of the Great Powers rather than an inherent weakness of the organisation itself. This underlines the importance of international cooperation and the commitment of the Great Powers to the creation and maintenance of an effective international organisation for world peace and security.

The League of Nations has made some important achievements, including the creation of international institutions to regulate trade and security, the establishment of programmes for economic and social development, and the promotion of international cooperation in culture and health. However, the League of Nations has faced major challenges in its ability to manage international conflict, largely due to the failure of the Great Powers to reach agreement. Conflicts between the Great Powers often blocked the League of Nations' efforts to act decisively, leading to the perception that the organisation was incapable of maintaining international peace and security. The League of Nations was created against a background of deep divisions and hostility between the Great Powers, which made it difficult to create an effective international organisation to preserve world peace and security. However, it also highlights the importance of international cooperation and the commitment of the major powers to the creation and maintenance of an effective international organisation for global peace and security.

The moving process

The late 1930s saw a significant decline in the political activity of the League of Nations due to rising international tensions and the organisation's inability to prevent conflict. However, the technical activities of the League of Nations continued to operate in a variety of fields, including the regulation of trade, cooperation in health, the promotion of culture and education, and international security. Despite the inability of the League of Nations to prevent rising international tensions and the conflicts that followed, it is important to emphasise that the organisation continued its work in many technical areas. These activities were important for the creation of international standards and regulations that have continued to have an impact on international relations to this day. Ultimately, although the League of Nations has been criticised for its inability to prevent conflict and maintain international peace, it is important to recognise the technical activities it carried out in various fields and their impact on international relations. These activities laid the foundations for increased international cooperation in various fields, and contributed to the creation of international norms and regulations that have continued to be important for global governance.

Faced with the League of Nations' inability to prevent conflict and maintain international peace, some felt that the organisation's technical activities needed to be strengthened. From the mid-1930s, efforts were made to develop these technical activities, which were seen as an area in which the organisation could have a positive impact on people's lives. These technical activities included economic and social development programmes, public health programmes, trade and transport regulations, as well as cultural and educational initiatives. These activities enabled the League of Nations to develop a certain universalism in international cooperation, which continued to have an impact on international relations after the end of the war. By strengthening the organisation's technical activities, some hoped that the League of Nations could become more relevant to member states, particularly those not involved in international conflict. However, despite these efforts, the League of Nations was eventually discredited for its inability to prevent international conflict, and was replaced by the United Nations after the end of the Second World War.

The Bruce reform was an important attempt to reform the League of Nations and strengthen its role in international cooperation, particularly in the economic and social fields. Adopted in September 1939 at the League of Nations Assembly, the reform called for the creation of a Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions, which would be the forerunner of the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations. The main idea behind this reform was to centralise the technical activities of the League of Nations and coordinate them more effectively, by creating a more solid organisational structure. The Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions would have been responsible for coordinating the economic and social activities of the whole organisation, ensuring greater international cooperation in these areas. Unfortunately, the Bruce reform could not be fully implemented due to rising international tensions and the outbreak of the Second World War. However, the ideas and principles of the reform did influence the creation of the United Nations after the end of the war, particularly with regard to the creation of the UN Economic and Social Council, which took over the role of the League of Nations' Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions.

Germany's invasion of Europe during the Second World War called into question the plan to reform the League of Nations and led to the dispersal of the organisation. The financial services moved to Great Britain, while the economic and financial organisation was based at Princeton University in the United States until 1945. However, despite this dispersal, some of the League of Nations' technical activities continued to operate. The Economic and Financial Organisation continued to reflect on the world economy after the end of the war, while the International Labour Office moved to Montreal, Canada. After the end of the war, the United Nations was created to replace the League of Nations, adopting many of the ideas and principles of Bruce reform. The UN Economic and Social Council took over the role of the League of Nations' Central Committee on Economic and Social Questions, and continued to work on economic and social issues around the world.

Roles and activities during the war

The war period was an important chapter for the League of Nations, even though it no longer played a major political role. Despite the absence of any formal authority, certain technical activities of the League of Nations continued during the war, particularly in the field of humanitarian assistance and refugee protection. The League of Nations set up relief programmes for victims of the war and for refugees fleeing the conflict zones. It worked closely with international organisations such as the Red Cross and religious groups to aid and assist war-affected populations. The League of Nations also worked to protect minorities and civilian populations during the war, encouraging the belligerents to respect international norms and the Geneva Conventions. Although these activities represented only a fraction of the overall activities of the League of Nations before the war, they were important in maintaining international cooperation and protecting vulnerable populations during the period of global conflict.

During the war period, the League of Nations functioned in slow motion and had to adapt its activities to the difficult conditions of the war. However, certain activities continued, particularly in the field of public health and the protection of refugees. The League of Nations Epidemiological Intelligence Service continued to compile statistics on diseases throughout the world, which was important for the prevention and treatment of epidemics during the war. Regarding refugees, the League of Nations worked within the limits imposed by the war, but nevertheless sought to provide aid and assistance to displaced populations. The organisation worked closely with religious groups and humanitarian organisations to provide relief to refugees and people displaced by the war. Although the League of Nations did not play a major political role during the war, its technical activities were important in maintaining international cooperation and helping vulnerable populations in difficult conditions.

In the economic field, the League of Nations remained very active during the war period, although it had to adapt to the difficult conditions of the war. The economic and financial organisation moved to the United States, taking all its archives, and continued operating between 1940 and 1946. During this period, the focus of the League of Nations' work changed to post-war reconstruction, identifying a series of problems that could arise in the post-war period. The organisation carried out studies on demographic issues, the problem of migration, world trade and in particular Europe's place in world trade. These activities were important in laying the foundations for international economic cooperation after the end of the war. The ideas and principles developed by the League of Nations influenced the creation of the United Nations Organisation and its economic bodies, such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. International economic cooperation continues to be important for global governance, and the work of the League of Nations in this area helped to lay the foundations for such cooperation.

After the end of the war, it was widely anticipated that Europe would be severely affected by the destruction and loss of life caused by the war. There were concerns about Europe's economic future, and this encouraged the idea of European economic integration. The League of Nations played an important role in promoting this idea, working on economic issues and encouraging international economic cooperation. The League of Nations' work on economic issues helped to lay the foundations for international economic cooperation, and influenced the creation of international economic organisations such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. In Europe, the idea of economic integration was promoted by figures such as Jean Monnet, who argued for economic union and greater cooperation between European nations. This vision eventually led to the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which laid the foundations for European economic integration. In this way, the League of Nations helped to promote the idea of European economic integration by working on economic issues and encouraging international cooperation, laying the foundations for the economic cooperation that led to the creation of the European Community and the European Union today.

As early as 1940, the reorganisation of the post-war period was already being thought through, and the economists of the economic and financial organisation of the League of Nations played an important role in this thinking. These economists began to work on economic reconstruction plans for the post-war period, focusing on issues such as the distribution of resources, international cooperation and the creation of international economic institutions. These plans were drawn up as part of the war effort, but they laid the foundations for economic reconstruction after the end of the war. The work of these economists influenced post-war discussions on the creation of closer international economic cooperation, and led to the creation of organisations such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. These organisations were created to help with post-war economic reconstruction, but also played an important role in promoting long-term international economic cooperation.

The emergence of a new world order: Reconstruction

Analysis of emerging issues

The world order established by the League of Nations collapsed with the outbreak of the Second World War. The events of the war highlighted the limits of the international order put in place after the First World War, and made it clear that the organisation of the world needed to be rethought. From the start of the conflict, many issues began to emerge, such as the involvement of the United States in the war, the rise of Nazi Germany and the future of Europe after the war. These issues made it clear that the existing world order was inadequate to meet the challenges of the war and the post-war period. During the war, discussions took place on how to rethink the world order and create a more effective international organisation to maintain peace and promote international cooperation. These discussions led to the creation of the United Nations in 1945, which was intended to replace the League of Nations and create a new world order based on international cooperation and security.

Decoding the international reorganisation

A major question emerged during the Second World War concerning the future of the existing international organisation, the League of Nations. It was clear that the League of Nations had failed to establish itself and create an international order that was respected by most of its players. The United States, which was a key player on the international scene, was not a supporter of the League of Nations. Similarly, the Soviet Union had been expelled from the organisation in 1939 after invading Finland. Only Great Britain weakly defended the League of Nations, because it was the dominant power in the organisation, along with France, which was out of the picture after its collapse in five weeks to Germany. Against this backdrop, the question of whether to keep the League of Nations in its current form or create a new organisation became increasingly pressing. Discussions on the creation of a new international organisation eventually led to the creation of the United Nations Organisation in 1945, which replaced the League of Nations and laid the foundations for a new world order based on international cooperation and security.

The idea of creating a new international institution capable of imposing its legitimacy on individual states is a major topic of debate in international relations. The challenges posed by global issues such as climate change, international conflicts and pandemics have led many experts to call for a reform of global governance. The League of Nations, created after the First World War, was intended to maintain international peace and security. However, the inability of the League of Nations to prevent the Second World War led to its dissolution and the creation of the United Nations (UN). The UN is currently the main international institution responsible for maintaining international peace and security, as well as promoting economic and social development and human rights. However, some critics argue that the UN lacks legitimacy and effectiveness, partly due to the reluctance of member states to abide by its decisions and resolutions. Some experts have proposed the creation of a new international institution capable of imposing its legitimacy and taking more decisive action on global governance. However, such an institution would have to be created on the basis of a solid international consensus and respect the principles of state sovereignty and international cooperation.

The creation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945 was the culmination of long reflection and debate on the need for an effective international organisation to maintain international peace and security. Since the 1920s, ideas for an international organisation to replace the League of Nations and prevent international conflicts had been discussed. However, it was not until the Second World War that these ideas were put into practice. In 1941, the United States and Great Britain issued a joint declaration, known as the Atlantic Charter, which laid the foundations for the United Nations. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944, where the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union and China discussed the modalities of creating a new international organisation. The San Francisco conference in 1945 then brought together representatives from 50 countries to adopt the United Nations Charter, which officially created the UN. The Charter established the fundamental principles of the organisation, including respect for the sovereignty of States, the promotion of international cooperation and the peaceful resolution of disputes.

Study of the role of the United States in the future world order

The involvement of the United States in the First World War and especially in the Second World War had a significant impact on the outcome of these conflicts and helped shape its role in the international order. Their entry into the war in 1917 strengthened the Allies and contributed to the defeat of the Central Powers in 1918.

During the Second World War, the United States initially adopted a policy of isolationism and neutrality, but events such as the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 prompted it to become actively involved in the conflict. Their industrial and economic power was a determining factor in their success and that of the Allies. The United States provided crucial material and financial support to the Allied countries through programmes such as Lend-Lease.

After the war, the United States became a global superpower alongside the Soviet Union. It was instrumental in creating the United Nations (UN) and other international institutions and agreements, helping to shape the architecture of the new world order. The Cold War that followed was dominated by the rivalry between the US and the USSR, each seeking to extend its influence and ideology around the world.

Understanding the new global economy after the war

After the Second World War, the reorganisation of the world economy was a crucial issue for American leaders and other nations. The economic crisis of 1929 and the resulting protectionist policies had contributed to global instability and the rise of totalitarian regimes. Leaders at the time sought to prevent this from happening again.

The United States played a central role in the creation of a new world economic order, based on economic liberalism and free trade. The differences between Hull and Roosevelt over the degree of liberalisation reflected a wider debate about how best to shape the post-war global economy.

In the end, the United States and its allies adopted an approach based on international economic cooperation and coordination. A number of institutions and agreements were put in place to support this new economic order, including:

  • The Bretton Woods system (1944): This conference led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (now part of the World Bank). The aim of these institutions was to stabilise exchange rates, facilitate post-war reconstruction and economic development and prevent global financial crises.
  • The Marshall Plan (1947): This massive programme of economic aid from the United States to Europe contributed to the reconstruction and economic revitalisation of European countries devastated by the war. It also strengthened political and economic ties between the United States and Europe.
  • The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT, 1947): This agreement was designed to promote free trade and reduce tariff barriers between countries. It laid the foundations for the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which was created in 1995 to regulate and promote international trade.

These initiatives and institutions have shaped the post-war global economy and contributed to a period of unprecedented economic growth and international cooperation. Although challenges remain, the commitment to economic liberalism and free trade marked a significant break with the protectionist policies of the 1930s and has played an important role in preventing another global economic crisis and promoting international stability.

Examining Europe's position in the world order

The Second World War marked a decisive shift in the international balance of power. Before the war, Europe had been the centre of international affairs, with powers such as Britain, France and Germany playing a dominant role on the world stage. However, the devastating conflict and internal strife in Europe seriously weakened the continent and called into question its international hegemony. Europe suffered massive human and material losses during the war, and many European economies were devastated. As a result, Europe's ability to exert global influence was seriously compromised. In contrast, the United States and the USSR emerged from the war as superpowers, with considerable economic and military influence and capabilities. The new balance of power led to a decline in European influence and a rise in the power of the USA and the USSR, which largely shaped international affairs during the Cold War. Despite this relative decline, Europe managed to rebuild itself and reintegrate into the global economy after the war. Through cooperative efforts such as the Marshall Plan, the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) and the establishment of European institutions, Europe gradually regained a degree of economic and political stability.

The American plan to reorganise the world after the Second World War included the idea of supporting economic cooperation in Europe and creating a universal organisation to promote peace, security and international cooperation.

  • Economic union in Europe: The United States actively supported economic integration in Europe, believing that an economically stable and prosperous Europe would be a factor for peace and stability. The Marshall Plan, launched in 1947, provided massive economic aid to European countries to help them rebuild after the war and strengthen their economic ties. This aid encouraged cooperation between European countries and laid the foundations for the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951 and the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1957. These organisations were the forerunners of today's European Union (EU).
  • Universal organisation: The United States was also a key driving force behind the creation of the United Nations Organisation (UNO) in 1945. The UN was founded to promote peace, security and international cooperation and to prevent large-scale global conflict. As a founding member and one of the five permanent members of the Security Council, the United States has played a central role in the development and operation of the organisation.

The American plan to support European economic integration and create a universal organisation helped to shape the post-war international order. These initiatives have led to a period of economic growth and relative stability, although many challenges and tensions remain on the international scene. The commitment of the United States and other key players to these organisations and to international cooperation remains essential to meeting global challenges and preserving peace and security.

After the Second World War, the United States realised that the economic reconstruction of Europe was crucial to its own economic prosperity. Devastated Europe represented an important market for American products, and if it remained in ruins, demand for these products would fall, which could lead to a recession in the United States. Against this backdrop, the United States introduced the Marshall Plan in 1947, which consisted of massive economic aid for the reconstruction and revitalisation of the European economy. The aim of the plan was to create a solid economic partner and prevent the spread of communism in Europe, particularly in countries devastated by the war and vulnerable to outside influences. However, the United States was more reluctant to support the political integration of Europe, fearing that this would lead to a competing political bloc or limit its influence on the continent. Instead, it encouraged European economic union, which would strengthen economic ties without necessarily leading to full political integration. At the same time, the United States favoured the creation of a universal organisation, the United Nations (UN), in which European leadership would be diluted. The UN was intended to promote international cooperation and prevent global conflict, while allowing the US to play a central role in international affairs as one of the permanent members of the Security Council. Ultimately, the US strategy contributed to the economic reconstruction of Europe and the creation of international institutions that shaped the post-war world order. However, Europe eventually pursued political integration with the creation of the European Union, which today is a major economic and political power on the international stage.

After the Second World War, the United States sought to consolidate its position as a superpower and did not want to see the emergence of a politically strong Europe that could challenge its leadership. They were aware of the importance of turning around the European economy to create outlets for their industry and avoid a recession, but they were less enthusiastic about the idea of far-reaching European political integration. By encouraging economic union in Europe rather than political integration, the US hoped to create a stable and prosperous economic partner without strengthening a potential political competitor. The Marshall Plan and support for European economic cooperation aimed to achieve this balance. Over time, however, European political integration deepened, giving rise to the European Union we know today. Although the EU is not a superpower like the United States, it has become a major economic and political power on the international stage, exerting considerable influence in a variety of areas. Today, the United States and the European Union are important partners, cooperating on many global issues. Despite occasional tensions and differences of opinion, the two powers continue to work together to address global challenges and promote stability and prosperity.

The United States began thinking about its role in the post-war world order even before it entered the Second World War. As a rising and economically prosperous power, the United States understood the importance of shaping a new international order in which it could exert its influence and protect its interests. Although the United States adopted a policy of neutrality at the start of the conflict, it nevertheless supported the Allies by providing equipment and financial resources through programmes such as the Cash-and-Carry Act and the Lend-Lease programme. These actions demonstrated their commitment to the Allied victory and the construction of a new world order. As the war progressed, the United States intensified its thinking about how to shape the post-war world. Discussions with the other Allies, plans for economic reconstruction and support for the creation of international organisations were all important elements of this thinking.

The founding conferences of the world order: 1941 - 1945

The creation of the UN was the result of a meticulous planning process that began during the Second World War. The major Allied powers met at several conferences to discuss and prepare for the post-war reorganisation and the building of a new international organisation. Unlike the League of Nations, which was created after the First World War without a coherent overall architecture, the UN was conceived from the outset as an integrated system of specialised organisations and agencies with specific competencies. The idea was to put in place a mechanism for international cooperation capable of dealing with various global problems and issues in a coordinated and effective manner. Among the conferences that laid the foundations for the UN were the Atlantic Conference (1941), which resulted in the Atlantic Charter, a set of guiding principles for international cooperation, the Moscow Conference (1943), the Teheran Conference (1943), the Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944), and finally the Yalta Conference (1945). The San Francisco Conference in 1945 marked the official creation of the United Nations. Delegates from 50 countries met to draft the United Nations Charter, which became the organisation's fundamental constitution. The UN officially came into being on 24 October 1945, following ratification of the Charter by the five permanent members of the Security Council (the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France and China) and the majority of other signatories. The UN was thus born of a process of planning and international cooperation aimed at creating an organisation capable of promoting peace, security and cooperation between nations, while tackling various global issues in a coordinated and effective manner.

Roosevelt and Churchill aboard the USS Augusta in the Atlantic off Newfoundland.

The Atlantic Charter was a founding moment in the creation of the United Nations. Signed in August 1941 by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill when they met on board warships off the coast of Newfoundland, the Atlantic Charter set out a series of guiding principles for international cooperation and peace after the war. These principles included respect for the sovereignty and self-determination of peoples, the free movement of goods and people, economic cooperation and the abolition of discriminatory practices in international trade, as well as the promotion of world peace and security. The Atlantic Charter was partly inspired by President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, a peace programme presented in 1918 after the First World War. In January 1942, representatives of 26 Allied countries signed the United Nations Declaration, a document that endorsed the principles of the Atlantic Charter and expressed a common determination to fight the Axis forces. The signing of this declaration is considered the founding act of the United Nations, and the term "United Nations" itself was used for the first time in this document.

The 1941 International Labour Conference in New York was a landmark event in the process of creating a new world order. The fact that these major conferences were held in the United States symbolised the hegemonic transfer of international power. The International Labour Organisation (ILO), founded in 1919, is a specialised agency of the United Nations which aims to promote workers' rights, decent employment and social justice. The ILO organised the 1941 conference to discuss issues of social and economic well-being in the context of the Second World War. In 1944, the ILO adopted the Declaration of Philadelphia, a document setting out the organisation's aims and objectives for the post-war period. The Declaration of Philadelphia affirms that labour is not a commodity, that freedom of association is a fundamental right, that poverty is a danger to the prosperity of all, and that the war against unemployment and want must be waged with vigorous vigour. The Declaration of Philadelphia helped to shape the ILO's vision for a fairer and more equitable world of work and reinforced the organisation's role in promoting workers' rights and social justice in the context of the new international architecture put in place after the Second World War.

UNRRA (United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration) was set up in 1943 to coordinate relief and rehabilitation activities in the territories liberated during and after the Second World War. It was a temporary international organisation that operated until 1947. UNRRA provided economic and humanitarian assistance to countries affected by the war, including food, clothing, medicines and equipment. The organisation also helped to rebuild infrastructure destroyed by the conflict, such as roads, bridges and hospitals, and to reintegrate refugees and displaced persons. UNRRA played an important role in international efforts to meet immediate humanitarian needs and the challenges of reconstruction in the post-war period. Although UNRRA was disbanded in 1947, its work provided the basis for the creation of other international organisations, such as the International Refugee Organisation and the United Nations Development Programme, which continued and developed the relief and rehabilitation efforts initiated by UNRRA.

The Conference of Allied Ministers of Education, held in London in 1942, was a key moment in the creation of UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). Ministers and representatives of the Allied countries met to discuss the importance of education and culture in rebuilding a post-war world and to pave the way for the creation of an international organisation dedicated to these fields. One of the main aims of the conference was to build consensus on the need to reform education systems to prevent the future rise of totalitarian regimes and to promote democracy, tolerance and mutual understanding between nations. Participants stressed the importance of education for peace, international cooperation and sustainable development. After the war, in 1945, UNESCO was officially created as a specialised organisation of the United Nations, taking up and developing the ideas and principles discussed at the London Conference in 1942. UNESCO is committed to promoting education, science, culture and communication in order to strengthen peace and understanding between peoples and to contribute to the economic and social development of nations.

The first conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) took place in 1943 in Hot Springs, Virginia, in the United States. Representatives of 44 governments met to discuss the problems of food supply and agriculture that had arisen during the Second World War and to plan how to meet the food challenges of the post-war period. Conference participants stressed the need for a permanent international organisation to coordinate global efforts to improve food production and distribution, combat hunger and malnutrition, and promote rural and agricultural development. They also established specific objectives, such as increasing agricultural production, improving nutrition and ensuring equitable access to food resources for all. In October 1945, the FAO was officially created as a specialised organisation of the United Nations in Quebec City, Canada, with a mandate to "contribute to the growth of the world's population by raising levels of nutrition and living conditions, by improving the production and distribution of food and agricultural products and by improving the living conditions of rural populations". Since then, the FAO has continued to work towards these goals and to combat hunger and malnutrition throughout the world.

The Bretton Woods Conference, held in July 1944, was a key moment in the establishment of a new world economic order after the Second World War. Delegates from 44 countries met at Bretton Woods in New Hampshire, USA, to discuss the reconstruction of the international financial system. The conference led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), now part of the World Bank Group. The Dumbarton Oaks and San Francisco conferences followed in 1944 and 1945 respectively. The Dumbarton Oaks Conference, held in Washington, D.C., brought together representatives of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and China to discuss the creation of an international organisation to maintain peace and security in the world after the war. The discussions laid the foundations for the United Nations Charter and the United Nations Organisation (UNO) itself. The San Francisco Conference, held in April-June 1945, brought together delegates from 50 countries to finalise and sign the United Nations Charter. This conference marked the official creation of the UN as an international organisation responsible for promoting peace, security, cooperation and economic and social development throughout the world.

These conferences shaped the post-war international economic and political order by creating key institutions such as the IMF, the World Bank and the UN, which continue to play an important role in global governance today.

The Bretton Woods system: The importance of economics in global restructuring

Harry Dexter White (left) and John Maynard Keynes in 1946. They were the two main protagonists of the Bretton Woods conference.

The Bretton Woods system was designed to create a new international economic order after the Second World War. The main objectives of the system were to facilitate the reconstruction of the economies devastated by the war, to promote monetary stability and to encourage international economic cooperation. The architects of the Bretton Woods system saw protectionism and economic imbalances in the inter-war period as key factors contributing to the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and the outbreak of the Second World War.

The Bretton Woods conference, held in 1944, was marked by intense debates between the United States and Great Britain, as well as divergent visions between John Maynard Keynes and Harry Dexter White on international economic reorganisation. Keynes, who was one of the main British negotiators at Bretton Woods, favoured the creation of large regional economic zones with a degree of protectionism between them. He believed that this approach would promote economic growth and maintain a sustainable balance of trade between countries. White, on the other hand, who was the US Treasury Secretary, favoured a unilaterally liberalised system, in which trade would be largely open and countries would be encouraged to pursue a stable, low-inflation economic policy. The discussions between the two men were intense and eventually led to a compromise that gave birth to the Bretton Woods system. This system was based on a fixed exchange rate between the major currencies and the creation of an international monetary fund to help countries deal with economic imbalances.

The Bretton Woods system included several key elements:

  • Fixed exchange rates: Member countries undertook to maintain the value of their currencies within a narrow band against gold and the US dollar, which served as the international reserve currency. This exchange rate stability was intended to facilitate international trade and investment.
  • The creation of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD, now part of the World Bank Group): The mission of these institutions was to support economic reconstruction, provide financial assistance to countries in difficulty and promote international economic cooperation.
  • Progressive trade liberalisation: Member countries were encouraged to reduce trade barriers and promote free trade. The idea was that increased international trade would promote economic growth, employment and prosperity, thus helping to prevent the rise of totalitarianism and the repetition of past mistakes.

The Bretton Woods system played a crucial role in post-war reconstruction and global economic growth for several decades. However, it was finally abandoned in the 1970s due to a variety of factors, including the end of the convertibility of the US dollar into gold and the emergence of new global economic challenges. Nevertheless, the legacy of the Bretton Woods system continues to influence international economic governance today, particularly through the institutions it helped to create, such as the IMF and the World Bank.

The Bretton Woods system was largely influenced by the United States because of its dominant economic and political position at the time. After the Second World War, the United States was the world's leading economic power and held the majority of the world's gold reserves. What's more, its economy and infrastructure were largely intact, unlike those of Europe and Asia, which had been devastated by the war. This allowed the United States to impose its vision of total liberalisation of the world economy. The Bretton Woods system was built around the idea of free trade, monetary stability and international economic cooperation. The United States played a central role in the creation of the system's key institutions, such as the IMF and the World Bank, and used its influence to promote its economic objectives. The establishment of the Bretton Woods system was largely beneficial to the United States, which was able to take advantage of its dominant position to shape the global economic order according to its interests. The system contributed to the growth of international trade and the reconstruction of the European and Asian economies, which strengthened economic ties between the United States and these regions and gave American companies access to new markets.

The economic question was indeed at the heart of the reorganisation of the post-war international system, and the Bretton Woods system played a crucial role in this respect. Although the Bretton Woods system was not an integral part of the UN, it is undeniable that the two systems were closely linked and that their joint establishment was essential in shaping the new world order after the Second World War. The Bretton Woods system, by setting up key institutions such as the IMF and the World Bank, facilitated the reconstruction of war-torn economies and fostered international economic cooperation. The system also promoted monetary stability and free trade, creating an economic environment conducive to growth and prosperity. At the same time, the UN was created to promote peace, security and international cooperation in many areas, including economic and social issues. The UN's objectives were complementary to those of the Bretton Woods system, as a stable and prosperous economic environment is essential to maintaining international peace and security.

The United Nations system

The UN system came into being with the San Francisco Charter, signed on 26 June 1945 by 50 countries at the United Nations Conference on International Organisation. The Charter establishes the principles and structure of the United Nations, whose main objective is to maintain international peace and security and to promote international cooperation in various fields, such as economic, social, cultural and humanitarian issues. The League of Nations, created in 1920 after the First World War, had similar objectives, notably universalism and the idea of collective security. However, it failed to prevent the rise of totalitarian regimes and the Second World War, leading to its dissolution and the transfer of its responsibilities to the UN. The last Assembly of the League of Nations was held in April 1946, when it officially ended its existence and transferred its assets, powers and principles to the UN. The new organisation inherited many of the League of Nations' functions and structures, but also made significant changes to avoid the mistakes and weaknesses of its predecessor. For example, the UN was designed to be more inclusive and representative, with a structure that included the major powers in key decision-making, such as the Security Council. In addition, the UN broadened its scope to include economic and social issues, creating specialised agencies and establishing a closer system of cooperation with regional organisations.

The creation of the UN in 1945 was a continuation of some of the ideas and principles of the League of Nations, with the common objective of maintaining international peace and security. However, the UN also introduced significant changes to overcome the weaknesses and shortcomings of the League of Nations and avoid repeating its mistakes.

These changes include

  • A more inclusive and representative structure: Unlike the League of Nations, the UN was designed to be more open and include a greater number of states, including the major powers, which play a central role in key decision-making, particularly within the Security Council.
  • A broader scope: The UN has extended its reach beyond international security to include economic and social issues. It has set up specialised agencies to deal with these issues and promote cooperation and development in various fields.
  • Closer cooperation with regional organisations: The UN has sought closer ties with regional organisations to address peace and security issues and promote cooperation at different levels.
  • Stronger commitment to human rights: The UN has also placed a stronger emphasis on the promotion and protection of human rights, adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 and setting up mechanisms to monitor and address human rights violations.

Although the UN is based on some of the same principles and ideas as the League of Nations, it has also introduced significant changes to meet the challenges of the post-war world and avoid the failures of its predecessor. The creation of the UN can therefore be seen as a partial break with the League of Nations, but also as an evolution and renewal of the international system.

The UN was conceived and developed during the Second World War to meet post-war needs and create a more effective and comprehensive international system. Its founders learned from the failures of the League of Nations and sought to create a more inclusive, representative and better structured organisation to meet the challenges of the post-war world. The UN is made up of several main bodies, including the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the International Court of Justice and the Secretariat. Each of these bodies has specific responsibilities and mandates defined in the Charter of the United Nations, the organisation's founding document. In addition, the UN has also created a number of specialised agencies and programmes to deal with specific issues, such as education (UNESCO), health (WHO), economic development (UNDP), refugees (UNHCR) and many others. These organisations work closely with governments, non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders to address complex and interrelated global challenges. In this way, the UN represents a comprehensive international system, covering a wide range of issues and concerns, and striving to promote peace, security, development and human rights throughout the world.

Political aspects of the UN

The UN operates through a complex network of organisations and levels. The political level is represented primarily by the General Assembly and the Security Council.

The General Assembly is the forum where all Member States are represented and where everyone has a voice. Its main objective is to promote universality and inclusion. The General Assembly discusses and votes on various issues, and its resolutions are adopted by majority vote. This contrasts with the League of Nations, where resolutions had to be adopted unanimously.

The Security Council is a smaller and more powerful body, consisting of 15 members, including five permanent members (United States, Russia, China, United Kingdom and France) and ten non-permanent members elected for a two-year term. The five permanent members have the right of veto, which gives them the ability to block any resolution they deem contrary to their interests. This structure was designed to enable the Security Council to function more effectively and to maintain international peace and security.

The coexistence of the General Assembly and the Security Council illustrates the tensions inherent in the workings of the UN. The General Assembly represents the principle of universality and sovereign equality, while the Security Council reflects the power of the major powers and their role in maintaining world order. This duality is at the heart of the UN's institutional architecture and shapes the debates and negotiations on international issues.

The UN rests on two fundamental pillars with different rationales: universalism and political realism. On the one hand, the General Assembly embodies universalism by giving every Member State an equal voice and by promoting cooperation and dialogue between nations. On the other hand, the Security Council represents political realism, emphasising the role of the major powers in preserving international peace and security. These two pillars can sometimes come into conflict due to the contradiction between the ideal of sovereign equality of all member states and the reality of the disproportionate power of the great powers, especially the five permanent members of the Security Council with their veto power. This conflict reflects the tensions between the principles of universalism and nationalism, and the challenges faced by the UN in reconciling these two approaches. Despite these tensions, the UN has managed to maintain a certain balance and play a central role in global governance. The structure of the organisation allows for flexibility to adapt to changing geopolitical realities, while maintaining a framework for multilateral cooperation and the promotion of universal values. However, it is crucial for the UN to continue to work on institutional reform and adaptation to emerging challenges if it is to remain relevant and effective in addressing global issues.

Universalism is a principle that advocates the equality and inclusion of all states in international institutions and processes, regardless of their size, wealth or influence. It emerged at the end of the 19th century and was integrated into the international system as a fundamental pillar, notably with the creation of the League of Nations and later the United Nations. Nationalism, on the other hand, is a principle that emphasises the sovereignty and independence of nation states. It values the defence of national interests and the preservation of each country's cultural and political identity.

The tensions between universalism and nationalism have been a major source of dysfunction and conflict in the international system. The challenges posed by these two guiding principles include

  • The contradiction between the sovereign equality of states and the disproportionate power of great powers, as illustrated by the UN Security Council system.
  • The difficulty of promoting and protecting human rights and universal values, while respecting national sovereignty and the cultural particularities of different countries.
  • Geopolitical rivalries and conflicts of national interests that hamper international cooperation and the collective resolution of global problems.

The rise of nationalism and populism, which threaten the multilateral system and international institutions. To overcome these challenges, it was essential to find a balance between universalism and nationalism, promoting cooperation and dialogue between states while respecting their sovereignty and cultural specificities. It is also crucial to reform and adapt international institutions to make them more representative, democratic and effective in the face of global challenges.

The overall architecture of the United Nations (UN) has indeed been influenced by the League of Nations (LON), although it has some notable differences. The function of the UN General Secretariat, like the League of Nations Secretariat, is to provide administrative and organisational support to the other UN bodies and to ensure the continuity of their work. The Secretary-General, who heads the General Secretariat, plays a central role in coordinating UN activities and promoting peace and international cooperation. The main difference between the two secretariats lies in the way in which the Secretary-General is elected. In the case of the League of Nations, the Secretary-General was appointed by the League Council. At the UN, on the other hand, the Secretary-General is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council. This gives the UN Secretary-General a broader legitimacy, as he is supported by both the permanent members of the Security Council and the majority of the General Assembly. Despite these differences, it is undeniable that the UN builds on the legacy of the League of Nations, particularly with regard to the principles of universality and collective security. The overall architecture of the UN, with its organs such as the General Assembly and the Security Council, is also influenced by the structure of the League of Nations. However, the UN has evolved and adapted to the realities and challenges of the post-war world, building a more coherent system and integrating new specialised agencies to address economic, social and cultural issues.

Specialist agencies and their roles

The UN's specialised agencies are autonomous organisations that work in coordination with the UN to solve specific economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. These agencies are linked to the UN by cooperation agreements and are coordinated by the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), one of the UN's six principal organs. ECOSOC serves as a central forum for discussing international economic and social issues and for formulating policy recommendations to member states and the UN system.

The UN's specialised agencies include:

  • International Labour Organisation (ILO): aims to promote social justice and rights at work worldwide.
  • United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO): promotes international collaboration in education, science, culture and communication.
  • World Health Organisation (WHO): responsible for leading and coordinating international public health efforts.
  • World Bank: provides financing and technical advice to help developing countries reduce poverty and promote sustainable economic growth.
  • International Monetary Fund (IMF): monitors the global economy and provides economic advice and financial assistance to member countries in difficulty.

Although the specialised agencies are autonomous, they work closely with the UN and other UN organisations to achieve common goals. They have inherited the functions of the former technical sections of the League of Nations, but have been reorganised and strengthened to meet the needs of the post-war world.

It is true that these agencies can be seen as 'big bureaucracies' because of their size and complex organisational structure. However, they play a crucial role in solving specific global problems and promoting international cooperation in various fields.

UN commissions, programmes and funds

UN commissions, programmes and funds are created to address specific needs or particular global issues. Unlike specialised agencies, which are autonomous organisations with permanent mandates, commissions, programmes and funds are often created with the intention of being temporary and disappearing once their objectives are achieved. In practice, however, many of these temporary entities end up becoming permanent because of the changing needs and global issues they address. As a result, the distinction between specialised agencies and these commissions, programmes and funds can become blurred.

Here are some examples of UN commissions, programmes and funds:

  • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): aims to help countries eradicate poverty, reduce inequality and achieve sustainable development goals.
  • United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF): works to improve the lives of children and young people, focusing on education, health, nutrition and the protection of children's rights.
  • World Food Programme (WFP): provides emergency food assistance and supports long-term development efforts to combat hunger and malnutrition.
  • United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): protects and supports refugees, displaced persons and stateless people worldwide.

These commissions, programmes and funds are generally overseen and coordinated by ECOSOC, which works closely with other UN bodies and agencies to ensure a coherent and coordinated approach to global issues.

The United Nations Children's Fund, also known as UNICEF, was established in 1946 to address the urgent needs of children in countries affected by the Second World War. Over the years, UNICEF has expanded its mandate to help children in developing countries and those facing humanitarian crises, focusing on education, health, nutrition and the protection of children's rights. Because of changing global needs and the continuing recognition of the importance of supporting children in difficult situations, UNICEF has become a permanent organization and plays a key role in international efforts to improve the lives of children and young people everywhere.

UNICEF works with governments, non-governmental organisations, international organisations and other partners to implement programmes that support children and their families. UNICEF's areas of work include:

  • Education: UNICEF supports access to quality education for children, especially girls and children living in areas affected by conflict or natural disasters.
  • Health: UNICEF works to reduce child mortality and improve child health through interventions such as immunisation, malaria prevention and treatment, and promotion of breastfeeding.
  • Nutrition: UNICEF combats malnutrition, focusing on the prevention and treatment of severe acute malnutrition and the promotion of adequate nutrition for children.
  • Child protection: UNICEF works to protect children from violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect, and to promote children's rights within the framework of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.

UNICEF is funded by voluntary contributions from governments, non-governmental organisations, corporations and individuals. It continues to play an essential role in promoting the well-being of children throughout the world.

The World Food Programme (WFP) is a humanitarian organisation created in 1961 and managed by ECOSOC. Its main objective is to combat hunger and malnutrition, particularly in developing countries and those affected by conflict or natural disasters. The WFP works closely with other United Nations organisations, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). However, despite the willingness to coordinate efforts and work together, UN agencies and programmes can sometimes face difficulties in the field due to confusion and rivalries between them. These problems can be attributed to a variety of factors, such as :

  • Overlapping mandates: Organisations and programmes may have similar objectives, resulting in duplication of effort and competition for resources and attention.
  • Lack of communication: Organisations and programmes may not communicate effectively with each other, leading to poor co-ordination and wasted resources.
  • Cultural and organisational differences: Organisations and programmes may have different approaches and working methods, which can lead to misunderstandings and tensions.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. It is the principal United Nations body responsible for promoting environmental protection and sustainable development worldwide. UNEP works closely with various governmental and non-governmental organisations, as well as other UN agencies and international partners, to address global and local environmental challenges.

However, coordination between UNEP and these organisations can sometimes be problematic due to a number of factors, including

  • Overlapping mandates and expertise: UNEP and other partner organisations may have similar or complementary objectives, which can lead to duplication of effort and competition for resources and attention.
  • Lack of communication and information sharing: The organisations involved may not communicate effectively with each other, which can lead to poor co-ordination and wasted resources.
  • Cultural, organisational and political differences: Partner organisations may have different approaches and working methods, as well as different political priorities, which can lead to tensions and difficulties in working together.

UN-related organisations

Related organisations are organisations that are part of the UN system but not directly subordinate to ECOSOC. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is an example. Established in 1946, the ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations and is responsible for settling legal disputes between member states and giving advisory opinions on legal questions submitted by UN bodies and specialised agencies authorised to do so.

ICJ judges are elected by the UN General Assembly and Security Council for a nine-year term. The ICJ is based in The Hague, the Netherlands, and is composed of 15 judges representing the principal forms of civilisation and legal systems of the world.

Since its establishment, the ICJ has dealt with many international disputes, especially border disputes. Here are some examples of cases it has dealt with:

  • Corfu Channel case (1947): The ICJ was seized of a dispute between Albania and the United Kingdom concerning Albania's liability for the mining of the Corfu Strait and damage to British ships. The Court ruled that Albania was liable and had to compensate the UK for the damage caused.
  • Case concerning the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria (1994): The ICJ was seized of a dispute concerning the delimitation of the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria, particularly in the Bakassi Peninsula, a region rich in natural resources. In 2002, the Court ruled in favour of Cameroon, attributing sovereignty over the Bakassi Peninsula to Cameroon and delimiting the land and maritime border between the two countries.

These cases demonstrate the importance of the ICJ as an international institution responsible for resolving disputes between UN member states and contributing to international peace and stability.

Ad hoc international criminal tribunals, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), were established by the UN Security Council in the 1990s to try individuals responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law, including genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. These tribunals were established specifically to respond to conflict situations in these regions and have a limited duration.

Although they are part of the UN system, these ad hoc tribunals are autonomous in their functioning and decision-making. They have their own staff, their own judges and their own rules of procedure and evidence. Their main objective is to contribute to the restoration of international peace and security by ending impunity for the most serious crimes committed during these conflicts.

These ad hoc tribunals are distinct from the International Criminal Court (ICC), which is a permanent and independent institution responsible for investigating the most serious crimes committed anywhere in the world and which is not formally linked to the UN, although it cooperates closely with the organisation.

The role of non-governmental organisations in the UN context

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) play an essential role in the United Nations system, complementing and supporting the efforts of governments and intergovernmental organisations to solve global problems. NGOs bring their expertise, resources and networks to the UN, and in return, the UN provides them with a forum to voice their concerns and collaborate with other actors in civil society and governments.

Within the UN, NGOs can obtain consultative status with ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council), which allows them to participate in the deliberations and work of the organisation. NGOs with this status can attend meetings, submit written statements, organise side events and collaborate with governments and other actors on issues of concern to them.

The relationship between NGOs and the UN is thus more formalised and integrated than that between NGOs and the League of Nations, which had already recognised the importance of NGOs in promoting peace and international cooperation. The institutionalisation of NGOs within the framework of the UN has strengthened their role and impact in resolving global challenges, ranging from the protection of human rights to the fight against poverty and climate change.

The San Francisco Conference- Secretariat.jpg

At the San Francisco Conference in 1945, the participation of non-governmental actors in negotiations and in the General Assembly was recognised as an important element in ensuring effective and inclusive collaboration within the UN. The UN Charter therefore provided for the creation of consultative status for NGOs, enabling them to contribute to the development of the organisation's policies and programmes.

The Conference of Non-Governmental Organisations in 1948 marked an important stage in the integration of NGOs into the UN process, recognising their crucial role in promoting peace, development and human rights. Since then, NGOs have been increasingly involved in the work of the UN, both in policy formulation and in the implementation of projects in the field.

In 1996, the status of NGOs within the UN was reformed to take account of the changing number and nature of NGOs and their increasing role in international affairs. This reform has strengthened the capacity of NGOs to participate in decision-making processes and to work in partnership with UN agencies and governments.

Cooperation between NGOs and UN agencies in the field is essential to ensure the effective and sustainable implementation of programmes and projects. NGOs contribute their expertise, resources and local networks, enabling UN agencies to tailor their interventions to the specific needs of the populations concerned and to strengthen the impact of their action.

The consultative status of NGOs within the UN can be seen in different ways. On the one hand, it can be seen as recognition and enhancement of the role of NGOs in international affairs. By granting them consultative status, the UN recognises the specific expertise, knowledge and skills of NGOs, and enables them to contribute to the development of the organisation's policies and programmes. This can also enhance the legitimacy and credibility of NGOs by bringing them within a recognised international framework.

On the other hand, consultative status can be seen as a way of controlling NGOs and limiting their autonomy. By obliging NGOs to comply with UN rules and procedures, and by integrating them into the organisation's general structure, consultative status can restrict NGOs' freedom of action and prevent them from fully defending their objectives and principles. Some NGOs may see consultative status as a form of trusteeship, forcing them to adapt their activities and priorities to UN requirements.

Whether consultative status is a recognition or a means of controlling NGOs depends largely on how NGOs and the UN interact and collaborate in practice. It is important to strike a balance between recognising the role of NGOs and respecting their autonomy, while ensuring effective and transparent cooperation with UN agencies.

As far as the structure of the UN is concerned, it is true that it is more complex than that of the League of Nations. This can be explained in part by the desire to integrate a greater number of players and areas of action, as well as by the need to respond to the ever-increasing number and diversity of global challenges. This complexity can be both a strength and a challenge for the UN, as it allows for more comprehensive and coherent action, but it can also lead to coordination and communication difficulties between the organisation's different entities.

Annexes

References